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生物學 - 維基百科,自由嘅百科全書
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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>基本哲學</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-基本哲學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-定義生命" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#定義生命"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>定義生命</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-定義生命-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-現代理論基礎" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#現代理論基礎"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>現代理論基礎</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-現代理論基礎-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去 現代理論基礎 細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-現代理論基礎-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-細胞學說" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#細胞學說"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>細胞學說</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-細胞學說-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-能量轉化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#能量轉化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>能量轉化</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-能量轉化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-繁殖同遺傳" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#繁殖同遺傳"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>繁殖同遺傳</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-繁殖同遺傳-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-基因組" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#基因組"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>基因組</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-基因組-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>性</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-生物進化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生物進化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>生物進化</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-生物進化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-生物分類學" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生物分類學"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>生物分類學</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-生物分類學-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去 生物分類學 細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-生物分類學-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-生命之樹" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生命之樹"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>生命之樹</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-生命之樹-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科學命名" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科學命名"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>科學命名</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科學命名-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-各子領域" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#各子領域"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>各子領域</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-各子領域-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-生物學史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#生物學史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>生物學史</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-生物學史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去 生物學史 細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-生物學史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-古希臘" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古希臘"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>古希臘</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古希臘-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中世紀" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中世紀"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>中世紀</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中世紀-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科學革命" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科學革命"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>科學革命</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科學革命-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-物種起源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#物種起源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>物種起源</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-物種起源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-睇埋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#睇埋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>睇埋</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-睇埋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-文獻" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#文獻"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>文獻</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-文獻-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-註釋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#註釋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>註釋</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-註釋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-引述" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引述"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>引述</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引述-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-拎" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#拎"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>拎</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-拎-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目錄" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="開/收內容一覽" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">開/收內容一覽</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">生物學</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="去睇另一種語文嘅文章。有245種語言版本。" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-245" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">245種語言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Абиологиа – 阿布哈茲文" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Абиологиа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="阿布哈茲文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 南非荷蘭文" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 德文(瑞士)" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="德文(瑞士)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%88%95%E1%8B%AD%E1%8B%88%E1%89%B5" title="ሥነ ሕይወት – 阿姆哈拉文" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ሕይወት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloch%C3%ADa" title="Biolochía – 阿拉貢文" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Biolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉貢文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="علم الأحياء – 阿拉伯文" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="لبيولوجيا – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لبيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="بيولوجيا – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بيولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জীৱবিজ্ঞান – 阿薩姆文" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জীৱবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿薩姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía – 阿斯圖里亞文" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bioloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯圖里亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 阿瓦爾文" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bliopa" title="Bliopa – 科塔瓦文" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Bliopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="科塔瓦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्त्र – 阿瓦文" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="जीवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="阿瓦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – 亞塞拜然文" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="亞塞拜然文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="بیولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 巴什客爾文" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什客爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Bioluogėjė – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Bioluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біялогія – 白俄羅斯文" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄羅斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біялёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Біялёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88lmu_hayat" title="Èlmu hayat – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Èlmu hayat" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 保加利亞文" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीवविज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जीवविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baeoloji" title="Baeoloji – 比斯拉馬文" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Baeoloji" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="比斯拉馬文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaji_hayat" title="Kaji hayat – 班亞爾文" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kaji hayat" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="班亞爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဇီဝဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဇီဝဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জীববিজ্ঞান – 孟加拉文" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জীববিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="སྐྱེ་དངོས་རིག་པ། – 藏文" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐྱེ་དངོས་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="藏文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevoniezh" title="Bevoniezh – 布列塔尼文" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bevoniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 波士尼亞文" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波士尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%85%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%92%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%81%E1%A8%97" title="ᨅᨗᨕᨚᨒᨚᨁᨗ – 布吉斯文" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨅᨗᨕᨚᨒᨚᨁᨗ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="布吉斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 加泰羅尼亞文" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰羅尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%95ng-%C5%ADk-h%C5%8Fk" title="Sĕng-ŭk-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sĕng-ŭk-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – 車臣文" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="車臣文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – 宿霧文" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿霧文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloyia" title="Bioloyia – 查莫洛文" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Bioloyia" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="查莫洛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chamoru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ژینناسی – 索拉尼庫爾德文" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژینناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="索拉尼庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolugia" title="Biolugia – 科西嘉文" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Biolugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayatiyat" title="Ayatiyat – 克里米亞半島的土耳其文;克里米亞半島的塔塔爾文" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ayatiyat" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="克里米亞半島的土耳其文;克里米亞半島的塔塔爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 捷克文" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C3%B4" title="Biologijô – 卡舒布文" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Biologijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="卡舒布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – 楚瓦什文" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bywydeg" title="Bywydeg – 威爾斯文" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bywydeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威爾斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 丹麥文" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麥文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binni%C9%9Bma_vihigu" title="Binniɛma vihigu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Binniɛma vihigu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 德文" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6c%C3%ABp%C3%AFr" title="Piöcëpïr – 丁卡文" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piöcëpïr" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="丁卡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolociye" title="Biyolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Biyolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8B%DE%A8%DE%83%DE%AA%DE%89%DE%A7%DE%84%DE%AC%DE%80%DE%AD_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ދިރުމާބެހޭ އިލްމު – 迪維西文" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ދިރުމާބެހޭ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="迪維西文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βιολογία – 希臘文" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希臘文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – 英文" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologio" title="Biologio – 世界文" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Biologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ADa" title="Biología – 西班牙文" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloogia" title="Bioloogia – 愛沙尼亞文" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="愛沙尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 巴斯克文" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زیستشناسی – 波斯文" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیستشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 芬蘭文" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioloogia" title="Bioloogia – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Bioloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilanibula" title="Kilanibula – 斐濟文" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kilanibula" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐濟文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADvfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Lívfrøði – 法羅文" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lívfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 法文" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologii" title="Biologii – 北弗里西亞文" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Biologii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjie" title="Biologjie – 弗留利文" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Biologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – 西弗里西亞文" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitheola%C3%ADocht" title="Bitheolaíocht – 愛爾蘭文" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bitheolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="愛爾蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byoloji" title="Byoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Byoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bith-e%C3%B2las" title="Bith-eòlas – 蘇格蘭蓋爾文" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bith-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="蘇格蘭蓋爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa" title="Bioloxía – 加里西亞文" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="زیویشتشناسی – 吉拉基文" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="زیویشتشناسی" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="吉拉基文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekovekuaaty" title="Tekovekuaaty – 瓜拉尼文" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekovekuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 科隆達羅文" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="科隆達羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="જીવવિજ્ઞાન – 古吉拉特文" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જીવવિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="古吉拉特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bea-oaylleeaght" title="Bea-oaylleeaght – 曼島文" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Bea-oaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="曼島文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – 豪撒文" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪撒文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2ng-vu%CC%8Dt-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Sâng-vu̍t-ho̍k – 客家話" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sâng-vu̍t-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家話" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81laimeaola" title="Kālaimeaola – 夏威夷文" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālaimeaola" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="夏威夷文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="ביולוגיה – 希伯來文" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीव विज्ञान – 北印度文" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीव विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="北印度文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiu_vigyan" title="Jiu vigyan – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jiu vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 克羅埃西亞文" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 上索布文" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="上索布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloji" title="Biyoloji – 海地文" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biol%C3%B3gia" title="Biológia – 匈牙利文" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Biológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսաբանություն – 亞美尼亞文" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亞美尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենսաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կենսաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 國際文" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="國際文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 伊班文" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="伊班文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 印尼文" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 國際文(E)" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="國際文(E)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolohia" title="Biolohia – 伊洛闊文" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Biolohia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛闊文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – 印古什文" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologio" title="Biologio – 伊多文" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Biologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADffr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Líffræði – 冰島文" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Líffræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰島文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 義大利文" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="義大利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%86%E1%92%AA%E1%94%85%E1%93%B1%E1%93%AF%E1%96%83%E1%95%90%E1%91%90%E1%93%95%E1%95%86%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐆᒪᔅᓱᓯᖃᕐᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ – 因紐特文" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐆᒪᔅᓱᓯᖃᕐᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="因紐特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学 – 日文" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailoji" title="Bailoji – 牙買加克裏奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Bailoji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克裏奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/mivyske" title="mivyske – 邏輯文" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="mivyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="邏輯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 爪哇文" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოლოგია – 喬治亞文" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="喬治亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – 卡拉卡爾帕克文" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="卡拉卡爾帕克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnudert" title="Tasnudert – 卡比爾文" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnudert" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡比爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomna%C9%A3_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Tomnaɣ lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tomnaɣ lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayoroj%C4%A9" title="Bayorojĩ – 吉庫尤文" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Bayorojĩ" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="吉庫尤文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 哈薩克文" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈薩克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uumassusililerineq" title="Uumassusililerineq – 格陵蘭文" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Uumassusililerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="格陵蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="ជីវវិទ្យា – 高棉文" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជីវវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – 坎那達文" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="坎那達文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="생물학 – 韓文" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%9B%D9%88%D9%97%D8%AF%D9%8F%D8%AA" title="زیٛوٗدُت – 喀什米爾文" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زیٛوٗدُت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="喀什米爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloj%C3%AE" title="Biyolojî – 庫爾德文" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Biyolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bywonieth" title="Bywonieth – 康瓦耳文" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Bywonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康瓦耳文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 吉爾吉斯文" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="吉爾吉斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 拉丁文" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojiya" title="Biolojiya – 拉迪諾文" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Biolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="拉迪諾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 盧森堡文" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="盧森堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 列茲干文" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列茲干文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomabiramu" title="Essomabiramu – 干達文" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomabiramu" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="干達文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 林堡文" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 利古里亞文" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="利古里亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamb%C3%AD_ma_bom%C9%94i" title="Mambí ma bomɔi – 林加拉文" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mambí ma bomɔi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="林加拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ຊີວະສາດ – 寮文" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຊີວະສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="寮文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 立陶宛文" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolo%C4%A3ija" title="Bioloģija – 拉脫維亞文" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脫維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 馬都拉文" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="馬都拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Biôlôjia – 馬拉加什文" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Biôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="馬拉加什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Биологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Биологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 米南卡堡文" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南卡堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биологија – 馬其頓文" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="馬其頓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജീവശാസ്ത്രം – 馬來亞拉姆文" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="馬來亞拉姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Амин судлал – 蒙古文" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Амин судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8A%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A2%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯊꯋꯥꯢꯄꯥꯟꯕ ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ – 曼尼普裡文" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯊꯋꯥꯢꯄꯥꯟꯕ ꯅꯩꯅꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="曼尼普裡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्त्र – 馬拉地文" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="馬拉地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 馬來文" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="馬來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijolo%C4%A1ija" title="Bijoloġija – 馬爾他文" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Bijoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="馬爾他文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 米蘭德斯文" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米蘭德斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဇီဝဗေဒ – 緬甸文" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဇီဝဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="緬甸文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C-%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Биологиясь-эриеньсодамось – 厄爾茲亞文" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Биологиясь-эриеньсодамось" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="厄爾茲亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolizmatiliztli" title="Yolizmatiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Yolizmatiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologgia" title="Biologgia – 拿波里文" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Biologgia" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="拿波里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 低地德文" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 低地薩克遜文" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低地薩克遜文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="जीव विज्ञान – 尼泊爾文" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीव विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जीवशास्त्र – 尼瓦爾文" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जीवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 荷蘭文" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 耐諾斯克挪威文" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="耐諾斯克挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 巴克摩挪威文" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="巴克摩挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%A1%DF%8A%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%99%DF%8A%DF%B2" title="ߣߌߡߊߞߊߙߊ߲ – 曼德文字 (N’Ko)" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߣߌߡߊߞߊߙߊ߲" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="曼德文字 (N’Ko)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutaphedi" title="Thutaphedi – 北索托文" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Thutaphedi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="北索托文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 奧克西坦文" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奧克西坦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolougii" title="Biolougii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Biolougii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiinjiree" title="Xiinjiree – 奧羅莫文" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiinjiree" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奧羅莫文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%AC_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଜୀବ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – 歐利亞文" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜୀବ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="歐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Биологи – 奧塞提文" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Биологи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奧塞提文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜੀਵ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – 旁遮普文" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੀਵ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 潘帕嘉文" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="潘帕嘉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 帕皮阿門托文" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿門托文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 普法爾茨德文" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="普法爾茨德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biiolojii" title="Biiolojii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Biiolojii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 波蘭文" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ACa" title="Biologìa – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Biologìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%BE%DA%91%DA%BE%D8%AA" title="جیون پڑھت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیون پڑھت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="ژونپوهنه – 普什圖文" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژونپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什圖文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 葡萄牙文" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_yachay" title="Kawsay yachay – 蓋楚瓦文" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="蓋楚瓦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 羅曼斯文" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="羅曼斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 羅馬尼亞文" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="羅馬尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 羅馬尼亞語系" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="羅馬尼亞語系" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 俄文" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біолоґія – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Біолоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="जीवशास्त्रम् – 梵文" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जीवशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 雅庫特文" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="雅庫特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia" title="Biologia – 撒丁文" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Biologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="撒丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolugg%C3%ACa" title="Bioluggìa – 西西里文" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Bioluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – 蘇格蘭文" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="蘇格蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حياتيات – 信德文" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="حياتيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnudrt" title="Tasnudrt – 希爾哈文" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnudrt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希爾哈文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ජීව විද්යාව – 僧伽羅文" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජීව විද්යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biol%C3%B3gia" title="Biológia – 斯洛伐克文" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حیاتیات – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologija" title="Biologija – 斯洛維尼亞文" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Biologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛維尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paiolo" title="Paiolo – 薩摩亞文" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Paiolo" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="薩摩亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambamhenyu" title="Ruambamhenyu – 塞內加爾文" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambamhenyu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="塞內加爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayoloji" title="Bayoloji – 索馬利文" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Bayoloji" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="索馬利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjia" title="Biologjia – 阿爾巴尼亞文" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Biologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿爾巴尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Биологија – 塞爾維亞文" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibhayoloji" title="Ibhayoloji – 斯瓦特文" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Ibhayoloji" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="斯瓦特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baeloji" title="Baeloji – 塞索托文" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Baeloji" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="塞索托文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 巽他文" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="推薦文章"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi" title="Biologi – 瑞典文" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – 史瓦希里文" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="史瓦希里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C5%8F" title="Biologijŏ – 西利西亞文" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Biologijŏ" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="西利西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரியல் – 坦米爾文" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="坦米爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಜೀವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – 圖盧文" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಜೀವ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="圖盧文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="జీవ శాస్త్రం – 泰盧固文" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జీవ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰盧固文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia" title="Biolojia – 泰頓文" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Biolojia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="泰頓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Зистшиносӣ – 塔吉克文" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Зистшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ชีววิทยา – 泰文" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชีววิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%8B%AE%E1%88%8E%E1%8C%82" title="ባዮሎጂ – 提格利尼亞文" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ባዮሎጂ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="提格利尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi%C3%BDa" title="Biologiýa – 土庫曼文" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Biologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土庫曼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – 塔加路族文" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="塔加路族文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologij%C9%99" title="Biologijə – 塔里什文" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Biologijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="塔里什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_long_laip" title="Save long laip – 托比辛文" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Save long laip" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="托比辛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyoloji" title="Biyoloji – 土耳其文" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-Vutomi" title="Ntivo-Vutomi – 特松加文" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-Vutomi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="特松加文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 韃靼文" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="韃靼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биология – 沃蒂艾克文" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Биология" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="沃蒂艾克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="بىئولوگىيە – 維吾爾文" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="بىئولوگىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="維吾爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Біологія – 烏克蘭文" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="烏克蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حیاتیات – 烏都文" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="烏都文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiya" title="Biologiya – 烏茲別克文" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Biologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="烏茲別克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio%C5%82ozia" title="Biołozia – 威尼斯文" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Biołozia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologii" title="Biologii – 維普森文" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Biologii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="維普森文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Sinh học – 越南文" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 西佛蘭德文" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="西佛蘭德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog" title="Biolog – 沃拉普克文" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Biolog" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolodjeye" title="Biyolodjeye – 瓦隆文" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Biyolodjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya" title="Biyolohiya – 瓦瑞文" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學 – 吳語" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生物學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吳語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3" title="Биолог – 卡爾梅克文" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Биолог" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="卡爾梅克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBayoloji" title="IBayoloji – 科薩文" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IBayoloji" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="科薩文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიოლოგია – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ביאלאגיע – 意第緒文" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第緒文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swnghvuzyoz" title="Swnghvuzyoz – 壯文" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Swnghvuzyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="壯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie – 西蘭文" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Biologie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="西蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ – 標準摩洛哥塔馬塞特文" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="標準摩洛哥塔馬塞特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="生物学 – 中文" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生物学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="中文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="生物學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-bu̍t-ha̍k – 閩南語" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="閩南語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchazampilo" title="Umchazampilo – 祖魯文" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchazampilo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="祖魯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q420#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="改跨語言拎" class="wbc-editpage">改拎</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> 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class="thumbcaption">生物學會研究各種各樣嘅生物,並且根據佢哋嘅觀察度出能夠準確噉描述生物行為嘅理論同概念,呢啲理論同概念當中最廣義嗰啲會適用於描述所有生物嘅行為。 <ul><li>上:<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%85%B8%E6%A1%BF%E8%8F%8C" title="大腸桿菌">大腸桿菌</a>(E. coli)同<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%A3%89%E8%8A%B1" title="木棉花">木棉花</a></li> <li>下:<a href="/wiki/%E8%9C%9C%E8%9C%82" title="蜜蜂">蜜蜂</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E7%99%BD%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%9A" title="中華白海豚">中華白海豚</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <p><b>生物學</b>(<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87" title="英文">英文</a>:<span lang="en">biology</span>,嚟自<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E6%96%87" title="希臘文">希臘文</a> <span lang="la" title="拉丁文文字">bio</span>-大致即係<b>生命</b>噉解<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>),<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%B5%E8%AA%9E" title="粵語">粵語</a>日常有時會<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%9F%E8%A9%9E" title="借詞">借英文</a>稱之為 <b><span>baai<span class="Jpingtone">6</span> o<span class="Jpingtone">1</span></span></b>(同音<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" title="漢字">漢字</a>:<b>敗柯</b>),係研究<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="生命">生命</a>以及生命點樣影響環境嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="自然科學">自然科學</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="生物學家">生物學家</a>會研究<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a>(有生命嘅嘢)嘅種種特性,嘗試建立能夠充分解釋生命現象嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="科學理論">理論</a>。生物學包括 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學">解剖學</a>:研究生物嘅物理結構;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="生物化學">生物化學</a>:研究組成生物嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E6%88%90%E4%BB%BD" title="化學成份">化學成份</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生理學">生理學</a>:研究生物喺正常運作下係點嘅樣;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="發育生物學">發育生物學</a>:研究<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="動物">動物</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a>嘅生長;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="進化論">進化論</a>:研究<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE" title="物種">物種</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%BA%AB" title="基因庫">基因庫</a>點樣隨世代變化;</li></ul> <p>... 等等<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>生物學係大領域,可以按唔同準則分做好多個子領域:例如按用乜嘢研究方法,分做嘗試用<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="數學模型">數學模型</a>模擬生命過程嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="理論生物學">理論生物學</a>同埋做<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="實驗">實驗</a>驗證理論嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗生物學">實驗生物學</a><sup id="cite_ref-waddington1968_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waddington1968-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>;另一方面,生物學分起子領域上嚟又可以係睇佢哋研究邊啲生命系統,分做<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="植物學">植物學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%86%E8%9F%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="昆蟲學">昆蟲學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%B3%A5%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="鳥類學">鳥類學</a>等嘅領域<sup id="cite_ref-mosconi2009_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mosconi2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。雖然生物學嘅子領域咁多樣化,呢啲領域都建基於某啲共同概念- </p><p>無論屬邊個子領域,絕大多數嘅生物學家都會認同以下呢啲諗法:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a>係生命嘅基本組成單位(<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a>);<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="基因">基因</a>係<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3" title="遺傳">遺傳</a>嘅基本單位,而進化係生物物種誕生同滅亡嘅主要機制(<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="進化論">進化論</a>);有生命嘅系統係<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="開放系統">開放系統</a>,曉將<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>轉化同令自己內部嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B5" title="熵">熵</a>下降,等自己身體內部能夠維持到個<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%A9%E6%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="穩態">穩態</a>(指個系統內部嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%A6" title="溫度">溫度</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%8A%E6%95%B8_(%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94)" title="變數 (科研)">變數</a>維持喺穩定嘅水平)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>... 等等<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>除咗作為一個獨立嘅領域,生物學仲對<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="社會科學">社會科學</a>嚟講有用:生物學上嘅理論同概念可以用於描述各種生物,而<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="人類">人類</a>都係生物嘅一種;所以生物學理論同概念原則上可以至少局部解釋人類嘅行為,好多都會俾研究人類嘅社會科學借嚟幫手解釋社科所研究嘅現象;例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學">心理學</a>,就時不時會借生物學上對<a href="/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦">腦</a>嘅理解,分析人嘅腦活動同佢哋嘅行為之間有乜嘢啦掕<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>;而<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8" title="社會學">社會學</a>又有留意到,人嘅某啲群體行為同第啲動物嘅有相似之處,所以可能會借用<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="動物學">動物學</a>(生物學嘅一個子領域)嘅知識嚟解釋呢啲現象<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="定位"><span id=".E5.AE.9A.E4.BD.8D"></span>定位</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=1" title="編輯小節: 定位"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg/240px-Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg/360px-Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg/480px-Jean-Baptiste_de_Lamarck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>法國生物學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E9%A6%AC%E5%8D%A1" title="拉馬卡">拉馬卡</a>嘅畫像,1802 年畫嘅。佢出名在提出咗<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化">進化</a>嘅諗法。</figcaption></figure> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學哲學">生物學哲學</a></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學">科學</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="基本哲學"><span id=".E5.9F.BA.E6.9C.AC.E5.93.B2.E5.AD.B8"></span>基本哲學</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=2" title="編輯小節: 基本哲學"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科學方法">科學方法</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學哲學">生物學哲學</a>係研究生物學點樣做研究嘅一門<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a>。同其他科學一樣,生物學都係跟住科學方法去做研究。以下係生物學研究嘅基本步驟: </p> <ol><li><b>提出理論</b>:科學家會根據已知嘅事實去諗<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="科學理論">理論</a>。呢啲理論通常會用<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="數學模型">數學模型</a>嚟表達。</li> <li><b>做預測</b>:用<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="邏輯">邏輯</a>去諗吓如果個理論係啱嘅,應該會見到咩結果。</li> <li><b>實驗驗證</b>:做<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="實驗">實驗</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E5%AF%9F" title="觀察">觀察</a>去收集<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E6%93%9A" title="數據">數據</a>,睇吓理論嘅預測啱唔啱。</li> <li><b>改良理論</b>:如果個預測唔啱,就要諗辦法改良理論,又或者諗過第二個理論出嚟。<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>生物學家會不斷重複以上嘅步驟,令到理論愈嚟愈準確。到而家為止,生物學已經有好多經過實驗考驗嘅理論,可以好好噉解釋到生命嘅規律。不過生物學家仲係會繼續搵新嘅現象去研究,睇下而家嘅理論夠唔夠解釋到,定係要諗過第二個理論。<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="定義生命"><span id=".E5.AE.9A.E7.BE.A9.E7.94.9F.E5.91.BD"></span>定義生命</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=3" title="編輯小節: 定義生命"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="生命">生命</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="生命">生命</a>係一種特性,而<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>就係有生命嘅嘢。生物學做嘅係用科學方法研究生命同生物,所以要搞生物學,第一樣要做嘅就係答以下嘅問題<sup id="cite_ref-trifnob2012_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trifnob2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <table align="center" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent; margin: 5px auto;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top" style="width:20px; color:#B2B7F2; font-size:40px; font-family:Elephant,'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; text-align:left; padding:10px 10px;">「 </td> <td><div style="display: table-cell; text-align: left; padding: 1em; vertical-align: middle;">何謂生命?</div> </td> <td valign="bottom" style="width:20px; color:#B2B7F2; font-size:40px; font-family:Elephant,'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; text-align:right; padding:10px 10px;">」 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>喺廿一世紀生物學界入面,仲未有<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E7%BE%A9" title="定義">定義</a>能夠完美冇灰色地帶噉將生物同非生物區分開<sup id="cite_ref-trifnob2012_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trifnob2012-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。不過一般嚟講,傳統生物學都認為生命係一種特質,會令到有生命嘅嘢喺特定嘅環境之下曉嘗試維持自己嘅存在,甚至乎<a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">自我複製</a>,並且嘗試將自己身上嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="基因">基因</a>散播開去,包含咗以下七種特徵<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <ul><li><b>組織</b>:身體由至少一個<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a>組成-細胞係生命嘅基本單位<sup id="cite_ref-mckayc2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mckayc2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。可以睇埋下面<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%A9%E6%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="穩態">穩態</a>:一隻生物曉調制佢內部嘅環境,令自身內部維持一個穩定嘅狀態;生物實會有某啲方法<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E7%9F%A5" title="感知">感知</a>自己周圍同內部嘅環境,而當隻生物探測到佢內部嘅環境有所改變,佢內部嘅系統會用<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%A0%E5%9B%9E%E8%BC%B8" title="負回輸">負回輸</a>嘅方法嚟抗衡嗰種改變。舉個例子說明,當一個人覺得熱(探測到佢內部溫度有所改變)嗰陣,佢身體會<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E6%B1%97" class="mw-redirect" title="流汗">流汗</a>,而汗喺由<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E8%86%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="皮膚">皮膚</a>表面<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%B8%E7%99%BC" title="蒸發">蒸發</a>走嗰時會帶走熱(抗衡熱嘅負回輸),令到個人身體涼返(回歸平衡)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,而除咗呢個散熱系統之外,人體仲有多個系統維持自身內部嘅水份同<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E7%B3%96" title="血糖">血糖</a>等變數嘅穩定<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><b>反應</b>:一隻正常健康嘅生物曉對外界嘅刺激俾反應(刺激可以係任何物理<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%8A%E6%95%B8_(%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94)" title="變數 (科研)">變數</a>起變化),而呢啲反應通常牽涉到某啲嘅郁動,例如係就連(就噉睇好似唔識郁嘅)植物都會擰轉自己啲<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89" title="葉">葉</a>嚟對準<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD" title="太陽">太陽</a>,等自己可以吸收到最多嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E5%85%89" title="太陽光">太陽光</a>;而動物對外界嘅反應就更加快同明顯,就算用肉眼都觀察得到。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%99%B3%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="新陳代謝">新陳代謝</a>:有生命嘅嘢都實要用某啲方式吸收<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>,並且用呢啲能量嚟做維持穩態同俾反應等各種嘅生命活動。佢哋曉將<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="化學物質">化學物質</a>同能量轉化做自己啲細胞嘅部份,並且將(通常係唔要嘅)細胞分解,好似係大部份植物都會做<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>,利用太陽光嘅能量合成一啲養分;而人類同各種動物食咗嘢之後個身體會將啲<a href="/wiki/%E5%98%A2%E9%A3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="嘢食">嘢食</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E5%8C%96" title="消化">消化</a>,並且用由嘢食嗰度攞到嘅養份嚟整新細胞,幫助做生長等嘅工作<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><b>生長</b>:生物喺新陳代謝入面嘅合成率會大過分解率,所以整體嚟講,一個生物個體會隨住<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%82%E9%96%93" title="時間">時間</a>而變得愈嚟愈大隻。生長嘅過程會令到隻生物各個部份都變大,而唔淨止係<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="物質">物質</a>嘅累積。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">繁殖</a>:一個生物物種嘅正常健康個體會用穩態、對外界嘅反應同新陳代謝維生,做生長嚟提升自己生存同繁殖嘅能力,最後用某啲方法製造新嘅個體,將自己身上嘅基因傳俾下一代。繁殖可以係通過<a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="無性繁殖">無性</a>或者<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="有性繁殖">有性</a>嘅過程嚟進行嘅;人類等嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%BA%E4%B9%B3%E9%A1%9E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="哺乳類動物">哺乳類動物</a>行有性繁殖,靠<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC" title="公">公</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%B8" title="乸">乸</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A4%E9%85%8D" title="交配">交配</a>產生下一代<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89" title="適應">適應</a>:喺繁衍後代嘅過程當中,一個生物物種嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%BA%AB" title="基因庫">基因庫</a>(因為<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%AB%B6%E5%A4%A9%E6%93%87" title="物競天擇">物競天擇</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%AA%81%E8%AE%8A" title="基因突變">基因突變</a>等嘅機制)會一代一代噉慢慢變化,令個物種變到更加擅長喺自己住嘅環境當中生存繁衍。呢種能力係<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化">進化</a>過程不可或缺嘅一個部份,並且係由嗰個生物物種嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3" title="遺傳">遺傳</a>特徵同埋環境外界因素話事嘅<sup id="cite_ref-mckayc2004_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mckayc2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ul> <center> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>事物</th> <th style="width: 6em;">組織</th> <th style="width: 6em;">穩態</th> <th style="width: 6em;">反應</th> <th style="width: 6em;">新陳代謝</th> <th style="width: 6em;">生長</th> <th style="width: 6em;">繁殖</th> <th style="width: 6em;">適應</th> <th style="width: 6em;">係咪生物 </th></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank-man-face.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blank-man-face.jpg/75px-Blank-man-face.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blank-man-face.jpg/113px-Blank-man-face.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blank-man-face.jpg/150px-Blank-man-face.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="2194" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="人類">人類</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg/180px-Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg/270px-Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg/360px-Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="617" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E7%81%B0%E7%8B%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="灰狼">灰狼</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg/180px-Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg/270px-Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg/360px-Raven_scavenging_on_a_dead_shark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E7%83%8F%E9%B4%89" title="烏鴉">烏鴉</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg/180px-Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg/270px-Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg/360px-Common_Yellow_Swallowtail_-_Papilio_machaon_I_IMG_6962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E8%9D%B4%E8%9D%B6" title="蝴蝶">蝴蝶</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fromia_monilis_(Seastar).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg/180px-Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg/270px-Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg/360px-Fromia_monilis_%28Seastar%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2542" data-file-height="1909" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%98%9F" title="海星">海星</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Semal_(Bombax_ceiba)_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg/180px-Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg/270px-Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg/360px-Semal_%28Bombax_ceiba%29_flowers_in_Kolkata_W_IMG_4116.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E6%A3%89%E6%A8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="木棉樹">木棉樹</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:E._coli_Bacteria_(7316101966).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/180px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/270px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg/360px-E._coli_Bacteria_%287316101966%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1766" /></a></span><br />各種<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" title="細菌">細菌</a> </th> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td><center>✔</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✔</center> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DirkvdM_rocks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/DirkvdM_rocks.jpg/180px-DirkvdM_rocks.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/DirkvdM_rocks.jpg/270px-DirkvdM_rocks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/DirkvdM_rocks.jpg/360px-DirkvdM_rocks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="852" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E9%A0%AD" title="石頭">石頭</a> </th> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td><center>✘</center></td> <td style="background: silver"><center>✘</center> </td></tr></tbody></table> </center> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="現代理論基礎"><span id=".E7.8F.BE.E4.BB.A3.E7.90.86.E8.AB.96.E5.9F.BA.E7.A4.8E"></span>現代理論基礎</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=4" title="編輯小節: 現代理論基礎"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg/270px-HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg/405px-HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/HeLa_cells_stained_with_Hoechst_33258.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>顯微鏡下嘅幾粒人類<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%8C%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="癌細胞">癌細胞</a>;佢哋嘅細胞核俾研究者用染料染咗做藍色。</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="細胞學說"><span id=".E7.B4.B0.E8.83.9E.E5.AD.B8.E8.AA.AA"></span>細胞學說</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=5" title="編輯小節: 細胞學說"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>係現代生物學基礎之一。呢個理論宣稱<sup id="cite_ref-mazzarello1999_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzarello1999-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a>係生命嘅基本單位;細胞具有<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%A0%B8" title="細胞核">細胞核</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%B3%AA" title="細胞質">細胞質</a>等結構,並且由<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="細胞膜">細胞膜</a>保護住<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li>生物冚唪唥都由一粒或者多粒細胞組成嘅。以及</li> <li>所有現存嘅細胞都係由之前存在嘅細胞做<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="細胞分裂">細胞分裂</a>所產生出嚟嘅(而廿一世紀初生物學其中一個最大嘅問題係「<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>嘅第一粒細胞點嚟」)<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ol> <p>一粒細胞本身具有生命應有嘅特徵,同時又有<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="多細胞生物">好多生物</a>係由大量細胞組成:細胞曉做<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%99%B3%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="新陳代謝">新陳代謝</a>,由<a href="/wiki/%E5%98%A2%E9%A3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="嘢食">嘢食</a>嗰度產生自己生存落去所需嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>同對外界刺激作出適當嘅反應,維持自身存在;而且細胞內部帶有遺傳<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A" title="資訊">資訊</a>(<a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a>;可以話係隻生物嘅設計藍圖);喺細胞分裂發生嗰陣,粒細胞自我複製,同時將佢啲遺傳資訊傳達去下一代嘅細胞嗰度,所以啲下一代會似生佢哋出嚟嘅細胞。喺一隻<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="多細胞生物">多細胞生物</a>-例如係<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" title="人">人</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%93" title="貓">貓</a>噉-裏面,隻生物身體嘅每一粒細胞最終都係由一粒受精<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B5" title="卵">卵</a>嘅細胞嗰度嚟嘅,令到成隻多細胞生物全身上下嘅細胞喺遺傳上都一致<sup id="cite_ref-mazzarello1999_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzarello1999-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>因為細胞對生命過程嘅重要性,細胞係好多病變過程嘅基本單位,例如係<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%8C%E7%97%85" class="mw-redirect" title="癌病">癌病</a>噉,癌病嘅主要一個問題在於啲癌細胞唔受控係噉自我複製,搞到身體好多<a href="/wiki/%E5%99%A8%E5%AE%98" title="器官">器官</a>唔能夠正常噉運作,而呢啲器官好多時做嘅係一啲維持生命必需嘅功能(<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E8%87%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="心臟">心臟</a>確保全身各部份都有血用、<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%83" title="胃">胃</a>負責消化嘢食... 等等),所以呢啲器官失去功能可以引致<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%BB%E4%BA%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="死亡">死亡</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="能量轉化"><span id=".E8.83.BD.E9.87.8F.E8.BD.89.E5.8C.96"></span>能量轉化</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=6" title="編輯小節: 能量轉化"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="生物化學">生物化學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統">生態系統</a></div> <p>一隻生物要生存落去,就實要係噉由外界嗰度攞<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>:<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="熱力學第二定律">熱力學第二定律</a>指出<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B5" title="熵">熵</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅數值喺一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E9%96%89%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="封閉系統">封閉系統</a>當中只能夠升或者維持不變,呢條定律表示,當一個系統-無論個系統有冇生命都好-身處於一個環境入面,佢嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%A6" title="溫度">溫度</a>傾向會慢慢變成同周圍環境一樣;一隻生物隨住時間過去,佢內部嘅能量會流失,所以一隻生物要用某啲方法由周圍環境攞能量;現時已知嘅生命體全部都會以某啲方法搵<a href="/wiki/%E5%98%A2%E9%A3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="嘢食">嘢食</a>,並且喺體內用呢啲嘢食做<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%8D%E6%87%89" title="化學反應">化學反應</a>提取能量,途中會將呢啲嘢食變做第啲<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="物質">物質</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%92%E6%B3%84%E7%89%A9" title="排泄物">排泄物</a>),而組成啲嘢食嘅<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%BD%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="份子">份子</a>會提供可以轉化嘅能量之餘,又有可能經啲化學反應轉化做一啲隻生物需要嘅物質<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1242160">.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod{background:transparent;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-title{text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-box{float:left;border-collapse:collapse;margin:3px}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-box .thumb{border:1px solid #ccc;background-color:#F8F8F8;padding:0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output tr.gallery-mod-text{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output tr.gallery-mod-text .core{display:block;font-size:small;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-text .caption{line-height:1.25em;padding:6px 6px 1px 6px;margin:0;border:none;border-width:0}.mw-parser-output .gallery-mod-footer{text-align:right;font-size:80%;line-height:1em}</style><table class="gallery-mod gallery-mod-center"><tbody><tr><td><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlorophyll_affected.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="植物靠葉綠素做光合作用,用由土壤等來源所吸收嘅物料嗰度生產嘢食。"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chlorophyll_affected.jpg/225px-Chlorophyll_affected.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chlorophyll_affected.jpg/338px-Chlorophyll_affected.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Chlorophyll_affected.jpg/450px-Chlorophyll_affected.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>植物靠<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E7%B6%A0%E7%B4%A0" title="葉綠素">葉綠素</a>做光合作用,用由<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="土壤">土壤</a>等來源所吸收嘅物料嗰度生產嘢食。</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">植物靠<a href="/wiki/%E8%91%89%E7%B6%A0%E7%B4%A0" title="葉綠素">葉綠素</a>做光合作用,用由<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="土壤">土壤</a>等來源所吸收嘅物料嗰度生產嘢食。 </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Desert_cow_grazing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="食草動物靠食同消化植物嚟維生。"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Desert_cow_grazing.jpg/225px-Desert_cow_grazing.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Desert_cow_grazing.jpg/338px-Desert_cow_grazing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Desert_cow_grazing.jpg/450px-Desert_cow_grazing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>食草動物靠食同<a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E5%8C%96" title="消化">消化</a>植物嚟維生。</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">食草動物靠食同<a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%88%E5%8C%96" title="消化">消化</a>植物嚟維生。 </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="食肉動物以其他動物嘅肉做嘢食。"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg/225px-Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg/338px-Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg/450px-Timber_wolves_fighting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>食肉動物以其他動物嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%89" class="mw-disambig" title="肉">肉</a>做嘢食。</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">食肉動物以其他動物嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%89" class="mw-disambig" title="肉">肉</a>做嘢食。 </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_(9815266313).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="一條腐爛嘅兔仔屍體;一隻動物死咗之後,佢條屍會俾細菌分解,令養份返去土壤當中。"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg/225px-GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg/338px-GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg/450px-GOC_Radwell-Rivers_and_Meadows_002_Dead_bunny_%289815266313%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3475" data-file-height="2611" /></a><figcaption>一條腐爛嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%94%E4%BB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="兔仔">兔仔</a>屍體;一隻動物死咗之後,佢條屍會俾細菌分解,令養份返去土壤當中。</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">一條腐爛嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%94%E4%BB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="兔仔">兔仔</a>屍體;一隻動物死咗之後,佢條屍會俾細菌分解,令養份返去土壤當中。 </div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統">生態系統</a>查實就係能量嘅循環:一個生態系統入面通常都會有一啲<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%87%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="自營生物">自營生物</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>負責由外界嗰度引入能量,而隨住個生態系統演進,能量會有流失,但一個能夠維持自身存在嘅生態系統嘅自營生物會有能力由外界補充能量;以<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83" title="地球">地球</a>上大多數嘅生態系統為例,地球生態系統嘅能源多數都係<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD" title="太陽">太陽</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,好似係植物同埋其他<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%A4%8A%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="光養生物">光養生物</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>曉吸收太陽光,做<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a>將物料變成<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="有機化合物">有機</a>份子,呢啲有機份子可以用嚟做化學反應,產生一隻生物所需嘅能量<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,而一隻動物就一係食植物(<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B" title="牛">牛</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%BF%E7%BE%8A" title="綿羊">綿羊</a>等嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%89%E9%A3%9F%E6%80%A7%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="草食性動物">食草動物</a>),一係食第啲動物(<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%BC" title="狼">狼</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%90%E7%8B%B8" title="狐狸">狐狸</a>等嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%89%E9%A3%9F%E6%80%A7%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="肉食性動物">食肉動物</a>);喺成個過程當中,有好多能量都會喺啲生物做新陳代謝同<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="呼吸作用">呼吸作用</a>嗰陣以廢料同散熱等嘅方式流失去<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E7%A9%BA" title="太空">太空</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,但呢啲流失可以由太陽光嗰度補充返-形成一個由太陽攞能量、維持自身存在嘅系統<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="繁殖同遺傳"><span id=".E7.B9.81.E6.AE.96.E5.90.8C.E9.81.BA.E5.82.B3"></span>繁殖同遺傳</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=7" title="編輯小節: 繁殖同遺傳"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1DNA.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/1DNA.gif/270px-1DNA.gif" decoding="async" width="270" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/1DNA.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>一條 DNA 份子嘅抽象圖解;佢裏面嗰啲份子帶有遺傳資訊,描述隻生物係點。</figcaption></figure> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">繁殖</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3" title="遺傳">遺傳</a></div> <p>生物曉<a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">繁殖</a>,而<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="基因">基因</a>係所有已知生物將自己嘅特徵傳俾下一代嘅基本媒介:每隻生物嘅細胞裏面都有一啲 DNA 份子喺度,呢啲 DNA 份子成<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B" title="雙螺旋">雙螺旋</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>噉嘅結構,一條 DNA 裏面有能力決定隻生物嘅特徵嘅某個特定區域就為止一個基因,例如想像人嘅 DNA,如果 DNA 當中嘅某一段決定人嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%AD%E9%AB%AE" title="頭髮">頭髮</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%8F%E8%89%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="顏色">顏色</a>-嗰段有 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> 同 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span> 兩個唔同嘅可能款;身上有 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> 嘅人會係<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E9%A0%AD%E9%AB%AE" title="金頭髮">金頭髮</a>,而身上有 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span> 嘅人會係<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E9%A0%AD%E9%AB%AE" title="黑頭髮">黑頭髮</a>-噉呢段 DNA 就算係決定頭髮顏色嘅基因<sup id="cite_ref-gene2007_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gene2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>基因決定咗一隻生物嘅遺傳資訊:一隻生物內部會靠 DNA 嘅基因產生相應嘅 <a href="/wiki/RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNA</a> 基因,而由呢啲 RNA 基因嗰度就會產生出<a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B3%AA" title="蛋白質">蛋白質</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,跟手呢啲蛋白質就會俾隻生物攞嚟組成身體嘅各種構造,例如動物嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%82%8C%E8%82%89" title="肌肉">肌肉</a>以至<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="神經細胞">神經細胞</a>都係要有蛋白質先組成得到;所以一隻生物身上嘅 DNA 會影響佢嘅各種特徵,由肌肉嘅大細(影響佢大唔大力)以至個<a href="/wiki/%E8%85%A6" title="腦">腦</a>嘅神經細胞嘅數量(影響佢嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="智能">智能</a>同各種<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5" title="認知">認知</a>特性<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)等。好多時,就算係極之唔同嘅生物<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE" title="物種">物種</a>身上都會有相同嘅基因,顯示咗唔同嘅生物好多時都需要相同嘅身體功能,舉個例子說明,如果將喺人類當中負責產生<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%B0%E5%B3%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="胰島素">胰島素</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅基因植入去第啲生物嗰度嗰時,個基因都仲係會扮演生產胰島素嘅功能<sup id="cite_ref-gene2007_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gene2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="基因組"><span id=".E5.9F.BA.E5.9B.A0.E7.B5.84"></span>基因組</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=8" title="編輯小節: 基因組"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因組</a></div> <p>無論一隻生物<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">有細胞核</a>定<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原核生物">冇細胞核</a>,佢嘅 DNA 都會聚埋一齊形成<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="染色體">染色體</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅結構,一隻生物體內所有細胞嘅染色體嘅總和就係佢個<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因組</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <ul><li>喺<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>(指啲細胞有<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%A0%B8" title="細胞核">細胞核</a>,人類係真核生物)當中,基因組嘅 DNA 主要係位於啲細胞嘅細胞核裏面嘅,又有少部份會喺<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E7%B7%9A%E9%AB%94" title="粒線體">粒線體</a>入面;</li> <li>喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原核生物">原核生物</a>(細胞冇細胞核)裏面,DNA 會位於形狀岩岩巉巉嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%93%AC%E6%A0%B8" title="擬核">擬核</a>(nucleoid)內部<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ul> <p>舉個例子說明,人類嘅基因組有 23 對染色體,而人類身體差唔多每粒細胞嘅細胞核都有呢 23 對(46 條)染色體喺度。每條染色體都係一條雙螺旋噉形嘅 DNA 份子,而啲 DNA 份子上面有乜嘢基因就因人而異,令到人類個體彼此之間喺身體製造某啲蛋白質嘅能力上有差異,造成身體同心理上嘅個體差異<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p><br /> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg/750px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg" decoding="async" width="750" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg/1125px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg/1500px-PLoSBiol3.5.Fig7ChromosomesAluFish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2346" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><center>顯微鏡下睇到、俾研究者上咗色嘅人類染色體</center></figcaption></figure> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="性"><span id=".E6.80.A7"></span>性</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=9" title="編輯小節: 性"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7" title="性">性</a></div> <p>稍為複雜少少嘅生物,包括所有已知嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%8A%E6%A4%8E%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="脊椎動物">脊椎動物</a>,絕大多數行<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="有性繁殖">有性繁殖</a>,即係用<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC" title="公">公</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%B8" title="乸">乸</a>兩個<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%88%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="性別">性別</a>做繁殖:喺呢啲生物當中,<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC" title="公">公</a>嘅會提供<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="精子">精子</a>,而<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%B8" title="乸">乸</a>嘅就會提供<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B5%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="卵子">卵子</a>,精子有阿爸嘅部份 DNA,而卵子有阿媽嘅部份 DNA;喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E7%B2%BE" title="受精">受精</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅過程入面,精子同卵子會結合,於是就產生出一個喺遺傳上有少少似阿爸、又有少少似阿媽嘅新個體<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>對於有性繁殖嘅起源,廿一世紀初嘅生物學界仲有唔少爭議<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。其中一個見解係,有性繁殖會賦予物種比較大嘅遺傳多樣性-研究表示,靠<a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="無性繁殖">無性繁殖</a>所生嘅後代同母體係一個板嘅(想像一粒靠自己分裂嚟繁殖嘅細胞,後代淨係有得由母體嗰度攞遺傳物料),所以如果一個物種係靠無性繁殖嚟生新個體嘅話,個物種嘅遺傳多樣性就會低得好交關,令佢哋好多時一旦有一兩種遺傳病,就搞到成個物種受毀滅性嘅打擊;因為噉,有性繁殖喺<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化">進化</a>(睇下面)上對一個物種有利<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242160"><table class="gallery-mod gallery-mod-center"><tbody><tr><td><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Outdoors-man-portrait_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="一個男人(男人係公嘅成年人類)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/144px-Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/216px-Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/288px-Outdoors-man-portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2956" /></a><figcaption>一個男人(男人係公嘅成年人類)</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">一個男人(男人係公嘅成年人類) </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="一個餵緊奶嘅女人(女人係乸嘅成年人類)"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg/124px-Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg/185px-Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg/247px-Lactancia_bebe_aire_libre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>一個餵緊奶嘅女人(女人係乸嘅成年人類)</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">一個餵緊奶嘅女人(女人係乸嘅成年人類) </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sperm_stained.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="顯微鏡下睇到嘅人類精子"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sperm_stained.JPG/225px-Sperm_stained.JPG" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sperm_stained.JPG/338px-Sperm_stained.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Sperm_stained.JPG/450px-Sperm_stained.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>顯微鏡下睇到嘅人類精子</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">顯微鏡下睇到嘅人類精子 </div></td></tr></tbody></table><table class="gallery-mod-box" style="width:245px"><tbody><tr><td class="thumb" style="height:200px"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray3.png" class="mw-file-description" title="一粒人類卵子"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Gray3.png/186px-Gray3.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Gray3.png/280px-Gray3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Gray3.png/373px-Gray3.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>一粒人類卵子</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr class="gallery-mod-text"><td class="core"><div class="caption" style="min-height:3.1em;width:232px">一粒人類卵子 </div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="生物進化"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E7.89.A9.E9.80.B2.E5.8C.96"></span>生物進化</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=10" title="編輯小節: 生物進化"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg/300px-Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg/450px-Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg/600px-Blood_clot_in_scanning_electron_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>顯微鏡下嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="血細胞">血細胞</a></figcaption></figure> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="進化論">進化論</a></div> <p>現代生物學其中一個基礎係<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化">進化</a>嘅概念<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:想像一個生物物種族群,個族群嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%BA%AB" title="基因庫">基因庫</a>(指個族群身上嘅基因嘅總和)係 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86f21d0e31751534cd6584264ecf864a6aa792cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"></span> 噉嘅樣,家吓佢哋做繁殖生下一代,而下一代嘅基因庫係 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8788bf85d532fa88d1fb25eff6ae382a601c308" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"></span> 噉嘅樣,因為<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%AB%B6%E5%A4%A9%E6%93%87" title="物競天擇">物競天擇</a>(睇下面)同<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%AA%81%E8%AE%8A" title="基因突變">基因突變</a><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>等嘅原因,<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8788bf85d532fa88d1fb25eff6ae382a601c308" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"></span> 同 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86f21d0e31751534cd6584264ecf864a6aa792cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"></span> 會有少少差異,而過咗 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span> 代後嘅基因庫 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e87000dd6142b81d041896a30fe58f0c3acb2158" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.129ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{i}}"></span> 可以同 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86f21d0e31751534cd6584264ecf864a6aa792cf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{0}}"></span> 有巨大差異,令第 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span> 嘅個體同初代個體唔再算係同一物種-進化就係指一個族群嘅基因庫隨時間嘅變化,以及呢啲變化產生新物種嘅過程<sup id="cite_ref-futu_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-futu-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>進化涉及<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%AB%B6%E5%A4%A9%E6%93%87" title="物競天擇">物競天擇</a>嘅過程:喺 1809 年,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="法國">法國</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="生物學家">生物學家</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" class="extiw" title="en:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">拉馬卡</a>提出咗進化嘅諗法,但佢並冇做得到詳細解釋進化嘅機制(即係點解一個族群嘅基因庫會隨時間變化)<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>;喺佢 50 年後嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E7%90%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%81%94%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87" title="查理斯·達爾文">查理斯·達爾文</a>提出咗革命性嘅物競天擇概念,達爾文指出,基因會影響一隻動物生存同繁殖嘅能力,例如跑得快啲嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC" title="馬">馬</a>喺野外冇咁容易俾獵食者殺死,身體生產精子能力弱嘅公冇咁大機會會成功生到仔... 等等,因為噉,喺是但一個時間點,是但搵個基因 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32d13273b9af4564fa2c421c96d039c414db8628" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.163ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"></span>,<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32d13273b9af4564fa2c421c96d039c414db8628" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.163ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0}}"></span> 嘅第 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>i</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}"></span> 個複製品叫 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1ca01e497a826fca141df55f84205bd39771bc8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.731ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0i}}"></span>,<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{0i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{0i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a1ca01e497a826fca141df55f84205bd39771bc8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.731ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{0i}}"></span> 傳到去下一代基因庫 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8788bf85d532fa88d1fb25eff6ae382a601c308" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"></span> 嗰度嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%9C%83%E7%8E%87" class="mw-redirect" title="機會率">機會率</a>會唔等同於另一個基因嘅一個複製品(<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{1i}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{1i}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55dfcc8d4d364a7048c921e653cd5ed4e5b74d41" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.731ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{1i}}"></span>),即係 </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr(g_{0i}\subset x_{1})\neq \Pr(g_{1i}\subset x_{1})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>g</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr(g_{0i}\subset x_{1})\neq \Pr(g_{1i}\subset x_{1})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6f9742eb9eff139530dfff7bf8b6d98a29cb47a4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:28.132ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr(g_{0i}\subset x_{1})\neq \Pr(g_{1i}\subset x_{1})}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>註 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>於是下一代嘅基因庫會或多或少噉同上一代嘅唔同,而且長遠嚟講,地球嘅環境會係噉變化,例子可以睇<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E8%AE%8A%E5%8C%96" title="氣候變化">氣候變化</a>,令到「乜嘢基因對生存有利」呢點會係噉變化,例如如果一個地區因為氣候變化而搞到<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B1%E7%81%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="旱災">旱災</a>多咗,對於住呢個地區嘅生物嚟講,「令身體保水能力強嘅基因」所賦予嘅優勢就會大咗。如是者,地球上嘅生物物種嘅基因庫就會隨地球環境變化而不斷變(進化)<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。而基於呢啲概念嘅進化論預測,隨住一個生物族群散佈並且分做唔同嘅次族群,佢哋會慢慢噉適應各自嘅環境,變到彼此之間愈嚟愈唔同-<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="實驗">實驗</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E5%AF%9F" title="觀察">觀察</a>嘅數據都撐呢個理論<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>現代嘅進化論仲進一步宣稱,地球上現存嘅生物全部都係由某一個共同祖先物種,即係所謂嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E7%B5%82%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E7%A5%96%E5%85%88" title="最終共同祖先">最終共同祖先</a>(LUCA),嗰度進化出嚟嘅-當生命啱啱喺地球上開始嗰陣(現時估計係喺 35 億年前左右)得最終共同祖先呢個物種,然後最終共同祖先作出一定程度嘅散播,變成多個唔同嘅子族群,然後呢啲子族群獨立各自噉進化,最後變到基因庫好唔同樣,隨住幾億年嘅時間過去(基因決定特徵)最後變成好唔一樣嘅生物<sup id="cite_ref-futu_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-futu-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。事實係,證據顯示有某啲基因係現存生物物種冚唪唥都有嘅,而呢啲基因估計就係嚟自最終共同祖先嘅基因<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="生物分類學"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E7.89.A9.E5.88.86.E9.A1.9E.E5.AD.B8"></span>生物分類學</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=11" title="編輯小節: 生物分類學"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0 5px 5px; float:right; clear:right; width:170px;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="background:white;"><div style="position:relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg/190px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="477" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg/285px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg/380px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip_without_text.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="565" /></span></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:21.07px"><span style="background-color:#777fff;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物 Life</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:71.8px"><span style="background-color:#77c3ff;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%9F_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="域 (生物分類)">域 Domain</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:125.95px"><span style="background-color:#77fff9;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%95%8C_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="界 (生物分類)">界 Kingdom</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:177.63px"><span style="background-color:#77ffb6;"><a href="/wiki/%E9%96%80_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" title="門 (生物分類)">門 Phylum</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:229.5px"><span style="background-color:#7bff77;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%B1_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="綱 (生物分類)">綱 Class</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:281.75px"><span style="background-color:#beff77;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%AE_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" title="目 (生物分類)">目 Order</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:334px"><span style="background-color:#fffd77;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="科 (生物分類)">科 Family</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:386.25px"><span style="background-color:#ffba77;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%AC_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="屬 (生物分類)">屬 Genus</a></span></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:98.5px; top:438.5px"><span style="background-color:#ebae85;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE" title="物種">種 Species</a></span></div> </div> </th></tr> </tbody></table> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="生物分類學">生物分類學</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="生物分類學">生物分類學</a><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>係指研究點樣將生物分類嘅一個領域。想像有一個同種嘅生物族群,佢哋因為<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%B3%AA%E6%B4%BB%E5%8B%95" class="mw-redirect" title="地質活動">地質活動</a>或者<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99" title="遷徙">遷徙</a>等原因,分開做兩個互相唔多點接觸嘅族群,兩個族群會各自噉喺自己嘅新環境當中進化,而進化到咁上下,兩個族群嘅差異可能會變到好大,大到冇能力互相配種-原本同屬同一個物種嘅族群變咗做兩個唔同嘅物種。呢個過程喺進化論上就係所謂嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90" title="物種形成">物種形成</a><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%8F%B2" title="地球史">地球史</a>上係噉有物種形成發生,令地球有豐富嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="生物多樣性">生物多樣性</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>亦都令到物種之間喺遺傳上有好似樹狀圖噉嘅關係:舉個例說明,同一個<a href="/wiki/%E8%9D%B4%E8%9D%B6" title="蝴蝶">蝴蝶</a>品種內部有個體差異,但同一個蝴蝶品種嘅個體彼此之間喺遺傳上有足夠嘅相似度,所以同一個品種嘅蝴蝶公同蝴蝶乸交配能夠生產有生殖能力嘅下一代;相比之下,是但搵一隻蝴蝶同是但搵一隻<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9B%E8%9B%BE" title="飛蛾">飛蛾</a>,佢哋之間嘅遺傳差異實會大過同一個蝴蝶品種嘅個體之間嘅差異,大到一隻蝴蝶一隻飛蛾(就算佢哋係一公一乸)交配都唔會生到乜嘢下一代;同時,蝴蝶同飛蛾之間嘅差異細過蝴蝶同人類之間嘅,噉表示喺進化史上,人類同蝴蝶嘅共同祖先久遠過蝴蝶同飛蛾嘅共同祖先<sup id="cite_ref-douglas1998_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-douglas1998-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>數學化啲噉睇嘅話,每個物種係一個<b>聚類</b>(可以睇埋<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E9%A1%9E%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90" title="聚類分析">聚類分析</a>)。是但搵兩隻生物,佢哋嘅遺傳組成分別係 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b9b58f22283ca46dd5da309cc34303b06a797783" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.313ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{1}}"></span> 同 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/43f1b08d7d69712872e051c2b33fdfa9f5d42319" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:2.313ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p_{2}}"></span>(可以用兩個<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%91%E9%87%8F" title="向量">向量</a>表示),再想像以下情況: </p> <ul><li>如果 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|<b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−<!-- − --></mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo><</mo> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|<b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fa0a9a1400157fbe6d9eb3fb62a58d3d7677f7b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.677ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|<b}"></span>,當中 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span> 係某啲特定數值(即係兩隻之間嘅遺傳差異有返咁上下細),兩者就會有能力配種(假設兩者係一公一乸,或者呢種生物係<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E4%B9%B8%E5%90%8C%E9%AB%94" title="公乸同體">公乸同體</a>)生出有生殖能力嘅後代;</li> <li>如果 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−<!-- − --></mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/895db5fcda69719b9af3a0095d20922e1b72fd0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.581ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}"></span> 嘅值有返咁上下大,兩者可能會生得到後代,但生到嘅後代會缺乏生殖能力,例子可以睇<a href="/wiki/%E7%8D%85%E8%99%8E" title="獅虎">獅虎</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%8D%85%E5%AD%90" title="獅子">獅子</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%81%E8%99%8E" title="老虎">老虎</a>嘅混種,獅虎好多時冇生殖能力<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>);</li> <li>而如果 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−<!-- − --></mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/895db5fcda69719b9af3a0095d20922e1b72fd0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.581ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |p_{1}-p_{2}|}"></span> 數值好大,兩隻生物配種唔會生到任何後代<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ul> <p>一個物種就係一個聚群-同一個物種嘅個體彼此之間差異細到能夠配種,但是但搵其中一隻,嗰隻同聚群外嘅個體之間嘅差異大到唔能夠配種。靠住呢個基本諗法,再加埋物種之間嘅遺傳差異同<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石">化石</a>等嘅資訊,生物分類學家能夠將生物分類<sup id="cite_ref-douglas1998_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-douglas1998-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>舉個例說明,<a href="/wiki/%E9%AF%A8%E7%9B%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="鯨目">鯨目</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">學名</a> <i>Cetacea</i>)有以下呢啲科同屬: </p> <dl><dd>目:鯨目 <dl><dd>亞目:<a href="/wiki/%E9%BD%92%E9%AF%A8%E4%BA%9E%E7%9B%AE" title="齒鯨亞目">齒鯨亞目</a> <dl><dd>超科:海豚超科 <dl><dd>科:海洋海豚科 <dl><dd>屬:駝背海豚屬 <dl><dd>種:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E7%99%BD%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%9A" title="中華白海豚">中華白海豚</a></dd> <dd>種:印度駝背豚</dd> <dd>種:大西洋印度駝背豚</dd></dl></dd> <dd>屬:樽鼻海豚屬 <dl><dd>種:<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%BD%E9%BC%BB%E6%B5%B7%E8%B1%9A" title="樽鼻海豚">樽鼻海豚</a></dd> <dd>種:太平洋樽鼻海豚</dd></dl></dd> <dd>屬:殺人鯨屬 <dl><dd>種:<a href="/wiki/%E6%AE%BA%E4%BA%BA%E9%AF%A8" title="殺人鯨">殺人鯨</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Animal_diversity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Animal_diversity.png/240px-Animal_diversity.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Animal_diversity.png 1.5x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="518" /></a><figcaption>各種動物</figcaption></figure> <p>呢個分類源自對各種鯨目動物嘅遺傳因子嘅分析以及化石證據。個分類表示,樽鼻海豚同太平洋樽鼻海豚有個共同祖先(一個好耐之前存在過嘅原始樽鼻海豚屬物種),樽鼻海豚亦都同殺人鯨有一個共同祖先(海洋海豚科原始物種),而後者久遠過前者<sup id="cite_ref-douglas1998_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-douglas1998-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="生命之樹"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E5.91.BD.E4.B9.8B.E6.A8.B9"></span>生命之樹</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=12" title="編輯小節: 生命之樹"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>而人類按照生物分類喺<b>生命之樹</b><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅位置如下<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-woese_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woese-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <dl><dd>域:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%8F%8C" title="古菌">古菌</a>(<i>Archaea</i>)</dd> <dd>域:<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" title="細菌">細菌</a>(<i>Bacteria</i>) <dl><dd>包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%85%B8%E6%A1%BF%E8%8F%8C" title="大腸桿菌">大腸桿菌</a>(<i>E. coli</i>)等嘅多種細菌</dd></dl></dd> <dd>域:<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>(<i>Eukaryote</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>界:<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a>(<i>Fungi</i>)</dd> <dd>界:<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a>(<i>Plantae</i>)</dd> <dd>界:<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="動物">動物</a>(<i>Animalia</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>門:<a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%9F%E9%AB%94%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="軟體動物">軟體動物</a>(<i>Mollusca</i>)</dd> <dd>門:<a href="/wiki/%E7%AF%80%E8%82%A2%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="節肢動物">節肢動物</a>(<i>Arthropoda</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>綱:<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%86%E8%9F%B2%E7%B6%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="昆蟲綱">昆蟲綱</a>(<i>Insecta</i>)</dd></dl></dd> <dd>門:<a href="/wiki/%E8%84%8A%E7%B4%A2%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="脊索動物">脊索動物</a>(<i>Chordate</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>綱:<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%BA%E4%B9%B3%E7%B6%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="哺乳綱">哺乳綱</a>(<i>Mammalia</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>目:<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9F%E8%82%89%E7%9B%AE" title="食肉目">食肉目</a>(<i>Carnivora</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>科:<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AC%E7%A7%91" title="犬科">犬科</a>(<i>Canidae</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>屬:<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AC%E5%B1%AC" title="犬屬">犬屬</a>(<i>Canis</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>種:<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%BC" title="狼">狼</a>(<i>Canis lupus</i>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>目:<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%88%E9%95%B7%E7%9B%AE" title="靈長目">靈長目</a>(<i>Primate</i>) <dl><dd>科:<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%A7%91" title="人科">人科</a>(<i>Hominidae</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>屬:<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B1%AC" title="人屬">人屬</a>(<i>Homo</i>) <dl><dd>...</dd> <dd>種:<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E4%BA%BA" title="智人">人類</a>(<i>Homo Sapien</i>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>一樣嘢要有齊生命定義嗰幾種要素,先會俾人用生物分類法分類。即係話好似<a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92" title="病毒">病毒</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%8A%E6%AF%92%E9%AB%94" title="朊毒體">朊毒體</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>呢啲嘢唔會俾學界包含喺呢個分類系統之下<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。例如係病毒噉,佢哋喺生勾勾嘅細胞體內嗰陣曉好似有生命嘅嘢噉郁同繁殖,但如果一粒病毒唔喺生勾勾嘅生物體內,佢就會變到唔識做呢啲嘢,好似死物噉,所以一般都唔會俾科學家當做生物<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="科學命名"><span id=".E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8.E5.91.BD.E5.90.8D"></span>科學命名</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=13" title="編輯小節: 科學命名"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">學名</a></div> <p>為咗方便世界各地講唔同<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言">語言</a>嘅生物學家溝通,生物學界有咗所謂嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">學名</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:每一個生物物種都會有一個學名,一個學名通常會由兩個用<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="羅馬字母">羅馬字母</a>寫嘅字組成,例如係人類噉,人類嘅學名係 </p> <dl><dd><i>Homo sapien</i></dd></dl> <p>通常一個學名嘅第一個字會反映咗嗰種物種所屬嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%AC" title="屬">屬</a>,而第二個字指個種。呢兩個字未必一定係源自<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E6%96%87" title="拉丁文">拉丁文</a>,例如係喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%B7%9D" title="四川">四川</a>嗰頭發現嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%90%E9%BE%8D" title="恐龍">恐龍</a>屬<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8F%AF%E9%99%BD%E9%BE%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="華陽龍 (無呢版)">華陽龍</a>噉,佢個學名係 </p> <dl><dd><i>Huayangosaurus</i></dd></dl> <p>-當中 Huayang 係<b>華陽</b>(四川嘅別名)呢兩個<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" title="漢字">漢字</a>喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E5%AE%98%E8%A9%B1" title="標準官話">標準官話</a>入面嘅讀音。學名全球共通,唔會因地區而異<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>有一啲物種因為地區唔同或者<a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E8%AE%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="突變">突變</a>而有<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E7%A8%AE" title="亞種">亞種</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,為咗分得清楚啲,廿一世紀嘅科學界又多咗一套叫<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%89%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="三名法 (無呢版)">三名法</a><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>嘅學名<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:呢啲學名只係得有亞種嘅生物先至有,顧名思義有三個字,例如有啲人會 </p> <ul><li>叫<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF" title="香港">香港</a>嘅中華白海豚做 <i>Sousa chinensis chinensis</i>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%B0%BC" title="印尼">印尼</a>嘅中華白海豚就叫 <i>Sousa chinensis plumbea</i>。</li></ul> <p>不過呢套做法到咗廿一世紀初都仲未受全世界認可<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="各子領域"><span id=".E5.90.84.E5.AD.90.E9.A0.98.E5.9F.9F"></span>各子領域</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=14" title="編輯小節: 各子領域"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compound_Microscope_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG/240px-Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="240" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG/360px-Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG/480px-Compound_Microscope_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2445" data-file-height="3496" /></a><figcaption>一個簡單嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡">顯微鏡</a>;顯微鏡係生物學研究上常用嘅架生。</figcaption></figure> <p>同生命相關嘅現象有得分做好多個層次,而每一層都有一啲生物學子領域研究:例如有生物學家會集中研究 DNA 同 RNA 嘅組成份子呢啲生命最基本組成部份以及呢啲嘢嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a>性質;有唔少生物學家會研究基因層面嘅現象;有生物學家會研究細胞嘅行為;又有生物學家-好似係<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="動物學">動物學</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="植物學">植物學</a>等領域噉-會攞成隻多細胞生物個體研究;再宏觀層次啲嘅生物學家會研究動物嘅群體行為以及<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統">生態系統</a>等等<sup id="cite_ref-waddington1968_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waddington1968-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mosconi2009_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mosconi2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,包括咗<sup id="cite_ref-branches_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-branches-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bella_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bella-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="分子生物學">分子生物學</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>做<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a>層面嘅生物學研究,會研究一粒細胞內部唔同嘅系統之間會點樣互動,包括咗 DNA、RNA 同蛋白質呢啲分子嘅合成以及呢啲互動點樣調制,好多時會用到<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a>上嘅知識<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="遺傳學">遺傳學</a><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>係研究基因同遺傳物料嘅一個生物學子領域,基因決定一隻生物嘅種種特徵,而對佢哋嘅研究令到科學家了解到特定基因嘅功能同埋能夠分析基因之間嘅互動;呢方面嘅研究仲引致咗<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="遺傳工程">遺傳工程</a>呢家嘢嘅誕生<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="細胞生物學">細胞生物學</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>研究細胞嘅結構同生理特質,包括佢哋嘅內部行為、彼此之間嘅互動同佢哋同周圍環境嘅互動。呢種研究可以做喺好似細菌噉嘅單細胞生物身上,又可以做喺好似人類噉嘅多細胞生物身上。了解細胞嘅結構同功能對於研究生命嘅科學嚟講係一種基礎嘅研究,生物學家要知道細胞點運作同彼此之間點互動先至可以模擬多細胞生物嘅組織同器官嘅運作原理<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生理學">生理學</a><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>專門研究一隻生物嘅正常整體運作當中嘅物理同生化過程。生命定義上有能力維持自身存在,而要維持自身存在,一隻生物實要確保自己身體嘅某啲變數(溫度同各種化合物嘅濃度等等)維持喺某啲水平(穩態);生理學會睇一隻正常噉運作緊嘅生物,研究隻生物內部嘅各部份點互動以及呢啲互動點樣令到隻生物維持自己嗰個正常狀態。一般嚟講,<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="動物">動物</a>之間或者唔同動物<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE" title="物種">物種</a>之間喺好多生理特性上都有差異,但有唔少生理學上嘅原則係無論植物定動物都適用嘅<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA%E5%AD%B8" title="動物行為學">動物行為學</a><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>研究動物嘅行為,尤其係好似<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%88%E9%95%B7%E7%9B%AE" title="靈長目">靈長目</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AC%E5%B1%AC" title="犬屬">犬屬</a>等嘅社會性動物。動物行為學家好關注行為嘅進化以及理解一個行為喺物競天擇嗰度扮演嘅角色。舉個例子說明,動物冚唪唥都會喺生命受到威脅嗰陣出現俾人稱之為<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%90%E6%87%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="恐懼">恐懼</a>嘅行為模式,呢種行為模式包括咗心跳加速、逃走、以及出手攻擊威脅等等;喺進化論上嚟講一般都認為,呢類行為係對隻動物嘅生存有利-<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E8%B7%B3" title="心跳">心跳</a>加速會幫到手令隻動物嘅肌肉得到更多<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%80%E6%B6%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="血液">血液</a>供應,逃走令到隻動物遠離危險,而出手攻擊喺某啲情況下可以幫到手擊退攻擊者<sup id="cite_ref-mcnaughton_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcnaughton-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。動物行為學方面嘅分析仲幫到<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學">心理學</a>手了解人類嘅行為<sup id="cite_ref-mcnaughton_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcnaughton-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="進化生物學">進化生物學</a><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>主要研究物種嘅起源同埋點樣隨住時間進化。呢個領域涉及好多個界別嘅生物學家,好多時做進化研究嗰陣會有研究唔同生物物種嘅專家合作一齊解答(例如)有關佢哋研究嗰啲物種點樣共同進化出嚟嘅問題。進化生物學局部建基於<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="古生物學">古生物學</a>。古生物學家會用<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石">化石</a>研究生物物種嘅進化史<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>;進化生物學又會運用<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E9%AB%94%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="群體遺傳學">群體遺傳學</a>嚟研究一個生物族群嘅基因庫會點樣隨住時間改變<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="生態學">生態學</a><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>研究生物嘅分佈同埋佢哋點樣同環境互動。搵是但一個生物物種,佢都會同第啲物種共用佢哋嘅環境,無論同種嘅生物之間定係物種同物種之間都可以出現合作型、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%B6%E7%88%AD_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8)" class="mw-redirect" title="競爭 (生物學)">競爭型</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F" title="寄生">寄生</a>型、或者<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F" title="共生">共生</a>型等多種嘅關係,而且非生物嘅因素(例如係<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99" title="氣候">氣候</a>噉)都會同生物嘅活動互相影響。因為咁多因素要考慮,生態學係一門研究<a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="複雜系統">複雜系統</a>嘅學問:一個生態系統會有好多個組成部份,而每一個組成部份都會同其他嘅相互動,令到研究嗰陣好難(例如)獨立噉分析某一個組成部份<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_clownfish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Common_clownfish.jpg/450px-Common_clownfish.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Common_clownfish.jpg/675px-Common_clownfish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Common_clownfish.jpg/900px-Common_clownfish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>住喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E8%91%B5" title="海葵">海葵</a>觸鬚入面嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%91%E9%AD%9A" title="小丑魚">小丑魚</a>;小丑魚同海葵共生,小丑魚會幫手趕走食海葵嘅魚,而海葵嘅有毒觸鬚會令獵食者掂唔到小丑魚<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>註 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</figcaption></figure> <p><br /> 生物學仲有以下嘅子領域<sup id="cite_ref-branches_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-branches-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bella_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bella-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="生物化學">生物化學</a>:研究生命存在所需嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%8D%E6%87%89" title="化學反應">化學反應</a>,尤其係喺細胞層面發生嗰啲。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物物理學">生物物理學</a>:用<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學">物理學</a>嘅原理同理論研究生物過程。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學">解剖學</a>:研究生物嘅結構。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="神經科學">神經科學</a>:研究<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="神經系統">神經系統</a>。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="發育生物學">發育生物學</a>:研究生物點樣發育。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="海洋生物學">海洋生物學</a>:研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7" title="海">海</a>入面嘅生態系同生物。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="微生物學">微生物學</a>:研究<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="微生物">微生物</a>同埋佢哋同第啲生物之間嘅互動。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="古生物學">古生物學</a>:研究化石同埋遠古(多數經已<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%95%E7%A8%AE" title="絕種">絕種</a>)嘅生物。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="植物學">植物學</a>:研究植物。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="動物學">動物學</a>:研究動物,包括動物嘅分類、生理、同行為。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="生物工程">生物工程</a>:用生物學知識製做一啲有經濟價值嘅產品。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="生物科技">生物科技</a>:研究點樣操控有生命嘅組織,同埋佢哋喺<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="科技">科技</a>上嘅應用。</li></ul> <p>... 等等。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="生物學史"><span id=".E7.94.9F.E7.89.A9.E5.AD.B8.E5.8F.B2"></span>生物學史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=15" title="編輯小節: 生物學史"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="生物學史">生物學史</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="古希臘"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E5.B8.8C.E8.87.98"></span>古希臘</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=16" title="編輯小節: 古希臘"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋:<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E8%AB%96" title="唯物論">唯物論</a></div> <p>早喺古希臘嗰陣時,經已有<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="哲學家">哲學家</a>喺度研究傳統定義上嘅生命,不過佢哋嘅諗法多數都唔受現代科學接納。最早期有關生命嘅理論係由<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E7%89%A9%E8%AB%96" title="唯物論">唯物論</a>嗰度走出嚟嘅,呢種思想認為宇宙入面淨係得<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="物質">物質</a>,冇<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%88%E9%AD%82" title="靈魂">靈魂</a>呢啲非物質嘅嘢,而對於唯物論者嚟講,生命只不過係一種複雜嘅物質,而唔係乜嘢靈魂;另一方面,又有思想家唔認同呢種諗法-主流古希臘學者會喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E6%96%87" title="古希臘文">古希臘文</a>入面區分兩個字詞: </p> <ul><li>一個係 <b>ζωή</b>(zoe),解做(有靈魂嘅)<b>生命、動物</b>,派生英文字詞 <b>zoology</b>(<b>動物學</b>);</li> <li>另一個係 <b>βίος</b>(bios),解做<b>生活、生計</b>,派生英文 <b>biology</b>(<b>生物學</b>)。</li></ul> <p>呢個區別好影響後世西方哲學、尤其是<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99" title="基督教">基督教</a>倫理對生命嘅睇法,將生命呢樣嘢分成<b>超越肉體嘅生命</b>(zoe)同埋<b>肉體嘅生命</b>(bio)兩個層次<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>古希臘思想家又有喺度諗生命嘅組成:公元前 430 年嘅哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E5%9F%B9%E5%A4%9A%E5%8D%A1%E5%8B%92" title="恩培多卡勒">恩培多卡勒</a><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>提出咗個諗法,認為宇宙入面所有嘢-包括生物-都係由四種<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="古典元素">元素</a>組成嘅:地、水、火、同埋風。佢相信世上所有嘅變化都係由呢四種元素嘅排列嚟解釋得到,而各種嘅生物就係呢四種元素以啱嘅方法溝埋一齊得出嘅結果<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>;另一方面,公元前 460 年出世嘅哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%AC%A8%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德謨克利特">德謨克利特</a><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>就啱啱相反,認為生命嘅本質係有靈魂,主張火係同生命最有啦掕嘅元素(因為生命都會產生熱力)並且認為熱嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a>會產生靈魂,令到啲嘢有生命<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>公元前 322 年出世嘅希臘哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="阿里士多德">阿里士多德</a>好睇重生命研究,亦都寫咗佢對生命呢個概念嘅睇法。佢提出<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hylomorphism" class="extiw" title="en:Hylomorphism">物形論</a>,話宇宙入面所有嘢都有<b>物質</b>同<b>形態</b>(form),而一件有生命嘅嘢嘅形態就係佢嘅<b>靈魂</b>(希臘文:ψυχή / psyche;拉丁文 <b>anima</b>)。佢認為靈魂有分三種:植物嘅靈魂係最簡單嘅,呢種靈魂淨係識得做生長同埋繁殖呢啲基礎功能;而動物嘅靈魂既有呢啲功能,又曉郁同埋感受;人類獨有嘅<b>理性靈魂</b><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>就更上一層樓,仲有思考嘅能力同埋<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E8%AD%98" title="意識">意識</a><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。阿里士多德仲提出話物質係形態嘅必要條件:一定要有物質先至可以有形態,所以冇身體嘅嘢係唔會有靈魂嘅(但有身體唔等如會有靈魂)<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。佢將靈魂分三種嘅做法,雖然話啱唔嗮(例如係植物其實識郁,只係郁得好慢),但係<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="智能">智能</a>呢家嘢似乎真係依「植物-動物-人類」嘅次序上升。植物冇乜嘢智能可言,動物幾乎係全部都或多或少噉有啲智能,而人類就出咗名係動物之中最聰明嘅。物形論雖然喺現代學角度上啱唔晒,但仍然對後世嘅生命研究產生影響<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中世紀"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E4.B8.96.E7.B4.80"></span>中世紀</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=17" title="編輯小節: 中世紀"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1488945/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hooke-microscope.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Hooke-microscope.png/240px-Hooke-microscope.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Hooke-microscope.png/360px-Hooke-microscope.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Hooke-microscope.png/480px-Hooke-microscope.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="693" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">羅拔虎克用嘅顯微鏡嘅設計圖</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/240px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/360px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/480px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="3119" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">達爾文嘅相,19 世紀中影嘅;佢嘅物競天擇理論改革咗成個生物學界。</div></div></div></div></div> <p>喺<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="中世紀">中世紀</a>(5 至 15 <a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="世紀">世紀</a>),生物學都仲未有大嘅進展。喺羅馬帝國冧咗之後,佢哋啲知識好多都喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2" title="歐洲">歐洲</a>失傳咗,搞到歐洲進入咗一段<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E6%9A%97%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="黑暗時代">黑暗時代</a>。古羅馬同古希臘嘅知識有喺<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E6%9D%B1" title="近東">近東</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%9D%B1" title="中東">中東</a>嗰度留存咗落嚟-<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="拜占庭帝國">拜占庭帝國</a>嘅人同<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E4%BA%BA" title="阿拉伯人">阿拉伯人</a>將古希臘人嗰啲醫學同生命研究著作譯做佢哋啲話,但佢哋唔多做生物方面嘅研究,只不過係後尾做到將古希臘嘅知識傳返過去歐洲。中世紀啲歐洲人將古希臘發展出嚟嘅嗰套醫術攞咗嚟用,但係好少可會質問嗰套知識或者嘗試將佢發展上去<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。中世紀歐洲嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="大學">大學</a>喺<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學">哲學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學">物理學</a>等領域嘅研究有啲睇頭,但係生物學依然未有進展,事實上喺嗰時生物學連獨立嘅學科都唔係。總體嚟講,中世紀嘅人類喺生命研究方面冇乜特別嘅作為<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="科學革命"><span id=".E7.A7.91.E5.AD.B8.E9.9D.A9.E5.91.BD"></span>科學革命</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=18" title="編輯小節: 科學革命"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋:<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="科學革命">科學革命</a></div> <p>生物學真正嘅開端要數 17 至 18 世紀嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="科學革命">科學革命</a>時期。喺打前少少嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E8%97%9D%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" title="文藝復興">文藝復興</a>時代,歐洲人對古希臘古羅馬嘅文明同思想興趣大增,令到科學嘅火花開始喺歐洲重燃,好似係<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%94%E6%96%87%E8%A5%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="達文西">達文西</a>噉,就成日都幫手研究人類同埋動物嘅身體,仲對<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學">解剖學</a>做咗些少貢獻<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。而喺 17 至 18 世紀嗰陣,歐洲仲掀起咗科學革命嘅熱潮:喺嗰個時代,有好多歐洲學者都開始嘗試用<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科學方法">科學方法</a>嚟研究各種大自然嘅嘢,包括咗生物。呢樣嘢令到生物學-研究生命嘅科學領域-開始萌芽。另一方面,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡">顯微鏡</a>嘅發明亦都令到對生命嘅理解有咗飛躍性嘅進步:<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" title="英國">英國</a>科學家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%8B%94%E8%99%8E%E5%85%8B" title="羅拔虎克">羅拔虎克</a><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>喺 1665 年出版咗《Micrographia》(<b>微物圖誌</b>)呢本著作,詳細噉記錄咗佢自己用顯微鏡睇到嘅各種微生物。打後少少喺 17 世紀尾,有埋<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%B7%E8%98%AD" title="荷蘭">荷蘭</a>科學家<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%97%E6%96%87%E8%99%8E%E5%85%8B" title="列文虎克">列文虎克</a><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>等人對顯微鏡做各種改良,歐洲人成功噉發現咗細菌同好多其他微生物。顯微鏡嘅發展,開拓咗以<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a>為生物單位嘅科學認識,為現代生物學對生命嘅定義(<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a>)奠基<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>喺科學革命時期,學者亦都致力將已知嘅生物分類同埋改名。<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%85%B8" title="瑞典">瑞典</a>生物學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" class="mw-redirect" title="林奈">林奈</a><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>喺 1735 年提出咗佢嗰套生物分類法,跟手喺 1750 年代幫佢所知嘅生物改好嗮啲學名,呢兩樣嘢對於現代生物學嚟講都仲係好緊要,而且林奈-同好多佢同期嘅歐洲學者-發表咗好多對生物嘅諗法,當中<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="法國">法國</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="數學家">數學家</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" class="extiw" title="en:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">布豐伯爵</a>甚至仲有諗過進化呢條橋。雖然林奈同布豐伯爵等學者嘅嗰柞諗法有好多都畀及後嘅科學家證實咗係錯嘅,但係佢哋啲研究依然係為現代生物奠定咗個基礎<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="物種起源"><span id=".E7.89.A9.E7.A8.AE.E8.B5.B7.E6.BA.90"></span>物種起源</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=19" title="編輯小節: 物種起源"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文:<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="物種起源">物種起源</a></div> <p>現代生物學嘅開端喺 19 世紀。嗰個時期最出名嘅要數<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%A0%BC%E8%98%AD" title="英格蘭">英格蘭</a>自然學家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E7%90%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%81%94%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87" title="查理斯·達爾文">查理斯·達爾文</a>,佢對進化同物種形成等現象作出咗深思,並且喺 1859 年發表咗佢嗰本名著《<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="物種起源">物種起源</a>》,提出咗<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%AB%B6%E5%A4%A9%E6%93%87" title="物競天擇">物競天擇</a>嘅諗法解釋進化嘅現象,認為無論同種定異種嘅生物都會喺個環境嗰度爭生存所需嘅資源(例如係嘢食同水),爭嬴嘅就有得生存落去,跟手就繁殖以及將自己身上嘅基因傳畀下一代,所以一個物種嘅基因庫會一代一代噉變,經過幾百萬年就會變到完全唔同咗樣<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>達爾文個理論喺啱啱提出嚟嗰陣喺學界有唔細嘅爭詏,但最後各種嘅證據-由化石以至實驗觀察等-都係撐達爾文個諗法嘅<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。而到咗廿一世紀,達爾文個理論已經俾科學家廣泛噉應用喺<a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學">醫學</a>同埋<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="人工智能">人工智能</a>等嘅好多個領域嗰度,例子可以睇<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E6%BC%94%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95" title="遺傳演算法">遺傳演算法</a><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,而且喺理論上仲有新嘅發展,例如係用物競天擇嘅理論嚟解釋<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="利他">利他</a>嘅行為呀噉<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="睇埋"><span id=".E7.9D.87.E5.9F.8B"></span>睇埋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=20" title="編輯小節: 睇埋"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; column-count:1"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88" class="mw-redirect" title="統計">統計</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學">醫學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="農業科學">農業科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="生物電腦">生物電腦</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="複雜系統">複雜系統</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="文獻"><span id=".E6.96.87.E7.8D.BB"></span>文獻</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=21" title="編輯小節: 文獻"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>英文書: </p> <div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; font-size:90%; column-count:1"> <ul><li>Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). <i>Molecular Biology of the Cell</i> (4th ed.). Garland.</li> <li>Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2005). <i>Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems</i> (4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited.</li> <li>Campbell N (2004). <i>Biology</i> (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company.</li> <li>Colinvaux P (1979). <i>Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective</i> (reissue ed.). Princeton University Press.</li> <li>Hoagland M (2001). <i>The Way Life Works</i> (reprint ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc.</li> <li>Janovy, John (2004). <i>On Becoming a Biologist</i> (2nd ed.). Bison Books.</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註釋"><span id=".E8.A8.BB.E9.87.8B"></span>註釋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=22" title="編輯小節: 註釋"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2020813">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-66">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="數學">數學</a>上,<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Pr(y)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">Pr</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Pr(y)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5b32fcb1155112a1f8ba8c2a7d392773bcf8eb92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.459ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Pr(y)}"></span> 係指「事件 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>y</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}"></span> 發生嘅機會率」,而 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a\subset b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> <mo>⊂<!-- ⊂ --></mo> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\subset b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1cb6f96cb08bed4e2929e092242a73d0dfb3ba46" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.326ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\subset b}"></span> 簡單啲講係指「<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span> 喺 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span> 入面(<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%86" title="子集">子集</a>)」。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-115">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">小丑魚對海葵毒免疫。</span> </li> </ol></div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="引述"><span id=".E5.BC.95.E8.BF.B0"></span>引述</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=23" title="編輯小節: 引述"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2020813"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/biology">Biology</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Based on definition from: "<i>Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms</i>". Texas State University at San Marcos.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig, Nancy (2014). <i>Molecular Biology</i>, Principles of Genome Function. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9780199658572" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0199658572</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-waddington1968-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-waddington1968_4-0">4.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-waddington1968_4-1">4.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Waddington, C. H. (1968). Towards a theoretical biology. <i>Nature</i>, 218(5141), 525-527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mosconi2009-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mosconi2009_5-0">5.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mosconi2009_5-1">5.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Mosconi, Francesco; Julou, Thomas; Desprat, Nicolas; Sinha, Deepak Kumar; Allemand, Jean-François; Vincent Croquette; Bensimon, David (2008). "Some nonlinear challenges in biology". <i>Nonlinearity</i>. 21 (8): T131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, PC; Rieper, E; Tuszynski, JA (January 2013). "Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell". <i>Bio Systems</i>. 111 (1): 1–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015). "A physiologist's view of homeostasis". <i>Advances in Physiology Education</i>. 39 (4): 259–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Howell, Elizabeth (8 December 2014). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.astrobio.net/origin-and-evolution-of-life/life-become-complex-happen-beyond-earth/">How Did Life Become Complex, And Could It Happen Beyond Earth?</a>". <i>Astrobiology Magazine</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shallice, T. (1988). <i>From neuropsychology to mental structure</i>. Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Naldi, G., Pareschi, L., & Toscani, G. (Eds.). (2010). <i>Mathematical modeling of collective behavior in socio-economic and life sciences</i>. Springer Science & Business Media.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Godfrey-Smith 2003, Chapter 14: "<i>Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence</i>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brigandt, Ingo; Love, Alan (2017), "Reductionism in Biology", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dougherty, E.R. (2008). "On the Epistemological Crisis in Genomics". <i>Current Genomics</i>. 9 (2): 69–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a>:organism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-trifnob2012-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-trifnob2012_15-0">15.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-trifnob2012_15-1">15.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Trifonov, Edward N. (2012). "Definition of Life: Navigation through Uncertainties". <i>Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics</i>. Adenine Press. 29 (4): 647–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"life". <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i> (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koshland, Jr., Daniel E. (22 March 2002). "The Seven Pillars of Life". <i>Science</i>. 295 (5563): 2215–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/45963181/ns/technology_and_science/#.WCcX-snQf0w">"Can scientists define 'life' ... using just three words?"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>組織</b>(organization)<br /><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%A9%E6%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="穩態">穩態</a>(homeostasis)<br /><b>反應</b>(response)<br /><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%99%B3%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="新陳代謝">新陳代謝</a>(metabolism)<br /><b>生長</b>(growth)<br /><a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">繁殖</a>(reproduction)<br /><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89" title="適應">適應</a>(adaptation)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mckayc2004-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mckayc2004_20-0">20.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mckayc2004_20-1">20.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">McKay, Chris P. (14 September 2004). "What Is Life—and How Do We Search for It in Other Worlds?". <i>PLoS Biology</i>. 2 (2(9)): 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.healthline.com/health/sweating-absent">Hypohidrosis (Absent Sweating): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Panin, L. E. (2007). Human homeostasis in high-latitude environment. <i>Alaska medicine</i>, 49(2), 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gropper, S. S., & Smith, J. L. (2012). <i>Advanced nutrition and human metabolism</i>. Cengage Learning.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kondrashov, A. S. (1988). Deleterious mutations and the evolution of sexual reproduction. <i>Nature</i>, 336(6198), 435-440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="細胞學說">細胞學說</a>(cell theory)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mazzarello1999-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mazzarello1999_26-0">26.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mazzarello1999_26-1">26.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Mazzarello, P (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". <i>Nature Cell Biology</i>. 1 (1): E13–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">BalušKA, F., Volkmann, D., & Barlow, P. W. (2004). Eukaryotic cells and their cell bodies: cell theory revised. <i>Annals of Botany</i>, 94(1), 9-32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%A0%B8" title="細胞核">細胞核</a>(nucleus)、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%B3%AA" title="細胞質">細胞質</a>(cytoplasm)同<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="細胞膜">細胞膜</a>(cell membrane)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wald, G. (1954). The origin of life. <i>Scientific American</i>, 191(2), 44-53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004012.htm">Aging changes in organs, tissues, and cells</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zink, Daniele; Fische, Andrew H.; Nickerson, Jeffrey A. (1 October 2004). "Nuclear structure in cancer cells". <i>Nature Reviews Cancer</i>. 4 (9): 677–687.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherr, C. J. (1996). Cancer cell cycles. <i>Science</i>, 274(5293), 1672-1677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B5" title="熵">熵</a>(entropy;<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Stockar, U., & Liu, J. S. (1999). Does microbial life always feed on negative entropy? Thermodynamic analysis of microbial growth. <i>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Bioenergetics</i>, 1412(3), 191-211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond, R. C. (1950). Communication, entropy, and life. <i>American Scientist</i>, 38(2), 273-278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%87%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="自營生物">自營生物</a>(autotrophs)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryant, DA; Frigaard, NU (November 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". <i>Trends in Microbiology</i>. 14 (11): 488–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%A4%8A%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="光養生物">光養生物</a>(phototrophs)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, AL (1997). <i>Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology</i>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 508. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9780198547686" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0198547686</a>. Photosynthesis – the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp. carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than the oxidation of chemical compounds.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2001). "6". <i>Biology</i>. Benjamin Cummings.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartsch, John; Colvard, Mary P. (2009). <i>The Living Environment</i>. New York State: Prentice Hall.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Edwards, Katrina. "<i>Microbiology of a Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank</i>". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B" title="雙螺旋">雙螺旋</a>(double helix)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gene2007-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-gene2007_44-0">44.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-gene2007_44-1">44.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Marcial, Gene G. (August 13, 2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2007-08-12/from-sembiosys-a-new-kind-of-insulin">From SemBiosys, A New Kind Of Insulin</a>, Archived 2014-10-29 at the Wayback Machine.. businessweek.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartl, D. L., Clark, A. G., & Clark, A. G. (1997). <i>Principles of population genetics</i> (Vol. 116). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer associates.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B3%AA" title="蛋白質">蛋白質</a>(protein)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Der Maas, H. L., Dolan, C. V., Grasman, R. P., Wicherts, J. M., Huizenga, H. M., & Raijmakers, M. E. (2006). A dynamical model of general intelligence: the positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism. <i>Psychological review</i>, 113(4), 842.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%B0%E5%B3%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="胰島素">胰島素</a>(insulin)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="染色體">染色體</a>(chromosomes)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因組</a>(genome)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>(eukaryotes)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原核生物">原核生物</a>(prokaryote)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thanbichler, M; Wang, SC; Shapiro, L (October 2005). "The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure". <i>Journal of Cellular Biochemistry</i>. 96 (3): 506–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8472">Genotype definition – Medical Dictionary definitions</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">互聯網檔案館</a>嘅<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140123014257/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8472">歸檔</a>,歸檔日期2014年1月23號,.". Medterms.com.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Belikov, Aleksey V. (January 2019). "Age-related diseases as vicious cycles". <i>Ageing Research Reviews</i>. 49: 11–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-56">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E7%B2%BE" title="受精">受精</a>(fertilization)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-57">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol; Michod, Richard E. (2011). "Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair Chapter 19". In Kruman editor, Inna. <i>DNA Repair</i>. InTech.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hörandl, Elvira (2013). "Meiosis and the Paradox of Sex in Nature". In Bernstein, Carol. <i>Meiosis</i>. InTech.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Otto, SP; Gerstein, AC (August 2006). "Why have sex? The population genetics of sex and recombination". <i>Biochemical Society Transactions</i>. 34 (Pt 4): 519–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Agrawal, AF (September 2006). "Evolution of sex: why do organisms shuffle their genotypes?". <i>Current Biology</i>. 16 (17): R696–704.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-61">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dobzhansky, T. (1973). "Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution". <i>The American Biology Teacher</i>. 35 (3): 125–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-62">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%AA%81%E8%AE%8A" title="基因突變">突變</a>(mutation)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-futu-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-futu_63-0">63.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-futu_63-1">63.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Futuyma, D.J. (2005). <i>Evolution</i>. Sinauer Associates.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-64">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">De Duve, Christian (2002). <i>Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-65">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Packard, Alpheus Spring (1901). <i>Lamarck, the founder of Evolution: his life and work with translations of his writings on organic evolution</i>. New York: Longmans, Green.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-67">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Darwin, Charles (1859). <i>On the Origin of Species</i>, John Murray.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-68">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html">The Complete Works of Darwin Online – Biography</a>". <i>darwin-online.org.uk</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-69">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Simpson, George Gaylord (1967). <i>The Meaning of Evolution (Second ed.)</i>. Yale University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-70">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll, Joseph, ed. (2003). <i>On the origin of species by means of natural selection</i>. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9781551113371" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1551113371</a>. As Darwinian scholar Joseph Carroll of the University of Missouri–St. Louis puts it in his introduction to a modern reprint of Darwin's work: "The Origin of Species has special claims on our attention. It is one of the two or three most significant works of all time—one of those works that fundamentally and permanently alter our vision of the world ... It is argued with a singularly rigorous consistency but it is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetorically compelling."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-71">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Montévil, M; Mossio, M; Pocheville, A; Longo, G (October 2016). "Theoretical principles for biology: Variation". Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. <i>From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches</i>. 122 (1): 36–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-72">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="生物分類學">生物分類學</a>(biological taxonomy)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90" title="物種形成">物種形成</a>(speciation)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Neill, Campbell (1996). <i>Biology; Fourth edition</i>. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. p. G-21 (Glossary).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-75">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="生物多樣性">生物多樣性</a>(biodiversity)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-douglas1998-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-douglas1998_76-0">75.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-douglas1998_76-1">75.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-douglas1998_76-2">75.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas, Futuyma (1998). <i>Evolutionary Biology; Third edition</i>. Sinauer Associates. p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-77">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, G. L. (1983). <i>The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats</i>. Sterling Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-78">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Leuschner, D. (1991). A mathematical model for classification and identification. <i>Journal of classification</i>, 8(1), 99-113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-79">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>生命之樹</b>(tree of life)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-80">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Margulis, Lynn; Schwartz, KV (1997). <i>Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth</i> (3rd ed.). WH Freeman & Co.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-woese-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-woese_81-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Woese, CR; Kandler, O; Wheelis, ML (June 1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. 87 (12): 4576–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-82">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%8A%E6%AF%92%E9%AB%94" title="朊毒體">朊毒體</a>(prion)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-83">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rybicki, EP (1990). "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics". <i>S Afr J Sci</i>. 86: 182–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-84">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090813214826/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/Ictv/fs_pospi.htm">Index of Viruses – Pospiviroidae</a> (2006). In: <i>ICTVdB – The Universal Virus Database, version 4</i>. Büchen-Osmond, C (Ed.), Columbia University, New York, USA. Version 4 is based on Virus Taxonomy, Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses, <i>8th ICTV Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</i>. Fauquet, CM; Mayo, MA; Maniloff, J; Desselberger, U; Ball, LA (editors) (2005) Elsevier/Academic Press, pp. 1259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-85">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Prusiner, SB; Baldwin, M; Collinge, J; DeArmond, SJ; Marsh, R; Tateishi, J; Weissmann, C. "<i>90. Prions – ICTVdB Index of Viruses</i>". United States National Institutes of Health.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-86">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayo, MA; Berns, KI; Fritsch, C; Jackson, AO; Leibowitz, MJ; Taylor, JM. "<i>81. Satellites – ICTVdB Index of Viruses</i>". United States National Institutes of Health.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-87">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%8D" title="學名">學名</a>(scientific names)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-88">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeill, J; Barrie, FR; Buck, WR; Demoulin, V; Greuter, W; Hawksworth, DL; et al. (2012). <i>International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress</i>, Melbourne, Australia, July 2011. Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-89">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Silyn-Roberts, Heather (2000). <i>Writing for Science and Engineering: Papers, Presentation</i>. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-90">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E7%A8%AE" title="亞種">亞種</a>(subspecies)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-91">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%89%E5%90%8D%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="三名法 (無呢版)">三名法</a>(trinomial nomenclature)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-92">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">McNeill, John (November 1996). "The BioCode: Integrated biological nomenclature for the 21st century?". <i>Proceedings of a Mini-Symposium on Biological Nomenclature in the 21st Century</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-93">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Draft BioCode (2011)". <i>International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB)</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-94">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawksworth, David L (2011). "Introducing the Draft BioCode (2011)". <i>Taxon</i>. 60: 199–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-95">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Greuter, W; Garrity, G; Hawksworth, DL; Jahn, R; Kirk, PM; Knapp, S; McNeill, J, Michel, E; Patterson, DJ; Pyle, R; Tindall, BJ (2011). "Draft BioCode (2011): Principles and rules regulating the naming of organisms". <i>Taxon</i>. 60: 201–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-branches-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-branches_96-0">95.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-branches_96-1">95.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Branches_of_biology">Branches of Biology</a>". <i>Biology-online.org</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bella-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-bella_97-0">96.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-bella_97-1">96.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art28786.asp">Biology on</a>". <i>Bellaonline.com</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-98">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="分子生物學">分子生物學</a>(molecular biology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-99">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/molecular-biology">Molecular Biology</a>". <i>britannica.com</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-100">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="遺傳學">遺傳學</a>(genetics)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-101">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M., eds. (2000). "Genetics and the Organism: Introduction". <i>An Introduction to Genetic Analysis (7th ed.)</i>. New York: W. H. Freeman.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-102">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hartl, D, Jones, E (2005). <i>Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes</i> (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-103">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="細胞生物學">細胞生物學</a>(cell biology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mogilner, A., Wollman, R., & Marshall, W. F. (2006). Quantitative modeling in cell biology: what is it good for?. <i>Developmental cell</i>, 11(3), 279-287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生理學">生理學</a>(physiology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-106">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, John (2011). <i>Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology</i> (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-107">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA%E5%AD%B8" title="動物行為學">動物行為學</a>(ethology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcnaughton-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mcnaughton_108-0">107.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-mcnaughton_108-1">107.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: fear/anxiety and defensive distance. <i>Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews</i>, 28(3), 285-305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-109">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Saint Albertus Magnus (1999). <i>On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-110">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="進化生物學">進化生物學</a>(evolutionary biology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-111">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jablonski D (June 1999). "The future of the fossil record". <i>Science</i>. 284 (5423): 2114–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-112">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gillespie, John H. (1998). <i>Population Genetics: A Concise Guide</i>. Johns Hopkins Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-113">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="生態學">生態學</a>(ecology)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-114">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Begon, M; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2006). <i>Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems</i>. (4th ed.). Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-116">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2190673">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .references-small,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4,.mw-parser-output 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.hai2zeoi3mei1ge3.zit3 .hai2zeoi3mei1ge3.zi6:after{transform:rotate(90deg)translate(-0.25em,0.5em)}.mw-parser-output .fan1gaak3+.zi6:after{clip-path:inset(0 0 0 0.1em)}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .zoek6zung6 .zi6:after{position:absolute;align-self:baseline;margin-left:-1em}.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4 .zi6:after,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4 .zi6:after{padding-top:1em;content:"﹋"}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4 .zi6:after{content:"︳";transform-origin:bottom left;transform:rotate(90deg)translate(-0.25em,0.35em)}.mw-parser-output .zoek6zung6 .zi6:after{padding-top:0.6em;content:"·";width:1em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .koen1zo2,.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4-b .hoi1-adj,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4-b .hoi1-adj{margin-left:-0.4em}.mw-parser-output .koen1jau6,.mw-parser-output .pin1ming4-b .saan1-adj,.mw-parser-output .syu1ming4-b .saan1-adj{margin-right:-0.4em}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b{white-space:nowrap;border-bottom:0.05em solid currentColor}.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b+link+.zyun1ming4-b,.mw-parser-output .zyun1ming4-b+.zyun1ming4-b{margin-left:0.083em}.mw-parser-output .references-small>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .references-small>ul>li{margin-left:3em;text-indent:-3em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREF魯益師_(C.S._Lewis)1952" class="citation book cs1">魯益師 (C.S. Lewis) (1952)。<span class="syu1ming4-b" aria-label="《返璞歸真》"><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1zo2">《</span>返</span><span class="zit3">璞歸真</span><span class="zit3"><span class="koen1jau6">》</span></span></span>。余也魯翻譯 (2016年海天書樓中譯本版)。</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%BF%94%E7%92%9E%E6%AD%B8%E7%9C%9F&rft.edition=2016%E5%B9%B4%E6%B5%B7%E5%A4%A9%E6%9B%B8%E6%A8%93%E4%B8%AD%E8%AD%AF%E6%9C%AC&rft.date=1952&rft.au=%E9%AD%AF%E7%9B%8A%E5%B8%AB+%28C.S.+Lewis%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh-yue.wikipedia.org%3A%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-117">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E6%81%A9%E5%9F%B9%E5%A4%9A%E5%8D%A1%E5%8B%92" title="恩培多卡勒">恩培多卡勒</a>(Empedocles;<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E6%96%87" title="希臘文">希臘文</a>:Ἐμπεδοκλῆς)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-118">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parry, Richard (4 March 2005). "Empedocles". <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-119">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%AC%A8%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德謨克利特">德謨克利特</a>(Democritus;希臘文:Δημόκριτος)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-120">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Parry, Richard (25 August 2010). "Democritus". <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-121">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>理性靈魂</b>(rational soul)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-122">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle. <i>On the Soul</i>. Book II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-123">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Marietta, Don (1998). <i>Introduction to ancient philosophy</i>. M. E. Sharpe. p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-124">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shettleworth, S.J. (2010). <i>Cognition, Evolution and Behavior</i> (2 ed.). Oxford Press, New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-125">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annas, <i>Classical Greek Philosophy</i>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-126">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, pp 91–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-127">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 80–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-128">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%8B%94%E8%99%8E%E5%85%8B" title="羅拔虎克">羅拔虎克</a>(Robert Hooke)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-129">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%97%E6%96%87%E8%99%8E%E5%85%8B" title="列文虎克">列文虎克</a>(Antoni van Leeuwenhoek)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-130">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Magner, <i>A History of the Life Sciences</i>, pp 133–144。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-131">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E5%A5%88" class="mw-redirect" title="林奈">林奈</a>(Carl Linnaeus)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-132">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, chapter 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-133">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, <i>The Growth of Biological Thought</i>, chapter 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-134">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reznick, David N. (2009), <i>The Origin Then and Now: An Interpretive Guide to the Origin of Species</i>, Princeton University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-135">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thagard, Paul (2012). <i>The Cognitive Science of Science: Explanation, Discovery, and Conceptual Change</i>. MIT Press. pp. 204–05.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-136">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Goldberg, David E.; Holland, John H. (1988). "Genetic algorithms and machine learning". <i>Machine Learning</i>. 3 (2): 95–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-137">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bowles, S. (2006). Group competition, reproductive leveling, and the evolution of human altruism. <i>Science</i>, 314(5805), 1569-1572.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="拎"><span id=".E6.8B.8E"></span>拎</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=24" title="編輯小節: 拎"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2018312">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2018311">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 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font-size: 0.8em; position: relative; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="連到英文網頁">(英文)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html">生命之樹</a></li></ul> <p>生物學<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E6%9C%9F%E5%88%8A" title="學術期刊">期刊</a>: </p> <ul><li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color: var(--color-subtle, #555); font-size: 0.8em; position: relative; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="連到英文網頁">(英文)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&issn=1545-7885">PLos Biology</a>(<b>PLos 生物學</b>)</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color: var(--color-subtle, #555); font-size: 0.8em; position: relative; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="連到英文網頁">(英文)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/">Current Biology</a>(<b>現時嘅生物學</b>)</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color: var(--color-subtle, #555); font-size: 0.8em; position: relative; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="連到英文網頁">(英文)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolsci.org/">International Journal of Biological Sciences</a>(<b>生物科學期刊</b>)</li> <li><span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color: var(--color-subtle, #555); font-size: 0.8em; position: relative; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="連到英文網頁">(英文)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html">Perspectives in Biology and Medicine</a>(<b>生物學與醫學嘅觀點</b>)</li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="生物學" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#90EE90"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="Template:生物學"><abbr title="去睇呢個模" style="background:#90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">睇</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:生物學 (無呢版)"><abbr title="傾呢個模" style="background:#90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">傾</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8&action=edit"><abbr title="編輯呢個模" style="background:#90EE90;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">改</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="生物學" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">生物學</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#90EE90"><div id="研究「生命」依種特性嘅科學,而專做依啲研究嘅人就係生物學家">研究「<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="生命">生命</a>」依種特性嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學">科學</a>,而專做依啲研究嘅人就係<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="生物學家">生物學家</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">基礎概念</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="生物學哲學">生物學哲學</a>)同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="科學方法">科學方法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="理論生物學">生物學理論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗生物學">生物學實驗</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BB%E9%AB%94%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="活體實驗">In vivo</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%A6%E7%AE%A1%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="試管實驗">In vitro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="數理生物學">數理生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E7%AE%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="運算生物學">運算生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AD%B8" title="生物統計學">生物統計學</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg/150px-Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg/225px-Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg/300px-Twemoji12_1f9ec.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="生命">生命</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">重要特徵</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%94%E5%86%85%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1" title="體内平衡">體内平衡</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%99%B3%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="新陳代謝">新陳代謝</a></li> <li>識得<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="生物發育">發育</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" class="mw-redirect" title="繁殖">繁殖</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%80%A7%E7%B9%81%E6%AE%96" title="有性繁殖">有性繁殖</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%A9%E6%87%89" title="適應">適應</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="結構">結構</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%A0%E7%86%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="負熵">負熵</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%A6%88%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="真覈細胞">真覈細胞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%9B%E6%95%B8%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="減數分裂">減數</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E7%B5%B2%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82" title="有絲分裂">有絲</a>分裂</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="單細胞生物">單細胞</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="多細胞生物">多細胞</a>生物</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%9F%B9%E9%A4%8A" title="細胞培養">細胞培養</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="細胞理論">細胞理論</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BC%E5%90%B8%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="呼吸作用">呼吸作用</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHNOPS" title="CHNOPS">CHNOPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%94%9F%E6%BA%90%E8%AB%96" title="無生源論">無生源論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E6%98%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="外星生物">外星生物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="碳生命">碳生命</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%BB" title="死">死亡</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生命系統">生命系統</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD" title="人工生命">人工生命</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%84%E5%8E%9F%E8%AB%96" title="還原論">還原論</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%B5%E7%99%BC" title="創發">創發</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">重要學說</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="遺傳學">遺傳學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_%E6%B8%AC%E5%BA%8F" title="DNA 測序">DNA 測序</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3" title="遺傳">遺傳</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%B9%BC%E5%9F%BA%E5%B0%8D" title="鹼基對">鹼基對</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" title="基因">基因</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E4%BD%8D%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="等位基因">等位基因</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="染色體">染色體</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組">基因組</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7" title="性">性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="基因多樣性">基因多樣性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E8%A7%80%E9%81%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%AD%B8" title="表觀遺傳學">表觀遺傳學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="進化">進化論</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%AB%B6%E5%A4%A9%E6%93%87" title="物競天擇">物競天擇</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%AA%81%E8%AE%8A" title="基因突變">基因突變</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%B5%81%E5%8B%95" title="基因流動">基因流動</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%BC%82%E8%AE%8A" title="基因漂變">基因漂變</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="物種概念">物種概念</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A8%AE%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90" title="物種形成">物種形成</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96%E5%98%85%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A" title="進化論嘅證據">進化論嘅證據</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E7%B5%82%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E7%A5%96%E5%85%88" title="最終共同祖先">LUCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="進化生物學">進化生物學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="生態學">生態學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統">生態系統</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="生物質">生物質</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%BE%A4%E7%B3%BB" title="生物群系">生物群系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%B2%E6%81%AF%E5%9C%B0" title="棲息地">棲息地</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E4%BD%8D" title="生態位">生態位</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E9%96%93%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="種間關係">種間關係</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B5" title="熵">熵</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="生物地球化學循環">生物地球化學循環</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="生態保育">生態保育</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="生物化學">生物化學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="有機化合物">有機化合物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A8%E5%9F%BA%E9%85%B8" title="氨基酸">氨基酸</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4" title="水">水</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%86%A3" title="醣">碳水化合物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%84%82" title="脂">脂</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B3%AA" title="蛋白質">蛋白質</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E9%85%B8" title="核酸">核酸</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%99%B3%E4%BB%A3%E8%AC%9D" title="新陳代謝">新陳代謝</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%85%B5%E7%B4%A0" title="酵素">酵素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%96%AE%E9%AB%94" title="單體">單體</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%9A%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="聚合物">聚合物</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用">光合作用</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%87%9F%E9%A4%8A%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="營養作用">營養作用</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E5%B1%A4" title="生物分層">生物分層</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%88" title="生物圈">生物圈</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="生態系統">生態系統</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="生物群落">生物群落</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E7%BE%A4" title="種群">種群</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E5%99%A8%E5%AE%98" title="器官">器官</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="生物組織">組織</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E" title="細胞">細胞</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%83%9E%E5%99%A8" title="細胞胞器">胞器</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a> >  <a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">生物<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%8C" title="界">大</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%9F" title="域">類</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="生物分類學">生物分類學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92" title="病毒">病毒</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%8F%8C" title="古菌">古菌</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C" title="細菌">細菌</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="真核生物">真核生物</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="原生生物">原生生物</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌">真菌</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9" title="植物">植物</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="動物">動物</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%9A%E6%A8%A3%E6%80%A7" title="生物多樣性">生物多樣性</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">拉雜領域</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="古生物學">古生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="保育生物學">保育生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="微生物學">微生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="病理學">病理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E8%A1%8C%E7%97%85%E5%AD%B8" title="流行病學">流行病學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="海洋生物學">海洋生物學</a></li> <li>微層面(<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="分子生物學">分子生物學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="細胞生物學">細胞生物學</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">組織層面</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="解剖學">解剖學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生理學">生理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="免疫學">免疫學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="神經科學">神經科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="發育生物學">發育生物學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96%E7%99%BC%E8%82%B2%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="進化發育生物學">進化發育生物學</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">按物種分</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="真菌學">真菌學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="植物學">植物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="動物學">動物學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA%E5%AD%B8" title="動物行為學">動物行為學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%98%86%E8%9F%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="昆蟲學">昆蟲學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%88%AC%E8%9F%B2%E5%85%A9%E6%A3%B2%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="爬蟲兩棲類學">爬蟲兩棲類學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E9%B3%A5%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="鳥類學">鳥類學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%BA%E4%B9%B3%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="哺乳類學">哺乳類學</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C%E5%AD%B8" title="細菌學">細菌學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%97%85%E6%AF%92%E5%AD%B8" title="病毒學">病毒學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">跨領域</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物物理學">生物物理學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="生物力學">生物力學</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="化學生物學">化學生物學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="量子生物學">量子生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="天體生物學">天體生物學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="生物地理學">生物地理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%92%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="毒理學">毒理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="生物資訊科學">生物資訊科學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">睇埋</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="生物學史">生物學史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="生物工程">生物工程</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="生物科技">生物科技</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E9%85%B5" title="發酵">發酵</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="生物電腦">生物電腦</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="社會科學">社會科學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學">心理學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="人類學">人類學</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="複雜系統">複雜系統</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83" title="地球">地球</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99" title="氣候">氣候</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E8%AE%8A%E5%8C%96" title="氣候變化">氣候變化</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#90EE90"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="Category" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%84%E9%A0%98%E5%9F%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:科學各領域 (無呢版)"><abbr title="傾呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">傾</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%90%84%E9%A0%98%E5%9F%9F&action=edit"><abbr title="編輯呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">改</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="科學嘅各領域" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學">科學</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF" title="科學分支">各領域</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="科學哲學_·_科學家_·_科學教育_·_科學文獻_·_科學史"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="科學哲學">科學哲學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="科學家">科學家</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="科學教育">科學教育</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%96%87%E7%8D%BB" title="科學文獻">科學文獻</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="科學史">科學史</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="形式科學">形式科學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="邏輯">邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="數學">數學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%87%89%E7%94%A8%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="應用數學">應用數學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AD%B8" title="統計學">統計學</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="理論電腦科學">理論電腦科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="系統科學">系統科學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%94%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="純科學">純科學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="自然科學">自然科學</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="物理科學">物理科學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學">物理學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學">化學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="地球科學">地球科學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="天文學">天文學</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="生命科學">生命科學</a>(<a class="mw-selflink selflink">生物學</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="認知科學">認知科學</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="語言學">語言學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="人類學">人類學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="神經科學">神經科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="心理學">心理學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0em;padding-right:0em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="社會科學">社會科學</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="地理學">地理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%83%E5%8F%A4%E5%AD%B8" title="考古學">考古學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E5%AD%B8" title="社會學">社會學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="經濟學">經濟學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="資訊科學">資訊科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%B8" title="政治學">政治學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%87%89%E7%94%A8%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="應用科學">應用科學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%88%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%B8" title="計量學">計量學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="農學">農學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E6%A5%AD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="農業科學">農業科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="工程學">工程學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學">醫學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="運動科學">運動科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AD%89%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="法證科學">法證科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="電腦科學">電腦科學</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD" title="人工智能">AI</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">拉雜相關</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E5%AF%86%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="精密科學">精密科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%AC%E5%90%8C%E8%BB%9F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="硬同軟科學">硬同軟科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%A8%E5%AD%B8%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="跨學科研究">跨學科</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="假科學">假科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80" title="科技">科技</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%B9%BB" title="科幻">科幻</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E8%AB%96" title="科學論">科學論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="開放科學">開放科學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>睇埋</b><br /> <a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="知識論">知識論</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%B6%93%E9%A9%97%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="經驗主義">經驗主義</a>)<span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%95%86%E5%AD%B8" title="商學">商學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8" title="人文學">人文學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93" title="學術">學術</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88" title="學術出版">學術出版</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="權威控制" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="權威控制" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%A8%81%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="權威控制">權威控制</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" class="extiw" title="en:Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85014203">sh85014203</a></span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" class="extiw" title="en:Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4006851-1">4006851-1</a></span></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119440835">cb119440835</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119440835">資料</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" class="extiw" title="en:Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">HDS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F008256.php">008256</a></span></li> <li><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E7%AB%8B%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A%E5%9B%B3%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8" class="extiw" title="ja:国立国会図書館">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570263">00570263</a></span></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="extiw" title="en:National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114166&CON_LNG=ENG">ph114166</a></span></li> <li><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX524700">XX524700</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐5dc468848‐hxmhw Cached time: 20241124055451 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.770 seconds Real time usage: 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