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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Exploring caspase functions in mouse models | Apoptosis</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Exploring caspase functions in mouse models"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Apoptosis - Caspases are enzymes with protease activity. Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating information. Initially..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figa_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="10495"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Exploring caspase functions in mouse models"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Apoptosis 2024 29:7"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-06-02"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Caspases are enzymes with protease activity. Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating information. Initially associated with cell death and inflammation, their functions have gradually been revealed to extend beyond, targeting pathways such as cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These processes are also associated with disease mechanisms, positioning caspases as potential targets for numerous pathologies including inflammatory, neurological, metabolic, or oncological conditions. While in vitro studies play a crucial role in elucidating molecular pathways, they lack the context of the body’s complexity. Therefore, laboratory animals are an indispensable part of successfully understanding and applying caspase networks. This paper aims to summarize and discuss recent knowledge, understanding, and challenges in caspase knock-out mice."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1573-675X"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Apoptosis"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-06-02"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="29"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="7"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="938"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="966"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Apoptosis"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Apoptosis"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer US"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1573-675X"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Exploring caspase functions in mouse models"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="29"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="7"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/08"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/06/02"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="938"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="966"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Review"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="size" content="788188"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Caspases are enzymes with protease activity. Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Svandova, Eva"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Vesela, Barbora"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Janeckova, Eva"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Chai, Yang"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Matalova, Eva"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Cancer Research"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Cell Biology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Oncology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Biochemistry, general"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Virology"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Cell Death Differ; citation_title=Caspases and their substrates; citation_author=O Julien, JA Wells; citation_volume=24; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=1380-1389; citation_doi=10.1038/cdd.2017.44; citation_id=CR1"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Mol Neurobiol; citation_title=A review on caspases: key regulators of Biological activities and apoptosis; 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PLoS One 10. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0131411 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Clin Exp Metastasis 2000; citation_title=Fibronectin activates matrix metalloproteinase-9 secretion via the MEK1-MAPK and the PI3K-Akt pathways in ovarian cancer cells; citation_author=AA Thant, A Nawa, F Kikkawa; citation_volume=185 18; citation_publication_date=2000; citation_pages=423-428; citation_doi=10.1023/A:1010921730952; citation_id=CR298"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Mol Histol; citation_title=Non-apoptotic role for caspase-7 in hair follicles and the surrounding tissue; citation_author=B Vesela, E Svandova, T Vanden Berghe; citation_volume=46; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=443-55; citation_doi=10.1007/s10735-015-9636-1; citation_id=CR299"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Svandova, Eva"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="evabsvandova@gmail.com"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Vesela, Barbora"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Janeckova, Eva"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Chai, Yang"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Matalova, Eva"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Physiology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2024/08/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Exploring caspase functions in mouse models - Apoptosis"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Caspases are enzymes with protease activity. Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating information. Initially associated with cell death and inflammation, their functions have gradually been revealed to extend beyond, targeting pathways such as cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These processes are also associated with disease mechanisms, positioning caspases as potential targets for numerous pathologies including inflammatory, neurological, metabolic, or oncological conditions. While in vitro studies play a crucial role in elucidating molecular pathways, they lack the context of the body’s complexity. Therefore, laboratory animals are an indispensable part of successfully understanding and applying caspase networks. 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Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating information. Initially associated with cell death and inflammation, their functions have gradually been revealed to extend beyond, targeting pathways such as cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These processes are also associated with disease mechanisms, positioning caspases as potential targets for numerous pathologies including inflammatory, neurological, metabolic, or oncological conditions. While in vitro studies play a crucial role in elucidating molecular pathways, they lack the context of the body’s complexity. Therefore, laboratory animals are an indispensable part of successfully understanding and applying caspase networks. 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Svandova","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic","address":{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"evabsvandova@gmail.com","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Barbora Vesela","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic","address":{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Eva Janeckova","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Southern California","address":{"name":"Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Yang Chai","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Southern California","address":{"name":"Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Eva Matalova","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic","address":{"name":"Laboratory of Odontogenesis and Osteogenesis, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetic, Brno, Czech Republic","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"},{"name":"University of Veterinary Sciences","address":{"name":"Department of Physiology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":true,"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="" >  <noscript> <iframe 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data-test="journal-volume">Volume 29</span>, pages 938–966, (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2024</span>) </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item c-article-identifiers__item--cite"> <a href="#citeas" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </li> </ul> <div class="app-article-masthead__buttons" data-test="download-article-link-wrapper" data-track-context="masthead"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span 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data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Eva-Svandova-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Eva-Svandova-Aff1" data-author-search="Svandova, Eva" data-corresp-id="c1">Eva Svandova<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Barbora-Vesela-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Barbora-Vesela-Aff1" data-author-search="Vesela, Barbora">Barbora Vesela</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Eva-Janeckova-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Eva-Janeckova-Aff2" data-author-search="Janeckova, Eva">Eva Janeckova</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Yang-Chai-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Yang-Chai-Aff2" data-author-search="Chai, Yang">Yang Chai</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 5 authors for this article" title="Show all 5 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Eva-Matalova-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Eva-Matalova-Aff1-Aff3" data-author-search="Matalova, Eva">Eva Matalova</a><sup 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data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Caspases are enzymes with protease activity. Despite being known for more than three decades, caspase investigation still yields surprising and fascinating information. Initially associated with cell death and inflammation, their functions have gradually been revealed to extend beyond, targeting pathways such as cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These processes are also associated with disease mechanisms, positioning caspases as potential targets for numerous pathologies including inflammatory, neurological, metabolic, or oncological conditions. While in vitro studies play a crucial role in elucidating molecular pathways, they lack the context of the body’s complexity. Therefore, laboratory animals are an indispensable part of successfully understanding and applying caspase networks. This paper aims to summarize and discuss recent knowledge, understanding, and challenges in caspase knock-out mice.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41419-021-04240-3/MediaObjects/41419_2021_4240_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1038/s41419-021-04240-3?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1038/s41419-021-04240-3">A long way to go: caspase inhibitors in clinical use </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">15 October 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-981-10-6141-7?as=webp" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-10-6141-7_18?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/978-981-10-6141-7_18">Caspases: Regulatory Mechanisms and Their Implications in Pathogenesis and Therapeutics </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Chapter</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">© 2017</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs12035-023-03433-5/MediaObjects/12035_2023_3433_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12035-023-03433-5?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s12035-023-03433-5">A Review on Caspases: Key Regulators of Biological Activities and Apoptosis </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">22 June 2023</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732674612, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=10495" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Caspases, also known as <b>c</b>ysteine-dependent <b>asp</b>artate-specific prote<b>ases</b> (alternatively cysteine-aspartic proteases or cysteine aspartic acid proteases), are enzymes that utilize the sulfur atom in cysteine to catalyze cleavage reaction. Together with the serine protease granzyme B, caspases display specificity for Asp in the P1 position of the caspase recognition motif when processing their substrates [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Julien O, Wells JA (2017) Caspases and their substrates. Cell Death Differ 24:1380–1389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2017.44
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e951">1</a>]. The caspase family is highly evolutionary conserved, underscoring its importance across various organisms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sahoo G, Samal D, Khandayataray P, Murthy MK (2023) A review on caspases: key regulators of biological activities and apoptosis. Mol Neurobiol 60:5805–5837. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/S12035-023-03433-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e954">2</a>]. Research on caspases began with the identification of protease activity that generates mature interleukin (IL)-1β from its precursor in extracts of human monocytes, where it plays a crucial role in regulating inflammatory responses [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Kostura MJ, Tocci MJ, Limjuco G, et al (1989) Identification of a monocyte specific pre-interleukin 1 beta convertase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:5227–5231. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.86.14.5227
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e958">3</a>]. Few years later, unusual cleavage at Asp-X bonds of the interleukin-1<i>β</i>-converting enzyme (ICE), also known as caspase-1, was identified [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Howard AD, Kostura MJ, Thornberry N, et al (1991) IL-1-converting enzyme requires aspartic acid residues for processing of the IL-1 beta precursor at two distinct sites and does not cleave 31-kDa IL-1 alpha. J Immunol 147:2964–2969. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.147.9.2964
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e964">4</a>] and specified in 1992 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Thornberry NA, Bull HG, Calaycay JR, et al (1992) A novel heterodimeric cysteine protease is required for interleukin-1 beta processing in monocytes. Nature 356:768–774. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/356768A0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e967">5</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Cerretti DP, Kozlosky CJ, Mosley B, et al (1992) Molecular cloning of the interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 256:97–100. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1373520
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e970">6</a>]. In 1993, the <i>C. elegans</i> Cell death protein-3 (CED-3) and mammalian ICE similarity was revealed and associated with programmed cell death - apoptosis. Along with caspase-1, caspase-2 was one of the first discovered mammalian homologues of CED-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Kumar S, Kinoshita M, Noda M, et al (1994) Induction of apoptosis by the mouse Nedd2 gene, which encodes a protein similar to the product of the caenorhabditis elegans cell death gene ced-3 and the mammalian IL-1 beta-converting enzyme. Genes Dev 8:1613–1626. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.8.14.1613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e977">7</a>]. By 1998, crucial protein components that participate in apoptosis were defined in humans and laboratory mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Alnemri ES, Livingston DJ, Nicholson DW, et al (1996) Human ICE/CED-3 protease nomenclature. Cell 87:171. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81334-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e980">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Gross A, McDonnell JM, Korsmeyer SJ (1999) BCL-2 family members and the mitochondria in apoptosis. Genes Dev 13:1899–1911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.13.15.1899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e983">9</a>]. Further research brought discovery of members of caspase family in vertebrates standing behind apoptosis or inflammation, function of which remains mostly unexplained, this applies for caspase-15-18 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Eckhart L, Ballaun C, Hermann M, et al (2008) Identification of novel mammalian caspases reveals an important role of gene loss in shaping the human caspase repertoire. Mol Biol Evol 25:831–841. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/MOLBEV/MSN012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e986">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Eckhart L, Ballaun C, Uthman A, et al (2005) Identification and characterization of a novel mammalian caspase with proapoptotic activity. J Biol Chem 280:35077–35080. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.C500282200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e989">11</a>].</p><p>The presence of specific caspases varies among species (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab1">1</a>). This variability is evident when comparing the mouse model to the humans. For instance, mouse caspase-11 is considered an orthologue of human caspase-4 and caspase-5, sharing 68% and 47% of amino acid sequences, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Agnew A, Nulty C, Creagh EM (2021) Regulation, activation and function of Caspase-11 during health and disease. Int J Mol Sci 22:1–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22041506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e998">12</a>]. Mice express full length of caspase-12 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Fischer H, Koenig U, Eckhart L, Tschachler E (2002) Human caspase 12 has acquired deleterious mutations. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 293:722–726. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-291X(02)00289-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1001">13</a>], while primarily a truncated form is present in humans [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Saleh M, Vaillancourt JP, Graham RK, et al (2004) Differential modulation of endotoxin responsiveness by human caspase-12 polymorphisms. Nature 429:75–79. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE02451
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1004">14</a>]. Conversely, mice lack caspase-5 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Dawar S, Kumar S (2015) Old, new and emerging functions of caspases. Cell Death Differ 22:526–539. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2014.216
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1007">15</a>] and -10 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Wilson C, et al (2012) Impaired antioxidant defence and accumulation of oxidative stress in caspase-2-deficient mice. Cell Death Differ 19:1370–1380. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2012.13
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1011">16</a>] compared to humans. Notably, despite these differences, the cascade of molecular caspase pathways is conserved across eukaryotes (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Fig1">1</a>).</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Comparison of caspases in different species with focus on classical caspase categorisation. In category „others“ the caspase either does not fit groups above or have not yet been specified. * differentiation of keratinocytes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Lippens S, Kockx M, Knaapen M, et al (2000) Epidermal differentiation does not involve the pro-apoptotic executioner caspases, but is associated with caspase-14 induction and processing. Cell Death Differ 7:1218–24. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400785
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1029">259</a>], **regulates non-canonical pathway of apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 291" title="Denning DP, Hatch V, Horvitz HR (2013) Both the Caspase CSP-1 and a caspase-independent pathway promote programmed cell death in parallel to the canonical pathway for apoptosis in caenorhabditis elegans. PLoS Genet 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PGEN.1003341
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR291" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1032">291</a>], *** blocks CED-3 and apoptosis in germ cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 292" title="Geng X, Zhou QH, Kage-Nakadai E, et al (2009) Caenorhabditis elegans caspase homolog CSP-2 inhibits CED-3 autoactivation and apoptosis in germ cells. Cell Death Differ 16:1385–1394. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2009.88
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR292" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1035">292</a>], **** blocks CED-3 and apoptosis in somatic cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 292" title="Geng X, Zhou QH, Kage-Nakadai E, et al (2009) Caenorhabditis elegans caspase homolog CSP-2 inhibits CED-3 autoactivation and apoptosis in germ cells. Cell Death Differ 16:1385–1394. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2009.88
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR292" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1038">292</a>]</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figa_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figa_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="448"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Conserved caspase signalling cascades in eukaryotic organisms. In <i>C. elegans</i>, the antagonist EGL-1 inhibits CED-9, leading to the release of CED-4 from the CED-9–CED-4 complex. This liberation promotes the activation of CED-3. In <i>Drosophila</i>, the inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) Reaper, Hid, and Grim facilitate the degradation of DIAP1, thereby freeing Drice and Dcp-1. This process also involves the interaction of Dronc with Ark and the formation of the apoptosome, which activates executioner caspases. The activation of the apoptosome might be regulated by proteins such as Buffy. In mammals, Bcl-2 and BH3-only proteins regulate BAX- and BAK-dependent release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria. Cytochrome-c then binds to APAF1 to form the apoptosome. In parallel, IAP antagonists, including DIABLO, HTRA2 and ARTS, translocate from the mitochondria and release caspases from their negative regulation by IAPs. Caspase-9 is subsequently liberated from XIAP and activated by the apoptosome, triggering executioner caspases-3 and − 7. Green: caspase-9 like, yellow: Apaf-1 like, blue: executor caspases, dark grey: Bcl-2 like, light grey: apoptotic inhibitors, pink: BH3-only like, purple: IAP binding. Figure based on Bell and Megeney [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 284" title="Bell RAV, Megeney LA (2017) Evolution of caspase-mediated cell death and differentiation: twins separated at birth. Cell Death Differ 24:1359–1368. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2017.37
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR284" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1336">284</a>], Fuchs and Steller [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 285" title="Fuchs Y, Steller H (2015) Live to die another way: modes of programmed cell death and the signals emanating from dying cells. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 16:329–344. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm3999
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR285" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1339">285</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Caspase research was developed with help of various laboratory techniques as summarised in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Fig2">2</a>. Different organisms (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab1">1</a>) were used to investigate caspases and their downstream pathways, particularly, biological activities, potential redundancies, interactions, or impact/s of their deficiency. The mouse is the most relevant in vivo model to search for potential applications in several caspase-related human diseases such as autoimmune, inflammatory, cancer, metabolic, and neurodegenerative pathologies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Van Opdenbosch N, Lamkanfi M (2019) Caspases in cell death, inflammation, and disease. Immunity 50:1352–1364. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IMMUNI.2019.05.020
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1360">17</a>].</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figb_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figb_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="767"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Overview of caspase modulation, analysis, and functions. Downstream caspase pathways may be studied with the help of the caspase downregulation at several levels, including inhibition of caspase gene expression by siRNA and inhibition of caspase activity by inhibitors in vitro. Alternatively, recombinant caspases may be used for specification of caspase functions. In vivo investigation relies on deficient mice with null or targeted caspase deletion. Analysis of caspases includes quantification of caspase expression by PCR-based techniques and activity assessment (e.g., western blot, bioluminescence, bioimaging) applied in vitro and in vivo. Detection of caspases by specific antibodies in situ provides information about caspase importance in individual cell types. With the help of these approaches, caspases have been associated with multiple functions such as programmed apoptotic cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 286" title="Kumar S (2007) Caspase function in programmed cell death. Cell Death Differ 14:32–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4402060
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR286" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1375">286</a>], programmed non-apoptotic cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 287" title="Tian F, Fu X, Gao J, et al (2014) Glutaric acid-mediated apoptosis in primary striatal neurons. Biomed Res Int 2014:484731. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/484731
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR287" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1378">287</a>], inflammation and immune system [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 288" title="Jiménez Fernández D, Lamkanfi M (2015) Inflammatory caspases: key regulators of inflammation and cell death. Biol Chem 396:193–203. 
 https://doi.org/10.1515/hsz-2014-0253
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR288" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1381">288</a>], differentiation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Wilson C, et al (2012) Impaired antioxidant defence and accumulation of oxidative stress in caspase-2-deficient mice. Cell Death Differ 19:1370–1380. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2012.13
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1384">16</a>], proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 289" title="Fogarty CE, Bergmann A (2017) Killers creating new life: caspases drive apoptosis-induced proliferation in tissue repair and disease. Cell Death Differ 24:1390–1400. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2017.47
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR289" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1387">289</a>], regulation of stem cells maintenance [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Fujita J, Crane AM, Souza MK, et al (2008) Caspase activity mediates the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2:595–601. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.04.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1391">43</a>], non-apoptotic regulation of malignancies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 290" title="Olsson M, Zhivotovsky B (2011) Caspases and cancer. Cell Death Differ 18:1441–1449. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2011.30
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR290" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1394">290</a>], modification of ECM [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Cowan KN, Leung WCY, Mar C, et al (2005) Caspases from apoptotic myocytes degrade extracellular matrix: a novel remodeling paradigm. FASEB J 19:1848–1850. 
 https://doi.org/10.1096/FJ.05-3706FJE
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1397">181</a>], migration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Mashima T, Naito M, Noguchi K, et al (1997) Actin cleavage by CPP-32/apopain during the development of apoptosis. Oncogene 14:1007–1012. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.ONC.1200919
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1400">28</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Caspase structure and classification"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Caspase structure and classification</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Despite being known for dozens years, there is no clear order in caspase classification. Respectively, the recent classifications are rather artificial, and does not reflect all characteristic of individual caspases. We can also speculate that each caspase has both broad (redundant) and specific (non-redundant) functions. Therefore, any categorisation would inevitably be somewhat inaccurate. When evaluating lethal vs. non-lethal caspases (as shown in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Fig3">3</a>), caspase-2, -3, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10 are conventionally associated with apoptosis. Further, there is a group of inflammatory caspases with caspase-1, -4, -5, -11, -12. The mammalian caspases with unknown lethal function are caspase-14 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Dawar S, Kumar S (2015) Old, new and emerging functions of caspases. Cell Death Differ 22:526–539. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2014.216
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1422">15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Sakamaki K, Satou Y (2009) Caspases: evolutionary aspects of their functions in vertebrates. J Fish Biol 74:727–753. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1095-8649.2009.02184.X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1425">18</a>] and caspase-16 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Eckhart L, Ballaun C, Hermann M, et al (2008) Identification of novel mammalian caspases reveals an important role of gene loss in shaping the human caspase repertoire. Mol Biol Evol 25:831–841. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/MOLBEV/MSN012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1428">10</a>].</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figc_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figc_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="550"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Classification of caspases. Blue/Grey: long pro-domain containing CARD/DED, pink: long domain L, green: short domain S. The asterisk is used to highlight human/mouse caspase orthologue caspase-4, caspase-5/caspase-11. C12L and C12S stands for full-length and truncated versions, respectively</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Pro-apoptotic caspases were further subdivided based on their molecular structure and the relation to the apoptotic machinery. Caspases are mostly expressed as inactive monomers consisting of a pro-domain (long or short), large, and small subunits. The long pro-domain is typical for initiator caspases. It may contain two death effector domains (DED), as seen in caspase-8 and -10. Alternatively, it can have a caspase-activation recruitment domain (CARD), found in caspase-2 and -9. These domains promote dimerization, followed by autoactivation in multiprotein complexes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Lamkanfi M, Declercq W, Kalai M, et al (2002) Alice in caspase land. A phylogenetic analysis of caspases from worm to man. Cell Death Differ 9:358–361. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400989
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1453">19</a>]. In contrast, executioner caspases lacking the long pro-domain require cleavage by initiator caspases to reach the activated state [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Ramirez MLG, Salvesen GS (2018) A primer on caspase mechanisms. Semin Cell Dev Biol 82:79–85. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.01.002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1456">20</a>].</p><p>Regarding recent observations on caspase functions, some authors have proposed slight modification(s) to the original classification. In the new system, three caspases stand alone: caspase-2 as a caspase involved in cell cycle, caspase-14 as a caspase involved in cell differentiation, and caspase-12 as caspase with undefined functions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Van Opdenbosch N, Lamkanfi M (2019) Caspases in cell death, inflammation, and disease. Immunity 50:1352–1364. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IMMUNI.2019.05.020
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1462">17</a>].</p><p>The caspase family can also be subdivided according to amino acids making up the motif (P4, 3, 2, 1) upstream of the cleavage site P1 (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab2">2</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Talanian R V., Quinlan C, Trautz S, et al (1997) Substrate specificities of caspase family proteases. J Biol Chem 272:9677–9682. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.272.15.9677
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1472">21</a>]. Several groups, using different methods, have demonstrated a problem of overlapping substrate specificity among caspases [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Poreba M, Strozyk A, Salvesen GS, Drag M (2013) Caspase substrates and inhibitors. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 5:a008680–a008680. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a008680
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1475">22</a>]. In the cleavage motif, there are positions where variations are tolerated compared to positions with high selectivity (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab2">2</a>). It is important to note that some caspases can cleave certain substrates better than others, sometimes unexpectly based on original analyses [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="McStay GP, Salvesen GS, Green DR (2007) Overlapping cleavage motif selectivity of caspases: implications for analysis of apoptotic pathways. Cell Death Differ 2008 152 15:322–331. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4402260
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1481">23</a>].</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Caspase cleavage motives - based on human caspase research according to Talanian et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Talanian R V., Quinlan C, Trautz S, et al (1997) Substrate specificities of caspase family proteases. J Biol Chem 272:9677–9682. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.272.15.9677
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1496">21</a>]. Caspases exhibit selectivity for Asp (D) in the P<sub>1</sub> position, toleration of wide range of amino acids in the P2, a preference for Glu (E) in P<sub>3</sub>, and a lack of tolerance for charged residues at P<sub>1</sub>′ (<i>φ</i> symbol stands for preferred Gly, Ala, Thr, Ser and Asn). Most significant differences in caspase specificities are at the P4 positions. <b>↓</b> stands for the cleavage site. * Caspase-6 was recently identified to recognise and prefer pentapeptide motif [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 295" title="Groborz KM, Kalinka M, Grzymska J, et al (2023) Selective chemical reagents to investigate the role of caspase 6 in apoptosis in acute leukemia T cells. Chem Sci 14:2289–2302. 
 https://doi.org/10.1039/D2SC05827H
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR295" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1512">295</a>]. These groups of caspase roughly reflect groups of initiators, executors, and inflammatory caspases</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Caspase functions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3">Caspase functions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><p>Caspases have been first recognised as enzymes crucial for apoptotic cell death and inflammation. However, following studies pointed to their functions beyond lethal activities [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Dawar S, Kumar S (2015) Old, new and emerging functions of caspases. Cell Death Differ 22:526–539. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2014.216
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1782">15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lamkanfi M, Festjens N, Declercq W, et al (2007) Caspases in cell survival, proliferation and differentiation. Cell Death Differ 14:44–55. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4402047
 
 " href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1785">24</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Connolly PF, Jäger R, Fearnhead HO (2014) New roles for old enzymes: killer caspases as the engine of cell behavior changes. Front Physiol 5:149. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00149
 
 " href="#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1785_1">25</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Shoshan-Barmatz V, Arif T, Shteinfer-Kuzmine A (2023) Apoptotic proteins with non-apoptotic activity: expression and function in cancer. Apoptosis 28:730–753. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/S10495-023-01835-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1788">26</a>]. These events include both “non-autonomous” and “autonomous” mechanisms. The former refers to mechanisms that mediate, for example, the compensatory proliferation of cells adjacent to those undergoing apoptosis, while the latter refers to intrinsically mediated activities of caspases that do not result in cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Eskandari E, Eaves CJ (2022) Paradoxical roles of caspase-3 in regulating cell survival, proliferation, and tumorigenesis. J Cell Biol 221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.202201159
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1791">27</a>]. Particularly, caspases were associated with proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Connolly PF, Jäger R, Fearnhead HO (2014) New roles for old enzymes: killer caspases as the engine of cell behavior changes. Front Physiol 5:149. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00149
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1794">25</a>], migration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Mashima T, Naito M, Noguchi K, et al (1997) Actin cleavage by CPP-32/apopain during the development of apoptosis. Oncogene 14:1007–1012. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.ONC.1200919
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1798">28</a>], differentiation of various cell types [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, et al (2002) Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:11025–11030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.162172899
 
 " href="#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1801">29</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1801_1">30</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Matalova E, Lesot H, Svandova E, et al (2013) Caspase-7 participates in differentiation of cells forming dental hard tissues. Dev Growth Differ 55:615–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dgd.12066
 
 " href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1801_2">31</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Tisch N, Freire-Valls A, Yerbes R, et al (2019) Caspase-8 modulates physiological and pathological angiogenesis during retina development. J Clin Invest 129:5092–5107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI122767
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1804">32</a>], or even inhibition of cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Fritsch M, Günther SD, Schwarzer R, et al (2019) Caspase-8 is the molecular switch for apoptosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis. Nature 575:683–687. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41586-019-1770-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1807">33</a>]. Their substrates include proteins associated to various cellular functions not only the lethal ones but also substrates related to cell adhesion, cytoskeleton, physiology of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus, cell cycle, DNA synthesis and repair, etc. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Fischer U, Jänicke RU, Schulze-Osthoff K (2003) Many cuts to ruin: a comprehensive update of caspase substrates. Cell Death Differ 10:76–100. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4401160
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1810">34</a>]. The cleavage hit mediated by caspases may result in both activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Enari M, Sakahira H, Yokoyama H, et al (1998) A caspase-activated DNase that degrades DNA during apoptosis, and its inhibitor ICAD. Nature 391:43–50. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/34112
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1813">35</a>] or inactivation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Van Raam BJ, Ehrnhoefer DE, Hayden MR, Salvesen GS (2013) Intrinsic cleavage of receptor-interacting protein kinase-1 by caspase-6. Cell Death Differ 20:86–96. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2012.98
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1817">36</a>] of the substrates.</p><p>Types and number of substrates is thought to be very different throughout caspase groups. Initiators are thought to cleave few substrates besides their own precursors and other caspases downstream, effectors have a broader spectrum of targets. Among executors, caspase-3 seems to be more promiscuous compared to caspase-7 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Porter AG, Jänicke RU (1999) Emerging roles of caspase-3 in apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 6:99–104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1823">37</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Slee EA, Adrain C, Martin SJ (2001) Executioner caspase-3, -6, and – 7 perform distinct, non-redundant roles during the demolition phase of apoptosis. J Biol Chem 276:7320–6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M008363200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1826">38</a>]. The fundamental roles of caspases are summarised in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Fig2">2</a>.</p><p>Diverse roles of caspases are thought to be associated with various molecular pathways. The apoptotic signalling of caspases is directed by so called extrinsic and intrinsic pathway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 39" title="Elmore S (2007) Apoptosis: a review of programmed cell death. Toxicol Pathol 35:495–516. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01926230701320337
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1835">39</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 40" title="D’Arcy MS (2019) Cell death: a review of the major forms of apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. Cell Biol Int 43:582–592. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/cbin.11137
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1838">40</a>]. The extrinsic pathway regulated by interaction of death receptor (DR) and death ligand results in formation of death-inducing signalling complex (DISC) that activates initiator caspase-8, -10. The intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway is triggered by internal signals inducing the leakage of cytochrome-c out of mitochondria. Cytochrome-c associates with Apaf-1 and pro-caspase-9, giving rise to a multiprotein complex known as apoptosome, where caspase-9 is activated [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Jan R, Chaudhry G e. S (2019) Understanding apoptosis and apoptotic pathways targeted cancer therapeutics. Adv Pharm Bull 9:205–218. 
 https://doi.org/10.15171/APB.2019.024
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1841">41</a>].</p><p>Apoptotic pathways are modulated by diverse inhibitory apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and members of the B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein family, which is divided into three groups: anti-apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, Bcl-w, Mcl-1, Bfl-1/a1), pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins (Bad, Bid, Bik, Bim, Bmf, Hrk, Noxa, Puma, etc.), and pro-apoptotic pore-formers (Bax, Bak, Bok) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Kale J, Osterlund EJ, Andrews DW (2018) BCL-2 family proteins: changing partners in the dance towards death. Cell Death Differ 25:65–80. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2017.186
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1847">42</a>].</p><p>The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are often interconnected and finally aim to activate central caspase-3 or other executors. In the apoptotic machinery, the executors are not equivalent in their capacity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Slee EA, Adrain C, Martin SJ (2001) Executioner caspase-3, -6, and – 7 perform distinct, non-redundant roles during the demolition phase of apoptosis. J Biol Chem 276:7320–6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M008363200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1854">38</a>]. In short, caspase-3 engagement finally results in caspase-activated DNase (CAD) activation which causes degradation of nuclear DNA. Executors further play role in the cytoskeletal reorganization and formation of cytoplasmic blebs and apoptotic bodies.</p><p>In contrast, non-lethal functions of caspases remain mostly unknown, although they may involve processes such as the cleavage of non-caspase substrates by initiators, signalisation of executor pro-caspases, or proteolytic cleavage of transcription factors [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1860">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Fujita J, Crane AM, Souza MK, et al (2008) Caspase activity mediates the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2:595–601. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.04.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1863">43</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Cusack CL, Swahari V, Hampton Henley W, et al (2013) Distinct pathways mediate axon degeneration during apoptosis and axon-specific pruning. Nat Commun 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NCOMMS2910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e1866">44</a>] as illustrated in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Fig4">4</a>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figd_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10495-024-01976-z/MediaObjects/10495_2024_1976_Figd_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="535"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Apoptotic and non-apoptotic caspase signalisation. The extrinsic pathway is regulated by death receptors, leading to the activation of caspase-8 and -10. The intrinsic pathway is usually initiated in a cell-autonomous manner, resulting in expression of BH3-only proteins that inhibit anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane, formation of apoptosome, and activation of caspase-9. Both pathways aim to activate caspase-3 (or other executors: caspase-6, -7). The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are often interconnected (e.g. caspase − 8 (and also − 2) cleaves Bid into tBid, which impacts mitochondria). Caspase-12 contributes to Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent apoptosis. Caspase-2 activation occurs in response of both intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Initiator caspases</h3><p>The phenotypes of mice deficient for initiator caspases are listed in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab3">3</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Phenotypes of mice lacking initiator caspases. *Mutation in self processing site, d.p.c. day post coitum, HFSC hair follicle stem, NGF nerve growth factor</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec5">Caspase-2</h4><p>Caspase-2 is thought to be the most evolutionary conserved caspase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Kumar S (2009) Caspase 2 in apoptosis, the DNA damage response and tumour suppression: enigma no more? Nat Rev Cancer 9:897–903. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NRC2745
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2979">45</a>] with a broad expression (brain, heart, kidney, lung and spleen) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2982">46</a>]. Based on the structural properties which include long pro-domain and dimerization during activation, caspase-2 is usually classified as initiator caspase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Baliga BC, Read SH, Kumar S (2004) The biochemical mechanism of caspase-2 activation. Cell Death Differ 11:1234–1241. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4401492
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2985">47</a>]. However, according to research on substrate specificity, caspase-2 rather fits with executor group [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Talanian R V., Quinlan C, Trautz S, et al (1997) Substrate specificities of caspase family proteases. J Biol Chem 272:9677–9682. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.272.15.9677
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2988">21</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Guo Y, Srinivasula SM, Druilhe A, et al (2002) Caspase-2 induces apoptosis by releasing proapoptotic proteins from mitochondria. J Biol Chem 277:13430–13437. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M108029200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2991">48</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Van De Craen M, Declercq W, Van Den Brande I, et al (1999) The proteolytic procaspase activation network: an in vitro analysis. Cell Death Differ 6:1117–1124. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400589
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2995">49</a>]. Due to the conflicting evidences of its activation (homodimerization, cleavage by other caspases, multiprotein complexes, etc.), function/s or signalling it is called an „orphan“ caspase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bouchier-Hayes L, Green DR (2012) Caspase-2: the orphan caspase. Cell Death Differ 19:51–57. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2011.157
 
 " href="#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2998">50</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Forsberg J, Zhivotovsky B, Olsson M (2017) Caspase-2: an orphan enzyme out of the shadows. Oncogene 36:5441–5444. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ONC.2017.169
 
 " href="#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e2998_1">51</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Brown-Suedel AN, Bouchier-Hayes L (2020) Caspase-2 substrates: to apoptosis, cell cycle control, and beyond. Front cell Dev Biol 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/FCELL.2020.610022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3001">52</a>]. Regarding apoptosis, caspase-2 can be either pro-apoptotic or anti-apoptotic depending on the cell type, state of growth, and apoptotic stimuli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3004">46</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Brown-Suedel AN, Bouchier-Hayes L (2020) Caspase-2 substrates: to apoptosis, cell cycle control, and beyond. Front cell Dev Biol 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/FCELL.2020.610022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3007">52</a>]. Interestingly, two splice-variants of caspase-2, pro-apoptotic caspase-2 L, and anti-apoptotic caspase-2 S (included also in DNA repair) were identified to be generated from the same gene in response to pro-apoptotic stimuli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Kumar S, Kinoshita M, Noda M, et al (1994) Induction of apoptosis by the mouse Nedd2 gene, which encodes a protein similar to the product of the caenorhabditis elegans cell death gene ced-3 and the mammalian IL-1 beta-converting enzyme. Genes Dev 8:1613–1626. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.8.14.1613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3010">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Wang L, Miura M, Bergeron L, et al (1994) Ich-1, an Ice/ced-3-related gene, encodes both positive and negative regulators of programmed cell death. Cell 78:739–750. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(94)90422-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3014">53</a>]. Caspase-2 was also suggested to induce lipoapoptosis, cell death triggered by excessive intracellular accumulation of long-chain fatty acids [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Machado M V., Michelotti GA, Jewell ML, et al (2016) Caspase-2 promotes obesity, the metabolic syndrome and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Death Dis 7. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2016.19
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3017">54</a>]. Caspase-2-deficient mice did not manifest a phenotype that would support a broad function for caspase-2 in apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3020">46</a>]. In contrast, this caspase exhibits numerous non-lethal functions, serving as a tumour suppressor [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Ho LH, Taylor R, Dorstyn L, et al (2009) A tumor suppressor function for caspase-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:5336–5341. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.0811928106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3023">55</a>]/ a cell cycle regulator [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Brown-Suedel AN, Bouchier-Hayes L (2020) Caspase-2 substrates: to apoptosis, cell cycle control, and beyond. Front cell Dev Biol 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/FCELL.2020.610022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3026">52</a>], a regulator of genomic integrity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Kim IR, Murakami K, Chen NJ, et al (2009) DNA damage- and stress-induced apoptosis occurs independently of PIDD. Apoptosis 14:1039–1049. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/S10495-009-0375-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3029">56</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Manzl C, Krumschnabel G, Bock F, et al (2009) Caspase-2 activation in the absence of PIDDosome formation. J Cell Biol 185:291–303. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.200811105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3033">57</a>], and participating in various cellular processes such as the differentiation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Pistritto G, Papaleo V, Sanchez P, et al (2012) Divergent modulation of neuronal differentiation by caspase-2 and – 9. PLoS One 7:e36002. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3036">58</a>] and protection of neurons [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3039">46</a>], the differentiation of skeletal muscles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Boonstra K, Bloemberg D, Quadrilatero J (2018) Caspase-2 is required for skeletal muscle differentiation and myogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol cell Res 1865:95–104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BBAMCR.2017.07.016
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3042">59</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Dehkordi, Mahshid H, Tashakor A, O’Connell E, Fearnhead HO (2020) Apoptosome-dependent myotube formation involves activation of caspase-3 in differentiating myoblasts. Cell Death Dis 11:308. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-020-2502-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3045">60</a>], and osteoblasts in vitro [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Mogi M, Togari A (2003) Activation of caspases is required for osteoblastic differentiation. J Biol Chem 278:47477–82. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M307055200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3048">61</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Kratochvílová A, Veselá B, Ledvina V, et al (2020) Osteogenic impact of pro-apoptotic caspase inhibitors in MC3T3-E1 cells. Sci Rep 10. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3052">62</a>]. It might also serve as a therapeutic target for neurological diseases [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Xu ZX, Tan JW, Xu H, et al (2019) Caspase-2 promotes AMPA receptor internalization and cognitive flexibility via mTORC2-AKT-GSK3β signaling. Nat Commun 10. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41467-019-11575-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3055">63</a>], non-alcoholic steatohepatitis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Machado M V., Michelotti GA, De Almeida Pereira T, et al (2015) Reduced lipoapoptosis, hedgehog pathway activation and fibrosis in caspase-2 deficient mice with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut 64:1148–1157. 
 https://doi.org/10.1136/GUTJNL-2014-307362
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3058">64</a>], metabolic syndrome [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Machado M V., Michelotti GA, Jewell ML, et al (2016) Caspase-2 promotes obesity, the metabolic syndrome and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Death Dis 7. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2016.19
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3061">54</a>], tautopathies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Zhao X, Kotilinek LA, Smith B, et al (2016) Caspase-2 cleavage of tau reversibly impairs memory. Nat Med 22:1268–1276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NM.4199
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3064">65</a>], cancer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Fava LL, Schuler F, Sladky V, et al (2017) The PIDDosome activates p53 in response to supernumerary centrosomes. Genes Dev 31:34–45. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.289728.116
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3067">66</a>], and factor impacting aging [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Zhang Y, Padalecki SS, Chaudhuri AR, et al (2007) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice. Mech Ageing Dev 128:213–221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAD.2006.11.030
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3071">67</a>]. Caspase-2-deficient mice are viable with no gross anatomic abnormalities [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3074">46</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec6">Apoptotic effect of caspase-2 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-2-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3085">46</a>] do not suffer from severe developmental abnormalities, as documented in the case of other initiators [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Varfolomeev EE, Schuchmann M, Luria V, et al (1998) Targeted disruption of the mouse Caspase 8 gene ablates cell death induction by the TNF receptors, Fas/Apo1, and DR3 and is lethal prenatally. Immunity 9:267–276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80609-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3088">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Kuida K, Haydar TF, Kuan CY, et al (1998) Reduced apoptosis and cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation in mice lacking caspase 9. Cell 94:325–37. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81476-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3091">69</a>], implying its crucial function extends beyond apoptosis. Based on caspase-2-deficient mice, it is not clear whether caspase-2 is pro- or anti- apoptotic. Caspase-2 was proposed to stimulate apoptosis of primordial follicles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3094">46</a>]. The number of newly formed primordial follicles containing oocytes was significantly higher in caspase-2-deficient females when compared with wild type (WT) mice, suggesting that apoptotic elimination of foetal germ cell was attenuated in the absence of caspase-2. Furthermore, the oocytes were found to be resistant to cell death induced by chemotherapeutic drugs. This phenomenon, however, was strictly associated with oocytes. Other cell types, such as thymocytes and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, did not show alterations in apoptotic cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="O’Reilly RC, Noelle DC, Braver TS, Cohen JD (2002) Prefrontal cortex and dynamic categorization tasks: representational organization and neuromodulatory control. Cereb Cortex 12:246–257. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/12.3.246
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3097">70</a>]. In contrast to this, caspase-2 protected motor neurons against naturally occurring cell death during embryonic development, since new-born mice with caspase-2 deficiency had decreased number of motor neurons. The phenomenon might be explained by expression rate of caspase-2 L/caspase-2 S. The short isoform appears to be present in terminally differentiated tissues, such as brain, where it may play a role in survival. Alternatively, caspase-2 loss might be compensated by other caspases up-regulating their expression [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3101">46</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec7">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-2 deficiency</h4><p>The signs of caspase-2-deficient mice, apart from cell death, indicate a broad functional complexity of this enzyme. While caspase-2-deficient mice had almost the same median lifespan as WT mice, they statistically lived shorter lives [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Zhang Y, Padalecki SS, Chaudhuri AR, et al (2007) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice. Mech Ageing Dev 128:213–221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAD.2006.11.030
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3113">67</a>]. Interestingly, caspase-2 deficiency promoted a number of traits commonly seen in aging animals [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Dawar S, Kumar S (2015) Old, new and emerging functions of caspases. Cell Death Differ 22:526–539. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2014.216
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3116">15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Zhang Y, Padalecki SS, Chaudhuri AR, et al (2007) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice. Mech Ageing Dev 128:213–221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAD.2006.11.030
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3119">67</a>], making these mice potentially interesting models for age-related diseases. Some age-related outcomes may result from significantly increased oxidative damages and reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes in old caspase-2-deficient mice compared to WT animals. The underlying mechanism may include reduced expression of FoxO transcription factors and increased levels of p53 and p21 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Shalini S, Dorstyn L, Wilson C, et al (2012) Impaired antioxidant defence and accumulation of oxidative stress in caspase-2-deficient mice. Cell Death Differ 19:1370–1380. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2012.13
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3122">16</a>]. The oxidative stress was associated with lower bone mineral density in old (24–26 months) caspase-2-deficient mice compared to WT mice, potentially increasing osteoclast differentiation and reducing apoptosis, leading to enhanced bone resorption [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 71" title="Sharma R, Callaway D, Vanegas D, et al (2014) Caspase-2 maintains bone homeostasis by inducing apoptosis of oxidatively-damaged osteoclasts. PLoS One 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0093696
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3125">71</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Callaway DA, Riquelme MA, Sharma R, et al (2015) Caspase-2 modulates osteoclastogenesis through down-regulating oxidative stress. Bone 76:40–48. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BONE.2015.03.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3129">72</a>]. Additionally, lower body fat content and impaired hair growth in caspase-2 deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Zhang Y, Padalecki SS, Chaudhuri AR, et al (2007) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice. Mech Ageing Dev 128:213–221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAD.2006.11.030
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3132">67</a>] may be related to oxidative damage.</p><p>In the context of neurodegenerative diseases associated with advanced age, mice deficient for caspase-2 showed rescued behavioural and cognitive features of Huntington’s disease (HD) in the YAC128 model. However, they did not exhibit protection from anatomical abnormalities associated with HD, such as specific striatal volume loss [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Carroll JB, Lerch JP, Franciosi S, et al (2011) Natural history of disease in the YAC128 mouse reveals a discrete signature of pathology in Huntington disease. Neurobiol Dis 43:257–265. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2011.03.018
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3138">73</a>]. This suggests that different pathways may be involved in the behavioural changes observed in HD. Inhibition of caspase-2 activity could potentially be associated with symptomatic improvement in HD.</p><p>Disruption of p53 regulated pathway found in caspase-2-deficient mice may be also related to higher tumour incidence at a sooner age as was seen in caspase-2<sup>−/−</sup>/MMTV model. Mechanism of caspase-2 action might reside in regulation of cell cycle progression and genomic stability [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Kumar S (2009) Caspase 2 in apoptosis, the DNA damage response and tumour suppression: enigma no more? Nat Rev Cancer 9:897–903. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NRC2745
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3146">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Ho LH, Taylor R, Dorstyn L, et al (2009) A tumor suppressor function for caspase-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:5336–5341. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.0811928106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3149">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Puccini J, Dorstyn L, Kumar S (2013) Caspase-2 as a tumour suppressor. Cell Death Differ 20:1133–1139. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2013.87
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3152">74</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Parsons MJ, McCormick L, Janke L, et al (2013) Genetic deletion of caspase-2 accelerates MMTV/c-neu-driven mammary carcinogenesis in mice. Cell Death Differ 20:1174–1182. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2013.38
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3155">75</a>]. However, the overall tumour incidence was not observed in caspase-2 deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Zhang Y, Padalecki SS, Chaudhuri AR, et al (2007) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances aging-related traits in mice. Mech Ageing Dev 128:213–221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MAD.2006.11.030
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3159">67</a>]. Therefore, caspase-2 may be specifically involved in the process of carcinogenesis.</p><p>Besides age-related abnormalities, caspase-2 deficiency also altered basal energy metabolism by shifting the balance in fuel choice from fatty acid to carbohydrate usage. Four weeks old caspase-2-deficient mice had increased carbohydrate utilisation and by 17 weeks showed a reduced white adipose mass, smaller white adipocytes, decreased fasting blood glucose and plasma triglycerides but maintained normal insulin levels. In addition, caspase-2-deficient mice placed on a high-fat diet resisted the development of obesity, fatty liver, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Wilson CH, Nikolic A, Kentish SJ, et al (2017) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances whole-body carbohydrate utilisation and prevents high-fat diet-induced obesity. Cell Death Dis 8:e3136. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.518
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3165">76</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec8">Caspase-8</h4><p>Caspase-8 was described as the major initiator of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Alnemri ES, Livingston DJ, Nicholson DW, et al (1996) Human ICE/CED-3 protease nomenclature. Cell 87:171. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81334-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3176">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Gross A, McDonnell JM, Korsmeyer SJ (1999) BCL-2 family members and the mitochondria in apoptosis. Genes Dev 13:1899–1911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.13.15.1899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3179">9</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Muzio M, Chinnaiyan AM, Kischkel FC, et al (1996) FLICE, a novel FADD-homologous ICE/CED-3-like protease, is recruited to the CD95 (Fas/APO-1) death–inducing signaling complex. Cell 85:817–827. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81266-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3182">77</a>]. Caspase-8 was identified in cytoplasm as an inactive dimer activated by self-processing [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 78" title="Hughes MA, Harper N, Butterworth M, et al (2009) Reconstitution of the death-inducing signaling complex reveals a substrate switch that determines CD95-mediated death or survival. Mol Cell 35:265–279. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3185">78</a>], which is induced <i>via</i> interaction of the DRs with their ligands. Apart from the apoptosis, caspase-8 is essential for inhibition of necroptosis mediated by Receptor Interacting Serine/Threonine Kinase (RIPK3) and Mixed Lineage Kinase domain-Like (MLKL) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Oberst A, Dillon CP, Weinlich R, et al (2011) Catalytic activity of the caspase-8-FLIP(L) complex inhibits RIPK3-dependent necrosis. Nature 471:363–368. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE09852
 
 " href="#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3192">79</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kaiser WJ, Upton JW, Long AB, et al (2011) RIP3 mediates the embryonic lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice. Nature 471:368–373. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE09857
 
 " href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3192_1">80</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tenev T, Bianchi K, Darding M, et al (2011) the ripoptosome, a signaling platform that assembles in response to genotoxic stress and loss of IAPs. Mol Cell 43:432–448. 
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 " href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3192_2">81</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Alvarez-Diaz S, Dillon CP, Lalaoui N, et al (2016) The pseudokinase MLKL and the kinase RIPK3 have distinct roles in autoimmune disease caused by loss of death-receptor-induced apoptosis. Immunity 45:513–526. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3195">82</a>]. Further, it is involved in pyroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Pang J, Vince JE (2023) The role of caspase-8 in inflammatory signalling and pyroptotic cell death. Semin Immunol 70. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3198">83</a>], inflammation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gringhuis SI, Kaptein TM, Wevers BA, et al (2012) Dectin-1 is an extracellular pathogen sensor for the induction and processing of IL-1β via a noncanonical caspase-8 inflammasome. Nat Immunol 13:246–254. 
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 " href="#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3201">84</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gurung P, Anand PK, Malireddi RKS, et al (2014) FADD and caspase-8 mediate priming and activation of the canonical and noncanonical Nlrp3 inflammasomes. J Immunol 192:1835–1846. 
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 " href="#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3201_1">85</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 86" title="Phillips FC, Gurung P, Kanneganti TD (2016) Microbiota and caspase-1/caspase-8 regulate IL-1β-mediated bone disease. Gut Microbes 7:334–341. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3204">86</a>], migration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 87" title="Helfer B, Boswell BC, Finlay D, et al (2006) Caspase-8 promotes cell motility and calpain activity under nonapoptotic conditions. Cancer Res 66:4273–4278. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3207">87</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 88" title="Torres VA, Mielgo A, Barbero S, et al (2010) Rab5 mediates caspase-8-promoted cell motility and metastasis. Mol Biol Cell 21:369–376. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3211">88</a>], cellular proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Alam A, Cohen LY, Aouad S, Sékaly RP (1999) Early activation of caspases during T lymphocyte stimulation results in selective substrate cleavage in nonapoptotic cells. J Exp Med 190:1879–1890. 
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 " href="#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3214_2">91</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Pellegrini M, Bath S, Marsden VS, et al (2005) FADD and caspase-8 are required for cytokine-induced proliferation of hemopoietic progenitor cells. Blood 106:1581–1589. 
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 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3217">92</a>], differentiation of osteoblasts [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Mogi M, Togari A (2003) Activation of caspases is required for osteoblastic differentiation. J Biol Chem 278:47477–82. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M307055200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3220">61</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Kratochvílová A, Veselá B, Ledvina V, et al (2020) Osteogenic impact of pro-apoptotic caspase inhibitors in MC3T3-E1 cells. Sci Rep 10. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-020-64294-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3223">62</a>], myoblasts [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, et al (2002) Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:11025–11030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.162172899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3226">29</a>], autophagy [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 93" title="Yu L, Alva A, Su H, et al (2004) Regulation of an ATG7-beclin 1 program of autophagic cell death by caspase-8. Science 304:1500–1502. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1096645
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3230">93</a>], and overall cell homeostasis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Kovalenko A, Kim JC, Kang TB, et al (2009) Caspase-8 deficiency in epidermal keratinocytes triggers an inflammatory skin disease. J Exp Med 206:2161–2177. 
 https://doi.org/10.1084/JEM.20090616
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3233">94</a>]. Caspase-8 is thought to be potential target for treatment of oncologic [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 95" title="Stupack DG (2013) Caspase-8 as a therapeutic target in cancer. Cancer Lett 332:133–140. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CANLET.2010.07.022
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3236">95</a>], inflammatory or immune pathologies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 96" title="Orning P, Lien E (2021) Multiple roles of caspase-8 in cell death, inflammation, and innate immunity. J Leukoc Biol 109:121–141. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.3MR0420-305R
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3239">96</a>]. Caspase-8-deficient mice performed prenatal lethality around the stage E12.5 resulting from gross abnormalities of vasculature and yolk sac [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Varfolomeev EE, Schuchmann M, Luria V, et al (1998) Targeted disruption of the mouse Caspase 8 gene ablates cell death induction by the TNF receptors, Fas/Apo1, and DR3 and is lethal prenatally. Immunity 9:267–276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80609-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3242">68</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec9">Apoptotic effect of caspase-8 deficiency</h4><p>The role of caspase-8 in apoptosis was identified in mesenchymal embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) derived from caspase-8-deficient mice that developed a resistance to extrinsic pathway of programmed cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Varfolomeev EE, Schuchmann M, Luria V, et al (1998) Targeted disruption of the mouse Caspase 8 gene ablates cell death induction by the TNF receptors, Fas/Apo1, and DR3 and is lethal prenatally. Immunity 9:267–276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80609-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3253">68</a>]. Apoptotic role of this caspase has been further demonstrated in vivo, when caspase-8 specific deletion in hepatocytes using Cre/loxP system protected these cells from Fas-mediated cytotoxicity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 97" title="Kang T-B, Ben-Moshe T, Varfolomeev EE, et al (2004) Caspase-8 serves both apoptotic and nonapoptotic roles. J Immunol 173:2976–2984. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.173.5.2976
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3256">97</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec10">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-8 deficiency</h4><p>Despite being classified as an apoptotic activator, caspase-8 is vitally important for its anti-lethal effect as a regulator of necroptosis. Interestingly, caspase-8 also appears to regulate inflammatory processes, likely stemming from complex molecular pathways that are not yet fully understood. Deletion of caspase-8 in mice revealed the huge impact of this molecule/protease on the murine embryonic development. The deficiency resulted in degeneration of yolk sac and its vasculature leading to hyperaemia of some blood vessels and organs, congested accumulation of erythrocytes, impaired heart muscle development and neural tube defects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Varfolomeev EE, Schuchmann M, Luria V, et al (1998) Targeted disruption of the mouse Caspase 8 gene ablates cell death induction by the TNF receptors, Fas/Apo1, and DR3 and is lethal prenatally. Immunity 9:267–276. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80609-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3267">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 97" title="Kang T-B, Ben-Moshe T, Varfolomeev EE, et al (2004) Caspase-8 serves both apoptotic and nonapoptotic roles. J Immunol 173:2976–2984. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.173.5.2976
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3270">97</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 98" title="Sakamaki K, Inoue T, Asano M, et al (2002) Ex vivo whole-embryo culture of caspase-8-deficient embryos normalize their aberrant phenotypes in the developing neural tube and heart. Cell Death Differ 9:1196–1206. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4401090
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3273">98</a>]. Due to early lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice, following studies focused on targeted deletion of caspase-8 in specific cell populations. Later research explained that lethality of caspase-8-deficient embryos was consequence of an abnormal activity of RIPK3 which is the key component of the necrosome [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 99" title="Morgan MJ, Kim YS (2022) Roles of RIPK3 in necroptosis, cell signaling, and disease. Exp Mol Med 54:1695–1704. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S12276-022-00868-Z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3276">99</a>]. Caspase-8 inhibits RIPK3 and thus prevents engagement of the final effector MLKL triggering necroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Kaiser WJ, Upton JW, Long AB, et al (2011) RIP3 mediates the embryonic lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice. Nature 471:368–373. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE09857
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3279">80</a>]. Deletion of RIPK3 or MLKL rescued the embryonic lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Kaiser WJ, Upton JW, Long AB, et al (2011) RIP3 mediates the embryonic lethality of caspase-8-deficient mice. Nature 471:368–373. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE09857
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3283">80</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Alvarez-Diaz S, Dillon CP, Lalaoui N, et al (2016) The pseudokinase MLKL and the kinase RIPK3 have distinct roles in autoimmune disease caused by loss of death-receptor-induced apoptosis. Immunity 45:513–526. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IMMUNI.2016.07.016
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3286">82</a>]. MLKL deficiency rescued the cardiovascular phenotype but unexpectedly caused perinatal lethality in mice with catalytically inactive caspase-8 (Casp8C362S/C362S,) indicating that CASP8 (C362S) causes necroptosis-independent death at later stages of embryonic development [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Fritsch M, Günther SD, Schwarzer R, et al (2019) Caspase-8 is the molecular switch for apoptosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis. Nature 575:683–687. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41586-019-1770-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3289">33</a>].</p><p>Despite mice lacking both caspase-8 and RIPK3 not showing any histological abnormalities <i>in utero</i>, embryonic upregulation of the inflammatory genes was detected in several tissues. Interestingly, when focused on the liver, the expression of inflammatory genes starts preferentially in endothelial cells, which were also primarily impacted in caspase-8-deficient mice with fatal consequences [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Kang TB, Jeong JS, Yang SH, et al (2018) Caspase-8 deficiency in mouse embryos triggers chronic RIPK1-dependent activation of inflammatory genes, independently of RIPK3. Cell Death Differ 25:1107–1117. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41418-018-0104-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3298">100</a>]. In contrast to increased inflammatory expression in mice lacking both caspase-8 and RIPK3, the loss of caspase-8 in macrophages promotes the onset of a mild systemic inflammatory disease, which could be prevented by the deletion of RIPK3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Cuda CM, Misharin A V., Khare S, et al (2015) Conditional deletion of caspase-8 in macrophages alters macrophage activation in a RIPK-dependent manner. Arthritis Res Ther 17. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/S13075-015-0794-Z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3301">101</a>]. Therefore, cell-specific mechanisms probably exist. Regarding the inflammatory processes, mice producing enzymatically inactive caspase-8 developed an inflammatory disease of skin associated with a hyperproliferative state [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Kovalenko A, Kim JC, Kang TB, et al (2009) Caspase-8 deficiency in epidermal keratinocytes triggers an inflammatory skin disease. J Exp Med 206:2161–2177. 
 https://doi.org/10.1084/JEM.20090616
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3304">94</a>], resulting from abnormal signalling regulated by IL1α, which activates both stem cell proliferation and inflammation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Lee P, Lee DJ, Chan C, et al (2009) Dynamic expression of epidermal caspase 8 simulates a wound healing response. Nature 458:519–523. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE07687
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3307">102</a>]. Inflammation was also detected in the intestines of mice with conditional deletion of caspase-8 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Tisch N, Freire-Valls A, Yerbes R, et al (2019) Caspase-8 modulates physiological and pathological angiogenesis during retina development. J Clin Invest 129:5092–5107. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI122767
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3311">32</a>].</p><p>Caspase-8 deletion further resulted in cellular/humoral alterations of the immune system. Mice with targeted deletion of caspase-8 had significant decrease in the number of peripheral T-cells that were unable to mediate an immune response to viral infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 90" title="Salmena L, Lemmers B, Hakem A, et al (2003) Essential role for caspase 8 in T-cell homeostasis and T-cell-mediated immunity. Genes Dev 17:883–895. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.1063703
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3317">90</a>]. Notably, in the same mice but older, B and T cell compartments were expanded in the absence of any infection, which resulted in lymphoproliferation and a lethal T cell infiltrating disorder [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Salmena L, Hakem R (2005) Caspase-8 deficiency in T cells leads to a lethal lymphoinfiltrative immune disorder. J Exp Med 202:727–732. 
 https://doi.org/10.1084/JEM.20050683
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3320">103</a>]. The impaired function of T-cells was associated with modulation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), a key transcription factor for activation of T-cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 104" title="Su H, Bidère N, Zheng L, et al (2005) Requirement for caspase-8 in NF-κB activation by antigen receptor. Science (80-) 307:1465–1468. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1104765/SUPPL_FILE/SU.SOM.PDF
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3323">104</a>]. NF-κB was also linked with decreased production of antibodies and impaired survival following stimulation of the Toll-like receptors of B-cells in mice with B-cell-specific inactivation of caspase-8 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 105" title="Lemmers B, Salmena L, Bidere N, et al (2007) Essential role for Caspase-8 in toll-like receptors and NF-κB signalling. J Biol Chem 282:7416–7423. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M606721200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3326">105</a>].</p><p>Generation of mice lacking caspase-8 in hepatocytes (caspase-8<sup>Δhepa</sup>) demonstrated the role of caspase-8 in liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy. The loss of caspase-8 prevented proteolytic cleavage of the receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) in hepatocytes and subsequently triggered premature activation of NF-κB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) related signals which leads to improved liver regeneration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Liedtke C, Bangen JM, Freimuth J, et al (2011) Loss of caspase-8 protects mice against inflammation-related hepatocarcinogenesis but induces non-apoptotic liver injury. Gastroenterology 141:2176–2187. 
 https://doi.org/10.1053/J.GASTRO.2011.08.037
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3334">106</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 107" title="Freimuth J, Bangen JM, Lambertz D, et al (2013) Loss of caspase-8 in hepatocytes accelerates the onset of liver regeneration in mice through premature nuclear factor kappa B activation. Hepatology 58:1779–1789. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/HEP.26538
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3337">107</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec11">Caspase-9</h4><p>Caspase-9 is an initiator of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway that becomes activated in apoptosome. Alternatively, activation of caspase-9 without Apaf-1 was induced is some cells by insulin deprivation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 108" title="An HK, Chung KM, Park H, et al (2020) CASP9 (caspase 9) is essential for autophagosome maturation through regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis. Autophagy 16:1598–1617. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2019.1695398
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3348">108</a>] or caspase-9 can be even cleaved by caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 109" title="Denault J-B, Drag M, Salvesen GS, et al (2007) Small molecules not direct activators of caspases. Nat. Chem. Biol. 3:519; author reply 520" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3351">109</a>]. In contrast to other caspases, pro-caspase-9 manifests a basal activity that increases with activation level [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 110" title="Stennicke HR, Salvesen GS (1999) Catalytic properties of the caspases. Cell Death Differ 6:1054–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400599
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3354">110</a>]. During apoptosis, caspase-9 cleaves effector caspases [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 111" title="Nakanishi K, Maruyama M, Shibata T, Morishima N (2001) Identification of a caspase-9 substrate and detection of its cleavage in programmed cell death during mouse development. J Biol Chem 276:41237–41244. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M105648200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3357">111</a>] or non-caspase substrates (such as vimentin) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 111" title="Nakanishi K, Maruyama M, Shibata T, Morishima N (2001) Identification of a caspase-9 substrate and detection of its cleavage in programmed cell death during mouse development. J Biol Chem 276:41237–41244. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M105648200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3360">111</a>] to dismantle intermediate filaments and amplify the cell death signal [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 112" title="Byun Y, Chen F, Chang R, et al (2001) Caspase cleavage of vimentin disrupts intermediate filaments and promotes apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 8:443–450. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400840
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3364">112</a>]. Notably, caspase-9 may also negatively regulate apoptosis with alternatively-spliced truncated caspase-9b form competing with full length caspase-9 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 113" title="Srinivasula SM, Ahmad M, Guo Y, et al (1999) Identification of an endogenous dominant-negative short isoform of caspase-9 that can regulate apoptosis. Cancer Res 59:999–1002" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3367">113</a>]. Developmental importance of caspase-9 is supported by its early activation in mouse embryo and early lethality resulting from severe developmental defects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Laguna A, Aranda S, Barallobre MJ, et al (2008) The protein kinase DYRK1A regulates caspase-9-mediated apoptosis during retina development. Dev Cell 15:841–853. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DEVCEL.2008.10.014
 
 " href="#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3370">114</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sanders EJ, Parker E (2002) The role of mitochondria, cytochrome c and caspase-9 in embryonic lens fibre cell denucleation. J Anat 201:121–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00081.x
 
 " href="#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3370_1">115</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Cecconi F, Roth KA, Dolgov O, et al (2004) Apaf1-dependent programmed cell death is required for inner ear morphogenesis and growth. Development 131:2125–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.01082
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3373">116</a>]. Caspase-9 also contributes to necroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 117" title="Molnár T, Pallagi P, Tél B, et al (2021) Caspase-9 acts as a regulator of necroptotic cell death. FEBS J 288:6476–6491. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/FEBS.15898
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3376">117</a>]. Further, caspase-9 was associated with non-lethal functions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 118" title="Avrutsky MI, Troy CM (2021) Caspase-9: a multimodal therapeutic target with diverse cellular expression in human disease. Front Pharmacol 12. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/FPHAR.2021.701301
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3379">118</a>] such as myocyte differentiation and proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 119" title="Murray TVA, McMahon JM, Howley BA, et al (2008) A non-apoptotic role for caspase-9 in muscle differentiation. J Cell Sci 121:3786–3793. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/JCS.024547
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3383">119</a>], hematopoietic development [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Lu EP, McLellan M, Ding L, et al (2014) Caspase-9 is required for normal hematopoietic development and protection from alkylator-induced DNA damage in mice. Blood 124:3887–3895. 
 https://doi.org/10.1182/BLOOD-2014-06-582551
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3386">120</a>], immune response to viral infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 121" title="Rongvaux A, Jackson R, Harman CCD, et al (2014) Apoptotic caspases prevent the induction of type I interferons by mitochondrial DNA. Cell 159:1563. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2014.11.037
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3389">121</a>], axon guidance [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 122" title="Ohsawa S, Hamada S, Kuida K, et al (2010) Maturation of the olfactory sensory neurons by Apaf-1/caspase-9-mediated caspase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:13366–71. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910488107
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3392">122</a>] or axon-selective degeneration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Cusack CL, Swahari V, Hampton Henley W, et al (2013) Distinct pathways mediate axon degeneration during apoptosis and axon-specific pruning. Nat Commun 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NCOMMS2910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3395">44</a>] etc. In a therapeutic invention, caspase-9 may play a central role in pathogenesis of stroke, neurodegenerative diseases, or brain injury caused by hypoxia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 123" title="Kuida K (2000) Caspase-9. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 32:121–124. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1357-2725(99)00024-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3398">123</a>]. Caspase-9 deletion is embryonically or perinatally lethal due to aberrant brain development [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Kuida K, Haydar TF, Kuan CY, et al (1998) Reduced apoptosis and cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation in mice lacking caspase 9. Cell 94:325–37. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81476-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3402">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 124" title="Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, et al (1998) Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:339–52. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81477-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3405">124</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec12">Apoptotic effect of caspase-9 deficiency</h4><p>The most apparent abnormalities of caspase-9 deficiency resided in large brain protrusions and other defects mostly localised in the cortex and forebrain [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 124" title="Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, et al (1998) Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:339–52. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81477-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3416">124</a>]. These alterations were associated with decreased rate of apoptosis and excessive number of neurons. Caspase-9 deficiency further resulted in dramatic decrease in apoptosis in the inner ear epithelium, severe morphogenetic defects, and a significant size reduction of the membranous labyrinth [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Cecconi F, Roth KA, Dolgov O, et al (2004) Apaf1-dependent programmed cell death is required for inner ear morphogenesis and growth. Development 131:2125–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.01082
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3419">116</a>].</p><p>Furthermore, several cell types performed an abnormal apoptosis when challenged by different apoptotic stimuli. This was, however, not seen in TNF-α induced apoptosis in MEF of caspase-9-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 124" title="Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, et al (1998) Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:339–52. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81477-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3425">124</a>].</p><p>Caspase-9 was shown to play a role in oocyte elimination during development. In caspase-9-deficient mice, later phase of oocyte loss was prevented and the total number of oocytes became significantly greater in caspase-9-deficient ovaries at E19.5 when compared to normal mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 125" title="Ene AC, Park S, Edelmann W, Taketo T (2013) Caspase 9 is constitutively activated in mouse oocytes and plays a key role in oocyte elimination during meiotic prophase progression. Dev Biol 377:213–223. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YDBIO.2013.01.027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3431">125</a>].</p><p>In the prenatal formation of tooth, caspase-9-deficient mice displayed inhibition of apoptotic cell death in the primary enamel knot (PEK) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 126" title="Setkova J, Matalova E, Sharpe PT, et al (2007) Primary enamel knot cell death in Apaf-1 and caspase-9 deficient mice. Arch Oral Biol 52:15–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.07.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3437">126</a>], the signalling centre of the first molar [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 127" title="Thesleff I, Keränen S, Jernvall J (2001) Enamel knots as signaling centers linking tooth morphogenesis and odontoblast differentiation. Adv Dent Res 15:14–18. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/08959374010150010401
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR127" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3440">127</a>]. Despite PEK regulates the bud-cap transition [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 128" title="Jernvall J, Åberg T, Kettunen P, et al (1998) The life history of an embryonic signaling center: BMP-4 induces p21 and is associated with apoptosis in the mouse tooth enamel knot. Development 125:161–169. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/DEV.125.2.161
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3443">128</a>], no impact of the decreased apoptosis was observed during advanced tooth development, indicating that the apoptotic cell death mediated by caspase-9 has been compensated by other molecular mechanisms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 126" title="Setkova J, Matalova E, Sharpe PT, et al (2007) Primary enamel knot cell death in Apaf-1 and caspase-9 deficient mice. Arch Oral Biol 52:15–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.07.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3446">126</a>].</p><p>Caspase-9 deletion in hair follicle stem cells attenuated the apoptotic process, which surprisingly resulted in increased levels of cleaved caspase-3. These cells were retained in an apoptotic-engaged state, serving as mitogenic signalling centres by releasing Wnt3. Notably, these mice displayed accelerated wound repair and <i>de novo</i> hair follicle regeneration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 129" title="Ankawa R, Goldberger N, Yosefzon Y, et al (2021) Apoptotic cells represent a dynamic stem cell niche governing proliferation and tissue regeneration. Dev Cell 56:1900–1916.e5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DEVCEL.2021.06.008
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3456">129</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec13">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-9 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-9 was identified as being important for non-apoptotic aspect(s) of neural development, such as axon-selective degeneration. Interestingly, Apaf-1 was not essential for the process, suggesting either Apaf-1 independent caspase-9 activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Cusack CL, Swahari V, Hampton Henley W, et al (2013) Distinct pathways mediate axon degeneration during apoptosis and axon-specific pruning. Nat Commun 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NCOMMS2910
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3468">44</a>] or dependence of the phenomenon on pro-caspase form.</p><p>Staying with neural system, caspase-9-deficient mice exhibited misrouted axons, impaired synaptic formation, and defects in the maturation of olfactory sensory neurons without affecting the number of these cells. Caspase-9 was shown to be engaged in regulation of active Sema7A levels, which affects axonal path finding, synapse formation and maturation status in the olfactory bulb [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 122" title="Ohsawa S, Hamada S, Kuida K, et al (2010) Maturation of the olfactory sensory neurons by Apaf-1/caspase-9-mediated caspase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:13366–71. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910488107
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e3474">122</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec14">Executor caspases</h3><p>The phenotypes of mice deficient for executor caspases are listed in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab4">4</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-4"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab4" data-test="table-caption">Table 4 Phenotypes of mice lacking execution caspase</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/4" aria-label="Full size table 4"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec15">Caspase-3</h4><p>Caspase-3 is widely expressed central executor caspase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Julien O, Wells JA (2017) Caspases and their substrates. Cell Death Differ 24:1380–1389. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2017.44
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4701">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Porter AG, Jänicke RU (1999) Emerging roles of caspase-3 in apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 6:99–104. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400476
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4704">37</a>]. In vitro investigation of caspase substrates highlighted caspase-3 as promiscuous enzyme with large spectrum of substrates [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="McStay GP, Salvesen GS, Green DR (2007) Overlapping cleavage motif selectivity of caspases: implications for analysis of apoptotic pathways. Cell Death Differ 2008 152 15:322–331. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4402260
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4707">23</a>]. Due to its central role, variable levels of caspase-3 are ubiquitously expressed in normal tissues [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Eskandari E, Eaves CJ (2022) Paradoxical roles of caspase-3 in regulating cell survival, proliferation, and tumorigenesis. J Cell Biol 221. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.202201159
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4710">27</a>]. Caspase-3 activation is mediated by both receptor and mitochondrial apoptotic signalling pathways. Additionally, a shorter isoform, caspase-3s, generated by alternative splicing, negatively regulates apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 130" title="Huang Y, Shin NH, Sun Y, Wang KKW (2001) Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel caspase-3 variant that attenuates apoptosis induced by proteasome inhibition. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 283:762–769. 
 https://doi.org/10.1006/BBRC.2001.4871
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4713">130</a>]. Beyond crucial function of caspase-3 in apoptotic cell death during development [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, et al (1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in CPP32-deficient mice. Nature 384:368–372. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/384368a0
 
 " href="#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4717">131</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Zeiss CJ, Neal J, Johnson EA (2004) Caspase-3 in postnatal retinal development and degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45:964–70. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.03-0439
 
 " href="#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4717_1">132</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Makishima T, Hochman L, Armstrong P, et al (2011) Inner ear dysfunction in caspase-3 deficient mice. BMC Neurosci 12:102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-102
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4720">133</a>], caspase-3 was associated with many non-apoptotic events such as regulation of cell cycle [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 134" title="Woo M, Hakem R, Furlonger C, et al (2003) Caspase-3 regulates cell cycle in B cells: a consequence of substrate specificity. Nat Immunol 4:1016–1022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NI976
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4723">134</a>], cell differentiation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, et al (2002) Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:11025–11030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.162172899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4726">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4729">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Mogi M, Togari A (2003) Activation of caspases is required for osteoblastic differentiation. J Biol Chem 278:47477–82. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M307055200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4732">61</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 135" title="Fernando P, Brunette S, Megeney LA (2005) Neural stem cell differentiation is dependent upon endogenous caspase 3 activity. FASEB J 19:1671–1673. 
 https://doi.org/10.1096/FJ.04-2981FJE
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR135" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4736">135</a>], stem cell physiology [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Fujita J, Crane AM, Souza MK, et al (2008) Caspase activity mediates the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2:595–601. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.04.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4739">43</a>], tissue regeneration, and immunomodulation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="Boland K, Flanagan L, Prehn JHM (2013) Paracrine control of tissue regeneration and cell proliferation by Caspase-3. Cell Death Dis 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2013.250
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4742">136</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Fan W, Dai Y, Xu H, et al (2014) Caspase-3 modulates regenerative response after stroke. Stem Cells 32:473–486. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/STEM.1503
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4745">137</a>]. Caspase-3 is considered as potential target for immunotherapy in distinct tumours [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 138" title="Zhou Z, Xu S, Jiang L, et al (2022) A systematic Pan-cancer analysis of CASP3 as a potential target for Immunotherapy. Front Mol Biosci 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/FMOLB.2022.776808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR138" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4748">138</a>], neurodegenerative disorders [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 139" title="Khan S, Ahmad K, Alshammari EMA, et al (2015) Implication of Caspase-3 as a common therapeutic target for multineurodegenerative disorders and its inhibition using nonpeptidyl natural compounds. Biomed Res Int 2015. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/379817
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4751">139</a>], or heart failure [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 140" title="Yang B, Ye D, Wang Y (2013) Caspase-3 as a therapeutic target for heart failure. Expert Opin Ther Targets 17:255–263. 
 https://doi.org/10.1517/14728222.2013.745513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR140" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4755">140</a>]. The phenotype of caspase-3-deficient mice was strain-specific. Caspase-3-deficient 129 × 1/SvJ mice died during the perinatal period and exhibited decreased programmed cell death in brain regions resulting in significant neural precursor cell expansion and exencephaly, ectopic, and duplicated neuronal structures. In contrast, caspase-3-deficient C57BL/6J mice reached adulthood, were fertile, and exhibited minimal brain pathology [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 141" title="Leonard JR, Klocke BJ, D’sa C, et al (2002) Strain-dependent neurodevelopmental abnormalities in caspase-3-deficient mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 61:673–677. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/JNEN/61.8.673
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4758">141</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec16">Apoptotic effect of caspase-3 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-3 mediated apoptosis was found to be indispensable for normal development of central nervous system [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 142" title="Nicholson DW (1999) Caspase structure, proteolytic substrates, and function during apoptotic cell death. Cell Death Differ 6:1028–1042. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400598
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR142" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4769">142</a>] in caspase-3-deficient 129 × 1/SvJ mice. Compensatory activation of other caspase effectors in the caspase-3-deficient C57BL/6J, but not 129 × 1/SvJ, could be explanation for the strain-dependent phenotypes. And indeed, increased activation of caspase-7 was detected in C57BL/6J caspase-3-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 143" title="Houde C, Banks KG, Coulombe N, et al (2004) Caspase-7 expanded function and intrinsic expression level underlies strain-specific brain phenotype of caspase-3-null mice. J Neurosci 24:9977–84. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3356-04.2004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4772">143</a>]. Alternatively, strain-specific endogenous inhibitors of apoptosis may underlie the variable caspase-3-deficient phenotype [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 141" title="Leonard JR, Klocke BJ, D’sa C, et al (2002) Strain-dependent neurodevelopmental abnormalities in caspase-3-deficient mice. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 61:673–677. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/JNEN/61.8.673
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4775">141</a>].</p><p>In contrast to the increased mass of neural tissue, caspase-3-deficient eyes were smaller than their WT counterparts. Additionally, caspase-3-deficient mice displayed peripapillary retinal dysplasia, delayed regression of vitreal vasculature, and retarded apoptotic kinetics of the inner nuclear layer. It was assumed that this phenotype is a result of delayed apoptosis in the developing eye [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 132" title="Zeiss CJ, Neal J, Johnson EA (2004) Caspase-3 in postnatal retinal development and degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45:964–70. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.03-0439
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4781">132</a>]. Therefore, in this case, caspase-3-related apoptosis may be more likely to be of regulatory importance (e.g. regulation of number of specific molecular signals-emitting cells) than basically elimination of unwanted cells. Abnormal organ “sculpturing” in caspase-3 deficiency was also case of the inner ear. Caspase-3 knockout mice developed hypomorphism of the vestibular organs resulting in abnormal locomotion and circling behaviour of mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Makishima T, Hochman L, Armstrong P, et al (2011) Inner ear dysfunction in caspase-3 deficient mice. BMC Neurosci 12:102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-102
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4784">133</a>]. Other study also pointed to hyperplasia of supporting cells and degeneration of sensory cells resulting in the hearing loss in caspase-3-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 144" title="Takahashi K, Kamiya K, Urase K, et al (2001) Caspase-3-deficiency induces hyperplasia of supporting cells and degeneration of sensory cells resulting in the hearing loss. Brain Res 894:359–67. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02123-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4787">144</a>]. The role in “sculpting process” would be expected also for apoptosis of developing molar PEK, where caspase-3 was identified. Surprisingly, the absence of caspase-3 on the B57BL/6 background only led to disorganized epithelium of the developing tooth germ [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 145" title="Matalova E, Sharpe PT, Lakhani SA, et al (2006) Molar tooth development in caspase-3 deficient mice. Int J Dev Biol 50:491–497. 
 https://doi.org/10.1387/IJDB.052117EM
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR145" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4790">145</a>].</p><p>Despite almost normal life span of caspase-3-deficient mice with B57BL/6 background, they also suffered from some defects associated with abnormal apoptosis. These knock-out mice had kidney proliferative glomerular lesions characterized by increased cells and expression of inflammation-associated genes, but renal dysfunction was not observed. Furthermore, these mice had mild splenomegaly compared with WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 146" title="Suzuki T, Ichii O, Nakamura T, et al (2020) Immune-associated renal disease found in caspase 3-deficient mice. Cell Tissue Res 379:323–335. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/S00441-019-03084-W/FIGURES/8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR146" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4796">146</a>].</p><p>Mice deficient in caspase-3 performed reduced chemically induced skin carcinogenesis. Thus, caspase-3 seems to facilitate, rather than suppresses, chemical-induced genetic instability and carcinogenesis. This contrasts with typically considered anti-oncogenic role of caspase activation, which ensures the elimination of genetically unstable or damaged cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 147" title="Liu X, He Y, Li F, et al (2015) Caspase-3 promotes genetic instability and carcinogenesis. Mol Cell 58:284–296. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MOLCEL.2015.03.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4802">147</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec17">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-3 deficiency</h4><p>Several studies have described a smaller body size in caspase-3-deficient mice compared to WT mice of the same age [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4814">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 131" title="Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, et al (1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in CPP32-deficient mice. Nature 384:368–372. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/384368a0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4817">131</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 148" title="Woo M, Hakem R, Soengas MS, et al (1998) Essential contribution of caspase 3/CPP32 to apoptosis and its associated nuclear changes. Genes Dev 12:806–19. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.12.6.806
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR148" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4820">148</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 149" title="Janzen V, Fleming HE, Riedt T, et al (2008) Hematopoietic stem cell responsiveness to exogenous signals is limited by caspase-3. Cell Stem Cell 2:584–594. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.03.012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4823">149</a>]. One explanation for this phenomenon could be decreased cell proliferation. Indeed, decreased proliferation potential was identified in bone marrow stromal stem cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4826">30</a>]. Deletion of caspase-3 further resulted in reduced cell proliferation, decreased cell number, and reduced sebaceous gland size. The underlying mechanism involved caspase-3-mediated cleavage of α-catenin, which facilitated the activation and nuclear translocation of yes-associated protein (YAP). YAP promotes the transcription of genes associated with cell proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 150" title="Yosefzon Y, Soteriou D, Feldman A, et al (2018) Caspase-3 regulates YAP-dependent cell proliferation and organ size. Mol Cell 70:573–587.e4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MOLCEL.2018.04.019
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4830">150</a>]. Proliferation defects were also identified in hematopoietic cells, as caspase-3 alters signal transduction by limiting activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 149" title="Janzen V, Fleming HE, Riedt T, et al (2008) Hematopoietic stem cell responsiveness to exogenous signals is limited by caspase-3. Cell Stem Cell 2:584–594. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.03.012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4833">149</a>], among others, thereby impacting proliferation.</p><p>Caspase-3 deletion resulted also in abnormal cell differentiation as was proved in different cell types. Impaired osteoblastic and osteoclastic differentiation was detected in caspase-3-deficient mice. Regarding the molecular signals, over-activated TGF-β/Smad2 pathway, which may lead to the compromised Runx2/Cbfa1 expression, was detected in preosteoblasts. Furthermore, the upregulated expression of p53 and p21, along with downregulated expressions of Cdk2 and Cdc2, and ultimately increased replicative senescence, were identified in caspase-3-deficient mice. These alterations ultimately resulted in delayed ossification and decreased bone mineral density in caspase-3-deficient mice compared to WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4839">30</a>]. The role of caspase-3 in osteoclast differentiation was later confirmed, with primary osteoclasts unable to differentiate in response to RANKL in the absence of pro-caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 151" title="Szymczyk K, Freeman T, Adams C, et al (2006) Active caspase-3 is required for osteoclast differentiation. J Cell Physiol 209:836–844. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/JCP.20770
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR151" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4842">151</a>]. Furthermore, caspase-3 deficiency impacted the differentiation of myoblasts, leading to a total reduction in skeletal muscle mass. This effect was associated with proteolytic function of caspase-3 that activates pro-myogenic Mammalian Sterile Twenty-like kinase (MST1) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, et al (2002) Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:11025–11030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.162172899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4845">29</a>].</p><p>Since the process of regeneration includes both proliferation and differentiation, making it unsurprising that mice lacking caspase-3 exhibited deficiencies in skin wound healing and in liver regeneration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 152" title="Li F, Huang Q, Chen J, et al (2010) Apoptotic cells activate the “phoenix rising” pathway to promote wound healing and tissue regeneration. Sci Signal 3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCISIGNAL.2000634
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR152" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4851">152</a>]. Furthermore, the complexity of caspase-3 functions extends to its impact on hematopoietic stem cells homeostasis detected in caspase-3-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 149" title="Janzen V, Fleming HE, Riedt T, et al (2008) Hematopoietic stem cell responsiveness to exogenous signals is limited by caspase-3. Cell Stem Cell 2:584–594. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.03.012
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4854">149</a>].</p><p>Caspase-3 seems to be important for cell survival ganglion cells and hair cells. Caspase-3 knockout mice developed deafness with accompanying degeneration of spiral ganglion neurons and hair cells in the inner ear. The ganglion neurons in caspase-3 exhibit morphological features characteristic for necrosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 153" title="Morishita H, Makishima T, Kaneko C, et al (2001) Deafness due to degeneration of cochlear neurons in caspase-3-deficient mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 284:142–149. 
 https://doi.org/10.1006/bbrc.2001.4939
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR153" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4860">153</a>]. Neural development of caspase-3-deficient mice was associated with behavioural changes similar to symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism-like social interactions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 154" title="Lo SC, Scearce-Levie K, Sheng M (2016) Characterization of social behaviors in caspase-3 deficient mice. Sci Rep 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SREP18335
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR154" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4863">154</a>]. The mechanism of such caspase engagement is poorly understood, however, in vitro results suggest a role of caspase-3 in expression of AMPA receptors mediating synaptic transition [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 155" title="Lo SC, Wang Y, Weber M, et al (2015) Caspase-3 deficiency results in disrupted synaptic homeostasis and impaired attention control. J Neurosci 35:2118–2132. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3280-14.2015
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR155" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4866">155</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec18">Caspase-6</h4><p>Caspase-6 structure is similar to other executor caspases [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Thornberry NA, Rano TA, Peterson EP, et al (1997) A combinatorial approach defines specificities of members of the caspase family and granzyme B. Functional relationships established for key mediators of apoptosis. J Biol Chem 272:17907–17911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.272.29.17907
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4877">156</a>]. However, its contribution to apoptotic machinery is probably limited or peculiar [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 157" title="Zheng TS, Hunot S, Kuida K, Flavell RA (1999) Caspase knockouts: matters of life and death. Cell Death Differ 6:1043–1053. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400593
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR157" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4880">157</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 158" title="Ruchaud S, Korfali N, Villa P, et al (2002) Caspase-6 gene disruption reveals a requirement for lamin A cleavage in apoptotic chromatin condensation. EMBO J 21:1967–1977. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/EMBOJ/21.8.1967
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR158" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4883">158</a>]. Furthermore, the substrate specificity of caspase-6 more closely resembles that of the initiator caspases, caspase-8 and caspase-9 rather than the two executioners, caspase-3 and caspase-7 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Thornberry NA, Rano TA, Peterson EP, et al (1997) A combinatorial approach defines specificities of members of the caspase family and granzyme B. Functional relationships established for key mediators of apoptosis. J Biol Chem 272:17907–17911. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.272.29.17907
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4886">156</a>]. In addition to activation by initiators, caspase-6 may be activated by caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Slee EA, Adrain C, Martin SJ (2001) Executioner caspase-3, -6, and – 7 perform distinct, non-redundant roles during the demolition phase of apoptosis. J Biol Chem 276:7320–6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M008363200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4889">38</a>]. Additionally, caspase-6 can act downstream of caspase-1 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 159" title="Guo H, Pétrin D, Zhang Y, et al (2006) Caspase-1 activation of caspase-6 in human apoptotic neurons. Cell Death Differ 13:285–292. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4401753
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR159" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4893">159</a>]. Caspase-6 participates in inflammasome activation and host defence mechanisms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zheng M, Karki R, Vogel P, Kanneganti TD (2020) Caspase-6 is a key regulator of innate immunity, inflammasome activation, and host defense. Cell 181:674–687.e13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2020.03.040
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4896">160</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 161" title="Ladha S, Qiu X, Casal L, et al (2018) Constitutive ablation of caspase-6 reduces the inflammatory response and behavioural changes caused by peripheral pro-inflammatory stimuli. Cell Death Discov 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41420-018-0043-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR161" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4899">161</a>]. Recently, it has also been linked with PANoptosis, a process that involves pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necrosis in the context of cancer pathologies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 162" title="Qi L, Wang L, Jin M, et al (2023) Caspase-6 is a key regulator of cross-talk signal way in PANoptosis in cancer. Immunology 169:245–259. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/IMM.13633
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR162" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4902">162</a>]. Caspase-6 is extensively expressed in the brain and is associated to neurological disorders such as Alzheimer disease (AD) and HD, where it also seems to have therapeutic potential [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Uribe V, Wong BKY, Graham RK, et al (2012) Rescue from excitotoxicity and axonal degeneration accompanied by age-dependent behavioral and neuroanatomical alterations in caspase-6-deficient mice. Hum Mol Genet 21:1954–1967. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDS005
 
 " href="#ref-CR163" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4905">163</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Angel A, Volkman R, Royal TG, Offen D (2020) Caspase-6 knockout in the 5xFAD model of Alzheimer’s disease reveals favorable outcome on memory and neurological hallmarks. Int J Mol Sci 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS21031144
 
 " href="#ref-CR164" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4905_1">164</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 165" title="Wang XJ, Cao Q, Zhang Y, Su XD (2015) Activation and regulation of caspase-6 and its role in neurodegenerative diseases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 55:553–572. 
 https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-PHARMTOX-010814-124414
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR165" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4908">165</a>]. Gross developmental defects have not been identified in caspase-6-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Zheng TS, Hunot S, Kuida K, et al (2000) Deficiency in caspase-9 or caspase-3 induces compensatory caspase activation. Nat Med 6:1241–7. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/81343
 
 " href="#ref-CR166" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4912">166</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Watanabe C, Shu GL, Zheng TS, et al (2008) Caspase 6 regulates b cell activation and differentiation into plasma cells. J Immunol 181:6810–6819. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.181.10.6810
 
 " href="#ref-CR167" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4912_1">167</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 168" title="Akpan N, Serrano-Saiz E, Zacharia BE, et al (2011) Intranasal delivery of caspase-9 inhibitor reduces caspase-6-dependent axon/neuron loss and improves neurological function after stroke. J Neurosci 31:8894–8904. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0698-11.2011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR168" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4915">168</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec19">Apoptotic effect of caspase-6 deficiency</h4><p>Only a few apoptotic functions were described in caspase-6-deficient mice. Caspase-6 was associated with participation in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 169" title="Sheng M, Weng Y, Cao Y, et al (2023) Caspase 6/NR4A1/SOX9 signaling axis regulates hepatic inflammation and pyroptosis in ischemia-stressed fatty liver. Cell Death Discov 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41420-023-01396-Z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR169" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4926">169</a>]. The engagement of caspase-6 in programmed cell death was also observed in caspase-6-deficient macrophages infected with influenza A virus (IAV). Impact of caspase-6 deficiency on apoptosis was manifested by attenuated cleavage of initiator caspase-8 and executioner caspase-3 and -7 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zheng M, Karki R, Vogel P, Kanneganti TD (2020) Caspase-6 is a key regulator of innate immunity, inflammasome activation, and host defense. Cell 181:674–687.e13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2020.03.040
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4929">160</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec20">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-6 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-6 seems to play a significant role in neurodegeneration and the modulation of immune response. Caspase-6-deficient mice have shown protection from axonal degeneration, leading to improved in functional outcomes during ischemia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 168" title="Akpan N, Serrano-Saiz E, Zacharia BE, et al (2011) Intranasal delivery of caspase-9 inhibitor reduces caspase-6-dependent axon/neuron loss and improves neurological function after stroke. J Neurosci 31:8894–8904. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0698-11.2011
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR168" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4940">168</a>]. However, the impact of caspase-6 on the neural system extends further, as evidenced by age-dependent behavioural changes and region-specific neuroanatomical alterations. These include increases in cortical and striatal volume accompanied by hypoactive phenotype and learning deficits observed in caspase-6-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 163" title="Uribe V, Wong BKY, Graham RK, et al (2012) Rescue from excitotoxicity and axonal degeneration accompanied by age-dependent behavioral and neuroanatomical alterations in caspase-6-deficient mice. Hum Mol Genet 21:1954–1967. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDS005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR163" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4943">163</a>]. Some of these abnormalities bear resemblance to the morphological or behavioural pathologies of AD and HD, which result from axonal degeneration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 163" title="Uribe V, Wong BKY, Graham RK, et al (2012) Rescue from excitotoxicity and axonal degeneration accompanied by age-dependent behavioral and neuroanatomical alterations in caspase-6-deficient mice. Hum Mol Genet 21:1954–1967. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDS005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR163" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4946">163</a>]. The mechanism might be mediated by cleavage of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta-secretase during trophic factor deprivation. APP binds to DR6 leading to degeneration of axons by caspase-6 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 170" title="Nikolaev A, McLaughlin T, O’Leary DDM, Tessier-Lavigne M (2009) APP binds DR6 to trigger axon pruning and neuron death via distinct caspases. Nature 457:981–989. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE07767
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR170" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4949">170</a>].</p><p>Caspase-6 was revealed in host defence against IAV infection and loss of caspase-6 impaired viral clearance. Reduced Z-DNA-binding protein 1 (ZBP1)-mediated NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation was observed in caspase-6-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zheng M, Karki R, Vogel P, Kanneganti TD (2020) Caspase-6 is a key regulator of innate immunity, inflammasome activation, and host defense. Cell 181:674–687.e13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CELL.2020.03.040
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4955">160</a>]. NLRP3 is known as an intracellular sensor that detects a broad range of microbial motifs and mediates formation of NLRP3 inflammasome leading to activation of caspase-1 and release of cytokines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 171" title="Swanson K V., Deng M, Ting JPY (2019) The NLRP3 inflammasome: molecular activation and regulation to therapeutics. Nat Rev Immunol 19:477–489. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41577-019-0165-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR171" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4958">171</a>].</p><p>Caspase-6 was further observed to control the balance between cell proliferation and differentiation by cleaving substrates involved in maintaining B cell quiescence [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 167" title="Watanabe C, Shu GL, Zheng TS, et al (2008) Caspase 6 regulates b cell activation and differentiation into plasma cells. J Immunol 181:6810–6819. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.181.10.6810
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR167" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4964">167</a>]. Increased number of G<sub>1</sub> cells in caspase-6-deficient mice did not translate into dysregulation of overall B cell numbers in adult mice, but rather into an elevation of serum immunoglobulin levels [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 172" title="Watanabe C, Shu GL, Giltiay N V., Clark EA (2018) Regulation of B-lineage cells by caspase 6. Immunol Cell Biol 96:1072–1082. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/IMCB.12172
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR172" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4969">172</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec21">Caspase 7</h4><p>Caspase-7 was described as an executor of apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 143" title="Houde C, Banks KG, Coulombe N, et al (2004) Caspase-7 expanded function and intrinsic expression level underlies strain-specific brain phenotype of caspase-3-null mice. J Neurosci 24:9977–84. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3356-04.2004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4980">143</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Walsh JG, Cullen SP, Sheridan C, et al (2008) Executioner caspase-3 and caspase-7 are functionally distinct proteases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:12815–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707715105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4983">173</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 174" title="Choudhury S, Bhootada Y, Gorbatyuk O, Gorbatyuk M (2013) Caspase-7 ablation modulates UPR, reprograms TRAF2-JNK apoptosis and protects T17M rhodopsin mice from severe retinal degeneration. Cell Death Dis 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2013.34
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR174" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4986">174</a>], functionally distinct from caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Walsh JG, Cullen SP, Sheridan C, et al (2008) Executioner caspase-3 and caspase-7 are functionally distinct proteases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:12815–9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707715105
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4989">173</a>], with a recently discovered non-canonical function as death facilitator [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Nozaki K, Maltez VI, Rayamajhi M, et al (2022) Caspase-7 activates ASM to repair gasdermin and perforin pores. Nature 606:960–967. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41586-022-04825-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4992">175</a>]. Moreover, it was observed to participate in inflammation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Akhter A, Gavrilin MA, Frantz L, et al (2009) Caspase-7 activation by the Nlrc4/Ipaf inflammasome restricts Legionella pneumophila infection. PLoS Pathog 5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PPAT.1000361
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4996">176</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 177" title="Lamkanfi M, Moreira LO, Makena P, et al (2009) Caspase-7 deficiency protects from endotoxin-induced lymphocyte apoptosis and improves survival. Blood 113:2742–2745. 
 https://doi.org/10.1182/BLOOD-2008-09-178038
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR177" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e4999">177</a>]. Caspase-7 activation during apoptosis is mediated <i>via</i> initiator caspases. Under inflammatory conditions, caspase-7 activation requires caspase-1 inflammasomes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Akhter A, Gavrilin MA, Frantz L, et al (2009) Caspase-7 activation by the Nlrc4/Ipaf inflammasome restricts Legionella pneumophila infection. PLoS Pathog 5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PPAT.1000361
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5005">176</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 178" title="Lamkanfi M, Kanneganti TD, van Damme P, et al (2008) Targeted peptidecentric proteomics reveals caspase-7 as a substrate of the caspase-1 inflammasomes. Mol Cell Proteomics 7:2350–2363. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/MCP.M800132-MCP200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR178" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5008">178</a>]. Additionally, various non-lethal functions were further associated with caspase-7, such as bone formation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Svandova E, Lesot H, Vanden Berghe T, et al (2014) Non-apoptotic functions of caspase-7 during osteogenesis. Cell Death Dis 5:e1366. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2014.330
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5011">179</a>], mineralisation of incisor enamel [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Matalova E, Lesot H, Svandova E, et al (2013) Caspase-7 participates in differentiation of cells forming dental hard tissues. Dev Growth Differ 55:615–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dgd.12066
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5015">31</a>], regulation of mast cell population in dermis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Veselá B, Matalová E (2015) Expression of apoptosis-related genes in the mouse skin during the first postnatal catagen stage, focused on localization of Bnip3L and caspase-12. Connect Tissue Res 56:326–335. 
 https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2015.1040546
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5018">180</a>], or modulation of extracellular matrix in vessels [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Cowan KN, Leung WCY, Mar C, et al (2005) Caspases from apoptotic myocytes degrade extracellular matrix: a novel remodeling paradigm. FASEB J 19:1848–1850. 
 https://doi.org/10.1096/FJ.05-3706FJE
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5021">181</a>]. Caspase-7 inhibition has potential application in neurodegenerative disorders such as AD and HD [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 182" title="Hermel E, Gafni J, Propp S, et al (2004) Specific caspase interactions and amplification are involved in selective neuronal vulnerability in Huntington’s disease. Cell Death Differ 11:424–438. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4401358
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR182" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5024">182</a>] and prevention of lymphocyte cell death in sepsis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Hotchkiss RS, Nicholson DW (2006) Apoptosis and caspases regulate death and inflammation in sepsis. Nat Rev Immunol 6:813–822. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NRI1943
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5027">183</a>]. Caspase-7 gene has been linked with rheumatoid arthritis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 184" title="Teixeira VH, Jacq L, Lasbleiz S, et al (2008) Genetic and expression analysis of CASP7 gene in a European Caucasian population with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 35:1912–1918" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR184" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5030">184</a>], and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 185" title="Babu SR, Bao F, Roberts CM, et al (2003) Caspase 7 is a positional candidate gene for IDDM 17 in a Bedouin Arab family. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1005:340–343. 
 https://doi.org/10.1196/ANNALS.1288.054
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR185" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5034">185</a>]. Caspase-7-deficient mice are born with normal appearance, organ morphology, and lymphoid development [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 186" title="Lakhani SA, Masud A, Kuida K, et al (2006) Caspases 3 and 7: key mediators of mitochondrial events of apoptosis. Science 311:847–851. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1115035
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR186" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5037">186</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec22">Apoptotic effect of caspase-7 deficiency</h4><p>Since the caspase-7-deficient mice are mostly normal, it is not easy to judge whether its role in distinct organ systems is very specific, involves fine tuning, or if caspase-7 functions are compensated by other enzymes. In accordance with this, caspase-7-deficient MEFs only exhibited a slight survival advantage as compared with normal MEFs when treated with inducers of apoptosis. The authors of the study speculate about compensation by caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 186" title="Lakhani SA, Masud A, Kuida K, et al (2006) Caspases 3 and 7: key mediators of mitochondrial events of apoptosis. Science 311:847–851. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1115035
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR186" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5048">186</a>].</p><p>In contrast, caspase-7-deficient mice were protected against lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced mortality and LPS-induced lymphocyte apoptosis, independently of the excessive production of serum cytokines, showing that caspase-7 is not required for the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in this process [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 177" title="Lamkanfi M, Moreira LO, Makena P, et al (2009) Caspase-7 deficiency protects from endotoxin-induced lymphocyte apoptosis and improves survival. Blood 113:2742–2745. 
 https://doi.org/10.1182/BLOOD-2008-09-178038
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR177" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5054">177</a>]. Further studies on optic nerve (ON) injury indicated a significant apoptotic role of caspase-7 in the process. Optic nerve crush caused a progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), which was reduced in caspase-7-deficient mice. ON-induced thinning of ganglion cell complex was significantly ameliorated in caspase-7-deficient mice after injury as well [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 187" title="Choudhury S, Liu Y, Clark AF, Pang IH (2015) Caspase-7: a critical mediator of optic nerve injury-induced retinal ganglion cell death. Mol Neurodegener 10. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/S13024-015-0039-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR187" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5057">187</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec23">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-7 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-7 deficiency coincided with an altered expression of osteogenic markers, proposing a role of caspase-7 in differentiation of bone cells. Diverse effects were detected in intramembranous vs. endochondral bones. Intramembranous caspase-7-deficient bone showed a statistically significant decrease in volume while mineral density was not altered. Conversely, endochondral bone showed constant volume but a significant decrease in mineral density in the mutant mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Svandova E, Lesot H, Vanden Berghe T, et al (2014) Non-apoptotic functions of caspase-7 during osteogenesis. Cell Death Dis 5:e1366. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2014.330
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5069">179</a>]. This might point to multiple downstream functions of caspase-7, which are selectively applied in the two models of ossification.</p><p>Caspase-7 deficiency further resulted in delayed mineralization and/or hypomineralization of incisor enamel [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Matalova E, Lesot H, Svandova E, et al (2013) Caspase-7 participates in differentiation of cells forming dental hard tissues. Dev Growth Differ 55:615–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dgd.12066
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5075">31</a>]. Notably, caspase-7 has a different localisation in the epithelial cells on the lingual side of rodent incisor where enamel is not secreted (caspase-7 negative) and the labial side of continuously renewing ameloblasts (caspase-7 positive). It is possible that caspase-7 is involved in the modulation of ameloblast functional differentiation by cleaving its direct target Oct4 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 188" title="Musch T, Öz Y, Lyko F, Breiling A (2010) Nucleoside drugs induce cellular differentiation by caspase-dependent degradation of stem cell factors. PLoS One 5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0010726
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR188" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5078">188</a>], which was located in the cervical loop, a stem cells niche where progenitors of future ameloblasts reside [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 189" title="Li L, Kwon HJ, Harada H, et al (2011) Expression patterns of ABCG2, Bmi-1, Oct-3/4, and Yap in the developing mouse incisor. Gene Expr Patterns 11:163–170. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEP.2010.11.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR189" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5081">189</a>].</p><p>Caspase-7 was speculated to regulate the number of mast cells localised in the dermis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Veselá B, Matalová E (2015) Expression of apoptosis-related genes in the mouse skin during the first postnatal catagen stage, focused on localization of Bnip3L and caspase-12. Connect Tissue Res 56:326–335. 
 https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2015.1040546
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e5087">180</a>]. Notably, cleaved caspase-7 was observed in mast cells and its deficiency in adult skin resulted in an increased mast cell number.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec24">Inflammatory caspases</h3><p>The phenotypes of mice deficient for inflammatory caspases are listed in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab5">5</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-5"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab5" data-test="table-caption">Table 5 Phenotypes of mice lacking inflammatory caspases. *Mutant mice contain transgenic caspase-11, since caspase-1 and -11 are too close in the genome to be segregated by recombination. Consequently, caspase 1<sup>–/–</sup> mice lack both caspase-11 and caspase-1. HS haemorrhagic shock</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/5" aria-label="Full size table 5"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec25">Caspase-1</h4><p>Caspase-1 is the best characterized caspase playing an essential role in inflammation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 190" title="Yuan J, Shaham S, Ledoux S, et al (1993) The C. Elegans cell death gene ced-3 encodes a protein similar to mammalian interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme. Cell 75:641–652. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(93)90485-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR190" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6502">190</a>]. Caspase-1 activation takes place in assembly of multi-protein complex called inflammasome, which is stimulated by several small molecules derived from infection, tissue damage, or metabolic dysfunctions. There are many types of inflammasomes, where NLR families are the most common responsible for host immune responses against infection, trauma or tissue necrosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Molla MD, Akalu Y, Geto Z, et al (2020) Role of Caspase-1 in the pathogenesis of inflammatory-associated chronic noncommunicable diseases. J Inflamm Res 13:749–764. 
 https://doi.org/10.2147/JIR.S277457
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6505">191</a>].</p><p>Caspase-1 acts on the cleavage of downstream substrates, including the maturation of the inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and IL-18, which are among its most important functions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 192" title="Denes A, Lopez-Castejon G, Brough D (2012) Caspase-1: is IL-1 just the tip of the ICEberg? Cell Death Dis 3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2012.86
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR192" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6511">192</a>]. In addition, caspase-1 activation occurs in pyroptosis, a rapid caspase-1-dependent form of cell death frequently induced by infected macrophages. During this process, cleavage of gasdermin D occurs, serving as a pore-forming protein in the formation of channels for secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 192" title="Denes A, Lopez-Castejon G, Brough D (2012) Caspase-1: is IL-1 just the tip of the ICEberg? Cell Death Dis 3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2012.86
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR192" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6514">192</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 193" title="Fernandes-Alnemri T, Wu J, Yu JW, et al (2007) The pyroptosome: a supramolecular assembly of ASC dimers mediating inflammatory cell death via caspase-1 activation. Cell Death Differ 14:1590–1604. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4402194
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR193" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6517">193</a>]. Some authors also suggest a role for caspase-1 in apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 192" title="Denes A, Lopez-Castejon G, Brough D (2012) Caspase-1: is IL-1 just the tip of the ICEberg? Cell Death Dis 3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDDIS.2012.86
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR192" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6520">192</a>]. Further, caspase-1 is present in a variety of cell types and is involved in numerous cellular processes such as myoblast differentiation and fusion to multinucleated myotubes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 194" title="Barnoy S, Kosower NS (2003) Caspase-1-induced calpastatin degradation in myoblast differentiation and fusion: cross-talk between the caspase and calpain systems. FEBS Lett 546:213–217. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-5793(03)00573-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR194" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6523">194</a>], neural cell differentiation, or chondrogenesis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 195" title="Vaisid T, Kosower NS, Barnoy S (2005) Caspase-1 activity is required for neuronal differentiation of PC12 cells: cross-talk between the caspase and calpain systems. Biochim Biophys Acta 1743:223–230. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BBAMCR.2005.01.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR195" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6527">195</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 196" title="Ramesova A, Vesela B, Svandova E, et al (2021) Caspase-1 inhibition impacts the formation of chondrogenic nodules, and the expression of markers related to osteogenic differentiation and lipid metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22179576
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR196" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6530">196</a>]. Caspase-1 was also associated with the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 197" title="Kotas ME, Jurczak MJ, Annicelli C, et al (2013) Role of caspase-1 in regulation of triglyceride metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:4810–4815. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1301996110
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR197" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6533">197</a>], making it a potential target molecule in the treatment of metabolism-related disorders, such as obesity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Wang H, Capell W, Yoon JH, et al (2014) Obesity development in caspase-1-deficient mice. Int J Obes (Lond) 38:152–155. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/IJO.2013.59
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6536">198</a>], diabetes or osteoarthritis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 199" title="An S, Hu H, Li Y, Hu Y (2020) Pyroptosis plays a role in osteoarthritis. Aging Dis 11:1146–1157. 
 https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2019.1127
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR199" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6539">199</a>], cancer, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 200" title="Fève B, Bastard JP (2009) The role of interleukins in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol 5:305–311. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NRENDO.2009.62
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR200" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6542">200</a>]. Caspase-1-deficient mice are born live with no apparent spontaneous developmental defects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 201" title="Kuida K, Lippke JA, Ku G, et al (1995) Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 267:2000–3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7535475
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR201" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6546">201</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec26">Apoptotic effect of caspase-1 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-1-deficient mice did not show major defects in apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 201" title="Kuida K, Lippke JA, Ku G, et al (1995) Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 267:2000–3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7535475
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR201" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6557">201</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 202" title="Li P, Allen H, Banerjee S, et al (1995) Mice deficient in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme are defective in production of mature IL-1 beta and resistant to endotoxic shock. Cell 80:401–11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90490-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR202" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6560">202</a>] but manifested higher levels of liver damage, cell death, and neutrophil influx in haemorrhagic shock. This phenotype indicated hepatoprotective role of caspase-1, due to its ability to regulate cell death pathways by binding anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 203" title="Menzel CL, Sun Q, Loughran PA, et al (2011) Caspase-1 is hepatoprotective during trauma and hemorrhagic shock by reducing liver injury and inflammation. Mol Med 17:1031. 
 https://doi.org/10.2119/MOLMED.2011.00015
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR203" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6563">203</a>].</p><p>In contrast, caspase-1-deficient mice displayed a significant reduction in mortality after myocardial infarction suggesting a pro-apoptotic role of caspase-1 in the heart. When considering the underlying mechanism, caspase-1 was suspected to cleave caspase-9 and -3, but not caspase-8, indicating activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 204" title="Merkle S, Frantz S, Schön MP, et al (2007) A role for caspase-1 in heart failure. Circ Res 100:645–653. 
 https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000260203.55077.61
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR204" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6569">204</a>]. This correlates with study where caspase-1-deficient neutrophils were susceptible to Fas-mediated apoptosis. Further, delayed LPS-mediated apoptosis was observed in WT neutrophils but not in those deficient in caspase-1 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 205" title="Rowe SJ, Allen L, Ridger VC, et al (2002) Caspase-1-deficient mice have delayed neutrophil apoptosis and a prolonged inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury. J Immunol 169:6401–6407. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.169.11.6401
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR205" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6572">205</a>]. A pro-apoptotic effect was observed in studies involving retinal neurons injured by excessive light exposure and I/R, where reduced apoptosis was observed [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 206" title="Arai J, Katai N, Kuida K, et al (2006) Decreased retinal neuronal cell death in caspase-1 knockout mice. Jpn J Ophthalmol 50:417–425. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10384-006-0352-y
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR206" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6575">206</a>], as well as in a model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 207" title="Hu B, Elinav E, Huber S, et al (2010) Inflammation-induced tumorigenesis in the colon is regulated by caspase-1 and NLRC4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:21635–21640. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1016814108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR207" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6578">207</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec27">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-1 deficiency</h4><p>Given the major role assigned to inflammation, caspase-1-deficient mice display distinct reactions when exposed to viral and bacterial stimuli in comparison with WT mice. For instance, upon challenge with IAV, caspase-1-deficient mice exhibited a 40% mortality rate, contrasting with the 10% observed in WT mice, leading to severe diffuse alveolar damage in the lungs of caspase-1-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 208" title="Huang CH, Chen CJ, Yen CT, et al (2013) Caspase-1 deficient mice are more susceptible to influenza a virus infection with PA variation. J Infect Dis 208:1898–1905. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/INFDIS/JIT381
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR208" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6590">208</a>]. This increased susceptibility to IAV infection was associated with decreased cytokine production [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 209" title="Thomas PG, Dash P, Aldridge JRJ, et al (2009) The intracellular sensor NLRP3 mediates key innate and healing responses to influenza a virus via the regulation of caspase-1. Immunity 30:566–575. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2009.02.006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR209" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6593">209</a>]. Similarly, the absence of caspase-1 led to increased susceptibility to <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i> infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 210" title="Lara-Tejero M, Sutterwala FS, Ogura Y, et al (2006) Role of the caspase-1 inflammasome in Salmonella typhimurium pathogenesis. J Exp Med 203:1407. 
 https://doi.org/10.1084/JEM.20060206
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR210" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6599">210</a>]. Conversely, treatment of caspase-1-deficient mice with LPS injection resulted in survival advantage compared to WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 202" title="Li P, Allen H, Banerjee S, et al (1995) Mice deficient in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme are defective in production of mature IL-1 beta and resistant to endotoxic shock. Cell 80:401–11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90490-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR202" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6602">202</a>], and an improved clinical status was was observed in caspase-1-deficient mice with <i>Pneumococcal meningitis</i> and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i> corneal infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 211" title="Koedel U, Winkler F, Angele B, et al (2002) Role of Caspase-1 in experimental pneumococcal meningitis: evidence from pharmacologic caspase inhibition and caspase-1-deficient mice. Ann Neurol 51:319–329. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/ANA.10103
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR211" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6612">211</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 212" title="Thakur A, Barrett RP, Hobden JA, Hazlett LD (2004) Caspase-1 inhibitor reduces severity of pseudomonas aeruginosa keratitis in mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45:3177–3184. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/IOVS.04-0041
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR212" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6615">212</a>]. These findings suggest that caspase-1 operates specifically in response to various stimuli and individual cell characteristics should also be taken into account.</p><p>Mice deficient for caspase-1 were defective in the secretion of IL-1β, IL-18, or pro-IL1α [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 201" title="Kuida K, Lippke JA, Ku G, et al (1995) Altered cytokine export and apoptosis in mice deficient in interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. Science 267:2000–3. 
 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7535475
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR201" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6621">201</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 202" title="Li P, Allen H, Banerjee S, et al (1995) Mice deficient in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme are defective in production of mature IL-1 beta and resistant to endotoxic shock. Cell 80:401–11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90490-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR202" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6624">202</a>]. Due to the inability to process pro-IL-18, caspase-1-deficient mice injected with LPS exhibit defective interferon (IFNγ) production. Since IFNγ is an important regulator of cell proliferation, caspase-1-deficient mice show a higher proliferation rate in splenocytes after LPS stimulation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 213" title="Fantuzzi G, Puren AJ, Harding MW, et al (1998) Interleukin-18 regulation of interferon γ production and cell proliferation as shown in interleukin-1β–converting enzyme (Caspase-1)-deficient mice. Blood 91:2118–2125. 
 https://doi.org/10.1182/BLOOD.V91.6.2118
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR213" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6627">213</a>]. Altered levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were also observed in other organs and tissues affected by various insults. For instance, in acute renal failure (ARF)/acute tubular necrosis (ATN), caspase-1-deficient mice display an improved phenotype compared to WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Melnikov VY, Ecder T, Fantuzzi G, et al (2001) Impaired IL-18 processing protects caspase-1-deficient mice from ischemic acute renal failure. J Clin Invest 107:1145–1152. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI12089
 
 " href="#ref-CR214" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6630">214</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang W, Faubel S, Ljubanovic D, et al (2005) Endotoxemic acute renal failure is attenuated in caspase-1-deficient mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 288. 
 https://doi.org/10.1152/AJPRENAL.00130.2004
 
 " href="#ref-CR215" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6630_1">215</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Faubel S, Ljubanovic D, Reznikov L, et al (2004) Caspase-1-deficient mice are protected against cisplatin-induced apoptosis and acute tubular necrosis. Kidney Int 66:2202–2213. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1523-1755.2004.66010.X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6633">216</a>]. These mice do not show the increase in IL-18 observed in WT mice during ARF; instead, they exhibit decreased neutrophil infiltration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 214" title="Melnikov VY, Ecder T, Fantuzzi G, et al (2001) Impaired IL-18 processing protects caspase-1-deficient mice from ischemic acute renal failure. J Clin Invest 107:1145–1152. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI12089
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR214" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6637">214</a>]. Furthermore, lower brain IL-1β levels protect caspase-1-deficient mice from ischemia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 217" title="Schielke GP, Yang GY, Shivers BD, Betz AL (1998) Reduced ischemic brain injury in interleukin-1β converting enzyme- deficient mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 18:180–185. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/00004647-199802000-00009
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR217" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6640">217</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 218" title="Kayagaki N, Warming S, Lamkanfi M, et al (2011) Non-canonical inflammasome activation targets caspase-11. Nature 479:117–121. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE10558
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR218" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6643">218</a>].</p><p>Besides changing of inflammatory status, caspase-1 deficiency also resulted in increased proliferation of colonic epithelial cells in a model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 207" title="Hu B, Elinav E, Huber S, et al (2010) Inflammation-induced tumorigenesis in the colon is regulated by caspase-1 and NLRC4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:21635–21640. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1016814108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR207" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6649">207</a>].</p><p>Another category of caspase-regulated processes is the metabolism. Caspase-1-deficient mice develop obesity depending on age and sex when kept on high-fat diet. This phenotype was attributed to lower levels of IL-18, as IL-18-deficient mice show a similar tendency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Wang H, Capell W, Yoon JH, et al (2014) Obesity development in caspase-1-deficient mice. Int J Obes (Lond) 38:152–155. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/IJO.2013.59
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6655">198</a>]. The absence of caspase-1 further decreased the harmful effect of high fat diet on the liver [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 219" title="Dixon LJ, Flask CA, Papouchado BG, et al (2013) Caspase-1 as a central regulator of high fat diet-induced non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. PLoS One 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0056100
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR219" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6658">219</a>]. Moreover, caspase-1 deficiency improved the phenotype in atherosclerosis-prone apolipoprotein E-deficient (Apoe<sup>−/−</sup>) mice displaying poor lipoprotein clearance, resulting in atherosclerotic plaques. In this case, caspase-1 promoted atherosclerosis by enhancing the inflammatory status of the lesion [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Gage J, Hasu M, Thabet M, Whitman SC (2012) Caspase-1 deficiency decreases atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Can J Cardiol 28:222–229. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CJCA.2011.10.013
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6663">220</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec28">Caspase-11</h4><p>The functions of caspase-11 remain unclear. While its expression in healthy mice was low, it is highly inducible upon different stimuli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Agnew A, Nulty C, Creagh EM (2021) Regulation, activation and function of Caspase-11 during health and disease. Int J Mol Sci 22:1–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22041506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6674">12</a>], including injection of LPS [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Wang S, Miura M, Jung Y, et al (1998) Murine Caspase-11, an ICE-interacting protease, is essential for the activation of ICE. Cell 92:501–509. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80943-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6677">221</a>]. Unlike other caspases, caspase-11 requires a transcription-dependent signal to up-regulate its cellular expression prior to its activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Agnew A, Nulty C, Creagh EM (2021) Regulation, activation and function of Caspase-11 during health and disease. Int J Mol Sci 22:1–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22041506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6680">12</a>]. In contrast to caspase-1, caspase-11 activation does not require an upstream sensory complex and can be directly activated by LPS [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 222" title="Shi J, Zhao Y, Wang Y, et al (2014) Inflammatory caspases are innate immune receptors for intracellular LPS. Nature 514:187–192. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE13683
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR222" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6683">222</a>]. Despite being classified as an inflammatory caspase, it also shares some characteristic with initiator group [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 223" title="Kang SJ, Wang S, Hara H, et al (2000) Dual role of caspase-11 in mediating activation of caspase-1 and caspase-3 under pathological conditions. J Cell Biol 149:613–622. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.149.3.613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR223" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6686">223</a>]. The main function of caspase-11 is the induction of non-canonical pathway of pyroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 224" title="Huang X, Feng Y, Xiong G, et al (2019) Caspase-11, a specific sensor for intracellular lipopolysaccharide recognition, mediates the non-canonical inflammatory pathway of pyroptosis. Cell Biosci 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/S13578-019-0292-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR224" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6690">224</a>]. Once this process is activated, caspase-11 cleaves the major substrate protein gasdermin D [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 225" title="Kayagaki N, Stowe IB, Lee BL, et al (2015) Caspase-11 cleaves gasdermin D for non-canonical inflammasome signalling. Nature 526:666–671. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE15541
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR225" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6693">225</a>]. Unlike caspase-1, caspase-11 cleaves gasdermin D independently of inflammasome mediators [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Agnew A, Nulty C, Creagh EM (2021) Regulation, activation and function of Caspase-11 during health and disease. Int J Mol Sci 22:1–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22041506
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6696">12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 223" title="Kang SJ, Wang S, Hara H, et al (2000) Dual role of caspase-11 in mediating activation of caspase-1 and caspase-3 under pathological conditions. J Cell Biol 149:613–622. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.149.3.613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR223" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6699">223</a>]. Caspase-11 also participates in apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 226" title="Miao N, Wang B, Xu D, et al (2018) Caspase-11 promotes cisplatin-induced renal tubular apoptosis through a caspase-3-dependent pathway. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 314:F269–F279. 
 https://doi.org/10.1152/AJPRENAL.00091.2017
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR226" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6702">226</a>] where it cleaves caspase-3 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 223" title="Kang SJ, Wang S, Hara H, et al (2000) Dual role of caspase-11 in mediating activation of caspase-1 and caspase-3 under pathological conditions. J Cell Biol 149:613–622. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.149.3.613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR223" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6705">223</a>]. Additionally, it regulates autophagy in response to bacterial insults [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 227" title="Krause K, Caution K, Badr A, et al (2018) CASP4/caspase-11 promotes autophagosome formation in response to bacterial infection. Autophagy 14:1928–1942. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15548627.2018.1491494
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR227" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6709">227</a>] and modulates intracellular trafficking by influencing of actin polymerization and cell migration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 228" title="Akhter A, Caution K, Abu Khweek A, et al (2012) Caspase-11 promotes the fusion of phagosomes harboring pathogenic bacteria with lysosomes by modulating actin polymerization. Immunity 37:35–47. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IMMUNI.2012.05.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR228" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6712">228</a>]. Furthermore, caspase-11 was revealed to play a role in the pathophysiology of asthma and allergy [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 229" title="Zasłona Z, Flis E, Wilk MM, et al (2020) Caspase-11 promotes allergic airway inflammation. Nat Commun 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41467-020-14945-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR229" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6715">229</a>]. It also can be involved in brain injury-induced neuronal pyroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 230" title="Sun Y, Li J, Wu H, et al (2023) GABAB receptor activation attenuates neuronal pyroptosis in post-cardiac arrest brain injury. Neuroscience 526:97–106. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUROSCIENCE.2023.06.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR230" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6718">230</a>]. Caspase-11-deficient mice are born live without significant developmental defects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Wang S, Miura M, Jung Y, et al (1998) Murine Caspase-11, an ICE-interacting protease, is essential for the activation of ICE. Cell 92:501–509. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80943-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6721">221</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec29">Apoptotic effect of caspase-11 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-11 exhibited reduced population of apoptotic cells after being subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion, a mouse model of stroke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 223" title="Kang SJ, Wang S, Hara H, et al (2000) Dual role of caspase-11 in mediating activation of caspase-1 and caspase-3 under pathological conditions. J Cell Biol 149:613–622. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.149.3.613
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR223" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6732">223</a>]. The decreased apoptosis was assigned to decreased activation of caspase-3. Caspase-11 further contributed to macrophage death during <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i> infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 231" title="Broz P, Ruby T, Belhocine K, et al (2012) Caspase-11 increases susceptibility to Salmonella infection in the absence of caspase-1. Nature 490:288–291. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE11419
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR231" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6738">231</a>]. Importantly, the process was not dependent on IL-1β/IL-18 maturation and caspase-11 was shown activated in non-canonical inflammasome during this process.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec30">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-11 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-11-deficient mice were found to be protected from sepsis induced by LPS, and they manifested defective secretion of interleukins [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Wang S, Miura M, Jung Y, et al (1998) Murine Caspase-11, an ICE-interacting protease, is essential for the activation of ICE. Cell 92:501–509. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80943-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6749">221</a>]. Based on this observation, caspase-11 was indicated to interact with caspase-1 and promote its activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Wang S, Miura M, Jung Y, et al (1998) Murine Caspase-11, an ICE-interacting protease, is essential for the activation of ICE. Cell 92:501–509. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80943-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6752">221</a>]. Since caspase-1 and caspase-11 are located close to each other on the chromosome, caspase-1-deficient mice also lacked caspase-11, making it difficult to separate their functions. Further studies using genetically targeted mice provided insight into the specific roles of caspase-11. Thus caspase-11, rather than caspase-1, may be the critical effector of deleterious inflammatory responses [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 218" title="Kayagaki N, Warming S, Lamkanfi M, et al (2011) Non-canonical inflammasome activation targets caspase-11. Nature 479:117–121. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE10558
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR218" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6755">218</a>].</p><p>Caspase-11-deficient mice manifested increased susceptibility to inflammatory disease such as colitis due to impaired IL-18 production, resulting in reduced intestinal epithelial barrier integrity and decreased cell proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 232" title="Oficjalska K, Raverdeau M, Aviello G, et al (2015) Protective role for caspase-11 during acute experimental murine colitis. J Immunol 194:1252–1260. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.1400501
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR232" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6761">232</a>]. Additionally, they were more sensitive to colitis-associated carcinogenesis, showing increased expression of proteins associated with early-stage of angiogenesis. The heightened susceptibility of caspase-11-deficient mice was associated with decreased Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1 (STAT1) activity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 233" title="Flood B, Manils J, Nulty C, et al (2019) Caspase-11 regulates the tumour suppressor function of STAT1 in a murine model of colitis-associated carcinogenesis. Oncogene 38:2658–2674. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41388-018-0613-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR233" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6764">233</a>]. On the other hand, caspase-11-deficiency conferred protection from allergic lung inflammation. These mice showed decreased levels of leukocyte numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and had fewer infiltrating alveolar eosinophils [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 229" title="Zasłona Z, Flis E, Wilk MM, et al (2020) Caspase-11 promotes allergic airway inflammation. Nat Commun 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41467-020-14945-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR229" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6767">229</a>].</p><p>Caspase-11 was suggested to play role in regulation of lymphocyte migration during inflammation. Caspase-11 interacts with actin interacting protein 1 (Aip1), an activator of cofilin-mediated actin depolymerisation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 234" title="Li J, Brieher WM, Scimone ML, et al (2007) Caspase-11 regulates cell migration by promoting Aip1-Cofilin-mediated actin depolymerization. Nat Cell Biol 9:276–286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NCB1541
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR234" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6773">234</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec31">Caspase-12</h4><p>Despite being initially classified as an inflammatory caspase, caspase-12 function has not yet been sufficiently explained [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 235" title="Bolívar BE, Vogel TP, Bouchier-Hayes L (2019) Inflammatory caspase regulation: maintaining balance between inflammation and cell death in health and disease. FEBS J 286:2628–2644. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/FEBS.14926
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR235" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6784">235</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 236" title="Salvamoser R, Brinkmann K, O’Reilly LA, et al (2019) Characterisation of mice lacking the inflammatory caspases-1/11/12 reveals no contribution of caspase-12 to cell death and sepsis. Cell Death Differ 26:1124–1137. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41418-018-0188-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR236" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6787">236</a>]. Caspase-12 differs from inflammatory caspase-1 and -11 in several aspects. It does not participate in the maturation of IL-1β and is not present in macrophages, which are typical models of inflammatory cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 237" title="Lamkanfi M, Kalai M, Vandenabeele P (2004) Caspase-12: an overview. Cell Death Differ 11:365–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4401364
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR237" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6790">237</a>]. Some authors speculate about its function in cell death induced by ER stress, which frequently occurs due to the accumulation of misfolded proteins and changes in calcium homeostasis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 238" title="Shiraishi H, Okamoto H, Yoshimura A, Yoshida H (2006) ER stress-induced apoptosis and caspase-12 activation occurs downstream of mitochondrial apoptosis involving Apaf-1. J Cell Sci 119:3958–3966. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/JCS.03160
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR238" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6793">238</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6796">239</a>]. Activation of caspase-12 was detected in some models of apoptotic induction [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 240" title="Kalai M, Lamkanfi M, Denecker G, et al (2003) Regulation of the expression and processing of caspase-12. J Cell Biol 162:457–467. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.200303157
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR240" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6800">240</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Kilic M, Schäfer R, Hoppe J, Kagerhuber U (2002) Formation of noncanonical high molecular weight caspase-3 and – 6 complexes and activation of caspase-12 during serum starvation induced apoptosis in AKR-2B mouse fibroblasts. Cell Death Differ 9:125–137. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4400968
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6803">241</a>], while in others, it was not [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6806">239</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Wang X, Shao Z, Zetoune FS, et al (2003) NRADD, a novel membrane protein with a death domain involved in mediating apoptosis in response to ER stress. Cell Death Differ 10:580–591. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SJ.CDD.4401208
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6809">242</a>]. Some studies documented a suppressive effect of caspase-12 on caspase-1, which would then enhance vulnerability to sepsis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 243" title="Saleh M, Mathison JC, Wolinski MK, et al (2006) Enhanced bacterial clearance and sepsis resistance in caspase-12-deficient mice. Nature 440:1064–1068. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE04656
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR243" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6812">243</a>]. However, this function of caspase-12 has also been questioned [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 244" title="Vande Walle L, Lamkanfi M (2016) Pyroptosis. Curr Biol 26:R568–R572. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.02.019
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR244" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6815">244</a>]. These contradictory scientific outcomes make caspase-12 difficult to classify and characterize its physiological function. Furthermore, the activation of caspase-12 is not fully understood. In some circumstances, it has been observed to be activated by calpain, TRAF2, and caspase-7 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nakagawa T, Yuan J (2000) Cross-talk between two cysteine protease families. Activation of caspase-12 by calpain in apoptosis. J Cell Biol 150:887–894. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.150.4.887
 
 " href="#ref-CR245" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6819">245</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yoneda T, Imaizumi K, Oono K, et al (2001) Activation of caspase-12, an endoplastic reticulum (ER) resident caspase, through tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2-dependent mechanism in response to the ER stress. J Biol Chem 276:13935–13940. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M010677200
 
 " href="#ref-CR246" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6819_1">246</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 247" title="Rao R V., Hermel E, Castro-Obregon S, et al (2001) Coupling endoplasmic reticulum stress to the cell death program. Mechanism of caspase activation. J Biol Chem 276:33869–33874. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M102225200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR247" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6822">247</a>].</p><p>Caspase-12 was detected in various tissues during development, but its constitutive expression was associated with only some cell types, such as epithelia or primary fibroblasts [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Veselá B, Matalová E (2015) Expression of apoptosis-related genes in the mouse skin during the first postnatal catagen stage, focused on localization of Bnip3L and caspase-12. Connect Tissue Res 56:326–335. 
 https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2015.1040546
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6828">180</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 240" title="Kalai M, Lamkanfi M, Denecker G, et al (2003) Regulation of the expression and processing of caspase-12. J Cell Biol 162:457–467. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.200303157
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR240" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6831">240</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 245" title="Nakagawa T, Yuan J (2000) Cross-talk between two cysteine protease families. Activation of caspase-12 by calpain in apoptosis. J Cell Biol 150:887–894. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.150.4.887
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR245" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6834">245</a>]. Interestingly, caspase-12 was found in developing bone and may regulate the expression of osteogenic markers such as <i>Alpl</i>, <i>Bglap</i>, and <i>Phex</i> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 248" title="Vesela B, Kratochvilova A, Svandova E, et al (2020) Caspase-12 is present during craniofacial development and participates in regulation of osteogenic markers. Front cell Dev Biol 8:589136. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.589136
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR248" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6847">248</a>]. Mice, unlike humans, express full length caspase-12 which can undergo proteolytic cleavage [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 240" title="Kalai M, Lamkanfi M, Denecker G, et al (2003) Regulation of the expression and processing of caspase-12. J Cell Biol 162:457–467. 
 https://doi.org/10.1083/JCB.200303157
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR240" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6850">240</a>]. Multiple roles of caspase-12 thus were hypothesized in mice. In humans, most people express truncated form of caspase-12 lacking catalytic domain and only about 20% African descent people express full length protease which is a risk factor for developing sepsis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Saleh M, Vaillancourt JP, Graham RK, et al (2004) Differential modulation of endotoxin responsiveness by human caspase-12 polymorphisms. Nature 429:75–79. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE02451
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6853">14</a>]. From the clinical aspect, caspase-12 has shown potential in the treatment of inherited retinopathy [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 249" title="Bhootada Y, Choudhury S, Gully C, Gorbatyuk M (2015) Targeting Caspase-12 to preserve vision in mice with inherited retinal degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 56:4725–4733. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/IOVS.15-16924
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR249" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6856">249</a>] and Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 250" title="Moorwood C, Barton ER (2014) Caspase-12 ablation preserves muscle function in the mdx mouse. Hum Mol Genet 23:5325–5341. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDU249
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR250" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6859">250</a>]. Additionally, it is speculated to play a role in neurological diseases due to its putative engagement as ER stress sensor [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6863">239</a>]. Remarkably, caspase-12-deficient mice are born live without significant developmental defects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6866">239</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec32">Apoptotic effect of caspase-12 deficiency</h4><p>Engagement of caspase-12 in apoptosis was dependent on different stimuli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6877">239</a>]. The reduction of apoptosis as observed in different disease model in caspase-12-deficient mice could be either beneficial or harmful for treatment of pathologies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6880">239</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 249" title="Bhootada Y, Choudhury S, Gully C, Gorbatyuk M (2015) Targeting Caspase-12 to preserve vision in mice with inherited retinal degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 56:4725–4733. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/IOVS.15-16924
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR249" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6883">249</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 251" title="Liu H, Wang Z, Nowicki MJ (2014) Caspase-12 mediates carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatocyte apoptosis in mice. World J Gastroenterol 20:18189–18198. 
 https://doi.org/10.3748/WJG.V20.I48.18189
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR251" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6886">251</a>]. Caspase-12-deficient cortical neurons were defective in ER apoptosis induced by amyloid-β protein and thus caspase-12 may contribute to amyloid-β neurotoxicity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al (2000) Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403:98–103. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/47513
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6889">239</a>]. Mechanism of ER induced apoptotic pathway was not understood. One of the hypotheses speculates that an imbalance in Ca<sup>2+</sup> homeostasis can cause calpain translocation to the ER leading to activation of caspase-12 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 252" title="Martinez JA, Zhang Z, Svetlov SI, et al (2010) Calpain and caspase processing of caspase-12 contribute to the ER stress-induced cell death pathway in differentiated PC12 cells. Apoptosis 15:1480–1493. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/S10495-010-0526-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR252" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6895">252</a>]. Caspase-12 then induces the caspase-3-dependent apoptotic pathway through the activation of caspase-9 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 253" title="Morishima N, Nakanishi K, Takenouchi H, et al (2002) An endoplasmic reticulum stress-specific caspase cascade in apoptosis. Cytochrome c-independent activation of caspase-9 by caspase-12. J Biol Chem 277:34287–34294. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/JBC.M204973200
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR253" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6898">253</a>].</p><p>Caspase-12 ablation in T17M retinas (model of retinal pathology) resulted in postponed photoreceptor cell death and preservation of retinal structural integrity with the scenarios where ER stress-IRE1-TRAF2-Csp12-Csp3/7 and the calcium-induced active calpain-caspase-12-Csp-3/7 pathways contribute to retinal pathogenesis in T17M mice through activation of caspase-12 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 249" title="Bhootada Y, Choudhury S, Gully C, Gorbatyuk M (2015) Targeting Caspase-12 to preserve vision in mice with inherited retinal degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 56:4725–4733. 
 https://doi.org/10.1167/IOVS.15-16924
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR249" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6904">249</a>].</p><p>In carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatocytes, reduced apoptosis was observed in caspase-12-deficient mice compared to WTs, resulting in decreased liver damage. This phenotype was accompanied by attenuated activation of caspase-9 and -3, supporting caspase-12 action on caspase-3 directly and/or indirectly <i>via</i> caspase-9 activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 251" title="Liu H, Wang Z, Nowicki MJ (2014) Caspase-12 mediates carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatocyte apoptosis in mice. World J Gastroenterol 20:18189–18198. 
 https://doi.org/10.3748/WJG.V20.I48.18189
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR251" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6913">251</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec33">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-12 deficiency</h4><p>Similar to its apoptotic functions, the non-apoptotic roles of caspase-12 were dependent on specific cell types and stimuli. Caspase-12-deficient mice have been observed to have increased resistance to polymicrobial sepsis and peritonitis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 243" title="Saleh M, Mathison JC, Wolinski MK, et al (2006) Enhanced bacterial clearance and sepsis resistance in caspase-12-deficient mice. Nature 440:1064–1068. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE04656
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR243" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6925">243</a>], as well as to some bacterial infections [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 254" title="LeBlanc PM, Yeretssian G, Rutherford N, et al (2008) Caspase-12 modulates NOD signaling and regulates antimicrobial peptide production and mucosal immunity. Cell Host Microbe 3:146–157. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHOM.2008.02.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR254" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6928">254</a>], when compared to WT mice. The survival advantage of the caspase-12-deficient mice resulted from more efficient clearance of bacterial infection than in WT littermates. This was accompanied by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IFNγ, which was critical for the process [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 243" title="Saleh M, Mathison JC, Wolinski MK, et al (2006) Enhanced bacterial clearance and sepsis resistance in caspase-12-deficient mice. Nature 440:1064–1068. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE04656
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR243" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6931">243</a>]. Consistently, improved pathogen clearance was associated to NF-κB activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 254" title="LeBlanc PM, Yeretssian G, Rutherford N, et al (2008) Caspase-12 modulates NOD signaling and regulates antimicrobial peptide production and mucosal immunity. Cell Host Microbe 3:146–157. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHOM.2008.02.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR254" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6934">254</a>].</p><p>In contrast to bacterial infection, caspase-12-deficient mice exhibit greater mortality during West Nile virus (WNV) infection compared to WT mice. This was accompanied by exacerbated neurological symptoms, higher viral burden and defective IFNβ response [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 255" title="Wang P, Arjona A, Zhang Y, et al (2010) Caspase-12 controls West Nile virus infection via the viral RNA receptor RIG-I. Nat Immunol 11:912–919. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2014.371
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR255" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6940">255</a>]. Despite increased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 256" title="Labbé K, Miu J, Yeretssian G, et al (2010) Caspase-12 dampens the immune response to malaria independently of the inflammasome by targeting NF-kappaB signaling. J Immunol 185:5495–5502. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.1002517
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR256" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6943">256</a>], caspase-12-deficient mice were not universally protected from malaria infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 257" title="Miu J, Saleh M, Stevenson MM (2010) Caspase-12 deficiency enhances cytokine responses but does not protect against lethal Plasmodium Yoelii 17XL infection. Parasite Immunol 32:773–778. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-3024.2010.01250.X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR257" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6946">257</a>].</p><p>Higher level of obesity was observed on a high-fat diet in caspase-12-deficient mice compared to their WT counterparts. They increased liver weight, serum cholesterol, liver triglycerides and elevated liver damage. They also developed glucose intolerance and insulin resistance. This phenotype might be dependent on the NLRP3 inflammasome, since <i>Casp12</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup><i>Nlrp3</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup> mice did not develop obesity and were similar with WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 258" title="Skeldon AM, Morizot A, Douglas T, et al (2016) Caspase-12, but not Caspase-11, inhibits obesity and insulin resistance. J Immunol 196:437–447. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.1501529
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR258" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6963">258</a>].</p><p>Deletion of caspase-12 improved phenotype of <i>mdx</i> mice, model for DMD. ER stress is heightened in dystrophic muscles and contributes to the pathology of DMD. <i>Mdx</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup><i>Casp-12</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup> mice had a 75% recovery of both specific force generation and resistance to eccentric contractions. The compensatory hypertrophy normally found in <i>Mdx</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup> muscles was normalized when caspase-12 was deleted. The mechanism by which caspase-12 deletion preserves <i>Mdx</i><sup><i>−/−</i></sup> muscle function is not known. Possible mechanisms may include an improvement in regeneration, protection of contractile proteins from degradation but also apoptotic aspect cannot be excluded [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 250" title="Moorwood C, Barton ER (2014) Caspase-12 ablation preserves muscle function in the mdx mouse. Hum Mol Genet 23:5325–5341. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDU249
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR250" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e6996">250</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec34">Caspase with differentiation function</h3><p>The phenotypes of mice deficient for caspase-14 are listed in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab6">6</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-6"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab6" data-test="table-caption">Table 6 Phenotypes of mice lacking caspase-14</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z/tables/6" aria-label="Full size table 6"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec35">Caspase-14</h4><p>Caspase-14 stands out as a unique member of the caspase family, distinct from both apoptotic and inflammatory groups of caspases. Activation of caspase-14 primarily occurs in epithelial cells of the skin and hair follicles undergoing a special type of cell death called cornification [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Lippens S, Kockx M, Knaapen M, et al (2000) Epidermal differentiation does not involve the pro-apoptotic executioner caspases, but is associated with caspase-14 induction and processing. Cell Death Differ 7:1218–24. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400785
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7240">259</a>]. Its crucial role lies in the processing of profilaggrin to filaggrin and later into hygroscopic amino acids, which act as one of the elements of natural moisturizing factors, thereby contributing to the maintenance of the skin barrier against water loss [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 260" title="Hoste E, Kemperman P, Devos M, et al (2011) Caspase-14 is required for filaggrin degradation to natural moisturizing factors in the skin. J Invest Dermatol 131:2233–2241. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/JID.2011.153
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7243">260</a>]. The clinical relevance of caspase-14 is particularly evident during the terminal differentiation of skin keratinocytes and the maintenance of normal stratum corneum [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 261" title="Raymond AA, Méchin MC, Nachat R, et al (2007) Nine procaspases are expressed in normal human epidermis, but only caspase-14 is fully processed. Br J Dermatol 156:420–427. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2133.2006.07656.X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR261" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7246">261</a>]. In contrast to other caspases expressed ubiquitously in various cells, caspase-14 was located specifically in cornifying epithelia and hair follicles, Hassall’s bodies of the thymus gland, and in the forestomach of rodents [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Lippens S, Kockx M, Knaapen M, et al (2000) Epidermal differentiation does not involve the pro-apoptotic executioner caspases, but is associated with caspase-14 induction and processing. Cell Death Differ 7:1218–24. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400785
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7249">259</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 262" title="Lippens S, Kockx M, Denecker G, et al (2004) Vitamin D3 induces caspase-14 expression in psoriatic lesions and enhances caspase-14 processing in organotypic skin cultures. Am J Pathol 165:833–41. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63346-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR262" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7252">262</a>]. Although the regulation of the caspase-14 gene has not been fully elucidated, it is speculated to be tightly connected with processes of epidermal differentiation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 263" title="Markiewicz A, Sigorski D, Markiewicz M, et al (2021) Caspase-14-From biomolecular basics to clinical approach. A review of available data. Int J Mol Sci 22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22115575
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR263" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7256">263</a>].</p><p>Furthermore, caspase-14 expression has been described in various types of cancer and diabetic retinopathy [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 263" title="Markiewicz A, Sigorski D, Markiewicz M, et al (2021) Caspase-14-From biomolecular basics to clinical approach. A review of available data. Int J Mol Sci 22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22115575
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR263" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7262">263</a>] In the context of the skin diseases, increased expression of caspase-14 has been found in cancerous lesions, while decreased expression was associated with psoriasis or atopic dermatitis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 264" title="Markiewicz A, Sigorski D, Markiewicz M, et al (2023) mRNA expression of caspase 14 in skin epithelial malignancies. Postep Dermatologii i Alergol 40:315–320. 
 https://doi.org/10.5114/ADA.2023.127646
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR264" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7265">264</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Jung M, Choi J, Lee SA, et al (2014) Pyrrolidone carboxylic acid levels or caspase-14 expression in the corneocytes of lesional skin correlates with clinical severity, skin barrier function and lesional inflammation in atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol Sci 76:231–239. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JDERMSCI.2014.09.004
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7268">265</a>]. Notably, caspase-14-deficient mice born live, are fertile, and live as long as WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 260" title="Hoste E, Kemperman P, Devos M, et al (2011) Caspase-14 is required for filaggrin degradation to natural moisturizing factors in the skin. J Invest Dermatol 131:2233–2241. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/JID.2011.153
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7271">260</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, et al (2007) Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol 9:666–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb1597
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7274">266</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec36">Apoptotic effect of caspase-14 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-14 was not associated with activation in response to apoptotic stimuli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Chien AJ, Presland RB, Kuechle MK (2002) Processing of native caspase-14 occurs at an atypical cleavage site in normal epidermal differentiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 296:911–917. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-291X(02)02015-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7285">267</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec37">Non-apoptotic effect of caspase-14 deficiency</h4><p>Caspase-14 deficiency particularly impacted skin cornification [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 263" title="Markiewicz A, Sigorski D, Markiewicz M, et al (2021) Caspase-14-From biomolecular basics to clinical approach. A review of available data. Int J Mol Sci 22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/IJMS22115575
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR263" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7297">263</a>]. The skin of new-born caspase-14-deficient mice was shinier and more lichenified than in WT mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, et al (2007) Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol 9:666–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb1597
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7300">266</a>]. Furthermore, caspase-14-deficient mice have decreased epidermal hydration, higher transepidermal water loss, and three times lower levels of natural moisturizing factors [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 260" title="Hoste E, Kemperman P, Devos M, et al (2011) Caspase-14 is required for filaggrin degradation to natural moisturizing factors in the skin. J Invest Dermatol 131:2233–2241. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/JID.2011.153
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7303">260</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, et al (2007) Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol 9:666–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb1597
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7306">266</a>]. This is because, in caspase-14-deficient mice, processing of profilaggrin, the only known substrate of caspase-14, into fillagrin was initiated but not completed, resulting in the accumulation of filaggrin fragments, which leads to various aberrant phenotypes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 260" title="Hoste E, Kemperman P, Devos M, et al (2011) Caspase-14 is required for filaggrin degradation to natural moisturizing factors in the skin. J Invest Dermatol 131:2233–2241. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/JID.2011.153
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7309">260</a>].</p><p>The skin of caspase-14-deficient mice was also more sensitive to different stimuli compared to WT mice. Following repetitive treatment by acetone, a higher incidence of large parakeratotic plaques was observed in caspase-14-deficient mice compared to WTs [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 268" title="Hoste E, Denecker G, Gilbert B, et al (2013) Caspase-14-deficient mice are more prone to the development of parakeratosis. J Invest Dermatol 133:742–750. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/JID.2012.350
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR268" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7315">268</a>]. Additionally, the skin of caspase-14-deficient mice exhibited heightened sensitivity to the formation of cyclobutene pyrimidine dimers after UVB irradiation, resulting in increased levels of UVB-induced apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Denecker G, Hoste E, Gilbert B, et al (2007) Caspase-14 protects against epidermal UVB photodamage and water loss. Nat Cell Biol 9:666–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb1597
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7318">266</a>]. Furthermore, caspase-14 ablation resulted in an increase in bacterial richness and diversity during steady-state conditions and caspase-14-deficient mice showed enhanced antibacterial response compared to WT mice when challenged with bacteria [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 269" title="Kubica M, Hildebrand F, Brinkman BM, et al (2014) The skin microbiome of caspase-14-deficient mice shows mild dysbiosis. Exp Dermatol 23:561–567. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/EXD.12458
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR269" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7321">269</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec38">Comparison of knockout animals</h4><p>Mice deficient in caspases displayed some interesting phenotype similarities. The most apparent resemblance was seen in decreased elimination of neurons, resulting in excessive neural tissue incompatible with life in caspase-3 or -9-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Kuida K, Haydar TF, Kuan CY, et al (1998) Reduced apoptosis and cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation in mice lacking caspase 9. Cell 94:325–37. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81476-2
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7332">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 131" title="Kuida K, Zheng TS, Na S, et al (1996) Decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in CPP32-deficient mice. Nature 384:368–372. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/384368a0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7335">131</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 270" title="Hakem R, Hakem A, Duncan GS, et al (1998) Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:339–352. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81477-4
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR270" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7338">270</a>]. A similar observation was made in Apaf-1 deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 271" title="Cecconi F, Alvarez-Bolado G, Meyer BI, et al (1998) Apaf1 (CED-4 homolog) regulates programmed cell death in mammalian development. Cell 94:727–37. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81732-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR271" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7341">271</a>], highlighting the crucial role of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway for neural development and viability. Caspase-8-deficient mice also exhibited abnormalities of neural system; however, the lethality observed in caspase-8 null mice resulted from uncontrolled necroptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Cuda CM, Misharin A V., Khare S, et al (2015) Conditional deletion of caspase-8 in macrophages alters macrophage activation in a RIPK-dependent manner. Arthritis Res Ther 17. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/S13075-015-0794-Z
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7344">101</a>]. Therefore, the extrinsic pathway likely plays a minor or specific role in this process. Mice lacking the caspase-3 or -9 (or also Apaf-1) suffered from anatomic and functional abnormalities of the inner ear, which was again attributed to the decreased levels of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Cecconi F, Roth KA, Dolgov O, et al (2004) Apaf1-dependent programmed cell death is required for inner ear morphogenesis and growth. Development 131:2125–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.01082
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7348">116</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Makishima T, Hochman L, Armstrong P, et al (2011) Inner ear dysfunction in caspase-3 deficient mice. BMC Neurosci 12:102. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-102
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7351">133</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 144" title="Takahashi K, Kamiya K, Urase K, et al (2001) Caspase-3-deficiency induces hyperplasia of supporting cells and degeneration of sensory cells resulting in the hearing loss. Brain Res 894:359–67. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02123-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7354">144</a>].</p><p>Insufficient apoptosis further impacted caspase-2 or -9-deficient ovaries [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Bergeron L, Perez GI, Macdonald G, et al (1998) Defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase-2-deficient mice. Genes Dev 12:1304–1314. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/GAD.12.9.1304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7360">46</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 125" title="Ene AC, Park S, Edelmann W, Taketo T (2013) Caspase 9 is constitutively activated in mouse oocytes and plays a key role in oocyte elimination during meiotic prophase progression. Dev Biol 377:213–223. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.YDBIO.2013.01.027
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7363">125</a>], albeit with different timing. Conversely, deficiency of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 resulted in decreased oocyte population [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 272" title="Ratts VS, Flaws JA, Kolp R, et al (1995) Ablation of bcl-2 gene expression decreases the numbers of oocytes and primordial follicles established in the post-natal female mouse gonad. Endocrinology 136:3665–3668. 
 https://doi.org/10.1210/ENDO.136.8.7628407
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR272" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7366">272</a>], further supporting the importance of mitochondria in this process. Surprisingly, all caspase-deficient mice, except caspase-14, showed some alterations in apoptosis depending on the stimuli or cell types (see Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab3">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab4">4</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab5">5</a>). This suggests existence of various pathways that may be employed in specific cells and situations.</p><p>Deficiency of inflammatory caspases resulted in altered response to various types of infection, with either beneficial or deteriorative effects for the mutant mice (see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#Tab5">5</a>). As observed in caspase-1 or -11-deficient mice, the phenotype may result from impaired cytokine production [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 202" title="Li P, Allen H, Banerjee S, et al (1995) Mice deficient in IL-1 beta-converting enzyme are defective in production of mature IL-1 beta and resistant to endotoxic shock. Cell 80:401–11. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(95)90490-5
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR202" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7385">202</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 232" title="Oficjalska K, Raverdeau M, Aviello G, et al (2015) Protective role for caspase-11 during acute experimental murine colitis. J Immunol 194:1252–1260. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.1400501
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR232" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7388">232</a>]. On the contrary, caspase-12-deficient mice showed an increased pro-inflammatory response [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 257" title="Miu J, Saleh M, Stevenson MM (2010) Caspase-12 deficiency enhances cytokine responses but does not protect against lethal Plasmodium Yoelii 17XL infection. Parasite Immunol 32:773–778. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-3024.2010.01250.X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR257" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7391">257</a>], highlighting the specific character of caspase-12.</p><p>In terms of non-lethal functions, caspase-3 or -7 deficiency has been linked to abnormalities in differentiation and the formation of hard tissues [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7397">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Matalova E, Lesot H, Svandova E, et al (2013) Caspase-7 participates in differentiation of cells forming dental hard tissues. Dev Growth Differ 55:615–21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/dgd.12066
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7400">31</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Svandova E, Lesot H, Vanden Berghe T, et al (2014) Non-apoptotic functions of caspase-7 during osteogenesis. Cell Death Dis 5:e1366. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2014.330
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7403">179</a>]. Although both deficient models have shown alterations in osteogenic gene expression [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Miura M, Chen X-D, Allen MR, et al (2004) A crucial role of caspase-3 in osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal stem cells. J Clin Invest 114:1704–13. 
 https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI20427
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7406">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Svandova E, Lesot H, Vanden Berghe T, et al (2014) Non-apoptotic functions of caspase-7 during osteogenesis. Cell Death Dis 5:e1366. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2014.330
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7409">179</a>], the function of these caspases may also involve the degradation of stem-cell-specific factors [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Fujita J, Crane AM, Souza MK, et al (2008) Caspase activity mediates the differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2:595–601. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.STEM.2008.04.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7413">43</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 188" title="Musch T, Öz Y, Lyko F, Breiling A (2010) Nucleoside drugs induce cellular differentiation by caspase-dependent degradation of stem cell factors. PLoS One 5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0010726
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR188" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7416">188</a>]. Caspase-3 or -12 deficiency have been implicated in skeletal muscle function [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Fernando P, Kelly JF, Balazsi K, et al (2002) Caspase 3 activity is required for skeletal muscle differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:11025–11030. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.162172899
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7419">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 250" title="Moorwood C, Barton ER (2014) Caspase-12 ablation preserves muscle function in the mdx mouse. Hum Mol Genet 23:5325–5341. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDU249
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR250" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7422">250</a>], but unrelated mechanisms were suggested to be involved. Caspase-1, -3 or -8 have been observed to regulate the proliferation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Lee P, Lee DJ, Chan C, et al (2009) Dynamic expression of epidermal caspase 8 simulates a wound healing response. Nature 458:519–523. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NATURE07687
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7425">102</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 134" title="Woo M, Hakem R, Furlonger C, et al (2003) Caspase-3 regulates cell cycle in B cells: a consequence of substrate specificity. Nat Immunol 4:1016–1022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/NI976
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7428">134</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 150" title="Yosefzon Y, Soteriou D, Feldman A, et al (2018) Caspase-3 regulates YAP-dependent cell proliferation and organ size. Mol Cell 70:573–587.e4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MOLCEL.2018.04.019
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7432">150</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 207" title="Hu B, Elinav E, Huber S, et al (2010) Inflammation-induced tumorigenesis in the colon is regulated by caspase-1 and NLRC4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:21635–21640. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1016814108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR207" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7435">207</a>] of various cell types, making it difficult to determine a general mechanism for this process. Additionally, caspase-1, -2 or caspase-12 deficient mice have shown alterations in metabolism and the development of obesity, with specificities for each caspase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Wilson CH, Nikolic A, Kentish SJ, et al (2017) Caspase-2 deficiency enhances whole-body carbohydrate utilisation and prevents high-fat diet-induced obesity. Cell Death Dis 8:e3136. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.518
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7438">76</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Wang H, Capell W, Yoon JH, et al (2014) Obesity development in caspase-1-deficient mice. Int J Obes (Lond) 38:152–155. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/IJO.2013.59
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7441">198</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 258" title="Skeldon AM, Morizot A, Douglas T, et al (2016) Caspase-12, but not Caspase-11, inhibits obesity and insulin resistance. J Immunol 196:437–447. 
 https://doi.org/10.4049/JIMMUNOL.1501529
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR258" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7444">258</a>]. Impaired synaptic formation and plasticity have been observed in caspase-9-deficient [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 122" title="Ohsawa S, Hamada S, Kuida K, et al (2010) Maturation of the olfactory sensory neurons by Apaf-1/caspase-9-mediated caspase activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:13366–71. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910488107
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7447">122</a>] or caspase-3-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 154" title="Lo SC, Scearce-Levie K, Sheng M (2016) Characterization of social behaviors in caspase-3 deficient mice. Sci Rep 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SREP18335
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR154" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7451">154</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 155" title="Lo SC, Wang Y, Weber M, et al (2015) Caspase-3 deficiency results in disrupted synaptic homeostasis and impaired attention control. J Neurosci 35:2118–2132. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3280-14.2015
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR155" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7454">155</a>]. Furthermore, behavioural alterations have been detected in caspase-3 or caspase-6-deficient mice [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 154" title="Lo SC, Scearce-Levie K, Sheng M (2016) Characterization of social behaviors in caspase-3 deficient mice. Sci Rep 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/SREP18335
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR154" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7457">154</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 155" title="Lo SC, Wang Y, Weber M, et al (2015) Caspase-3 deficiency results in disrupted synaptic homeostasis and impaired attention control. J Neurosci 35:2118–2132. 
 https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3280-14.2015
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR155" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7460">155</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 163" title="Uribe V, Wong BKY, Graham RK, et al (2012) Rescue from excitotoxicity and axonal degeneration accompanied by age-dependent behavioral and neuroanatomical alterations in caspase-6-deficient mice. Hum Mol Genet 21:1954–1967. 
 https://doi.org/10.1093/HMG/DDS005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR163" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7463">163</a>]. While caspase-1 or -2-deficiency has been associated with increased susceptibility to tumor induction [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Parsons MJ, McCormick L, Janke L, et al (2013) Genetic deletion of caspase-2 accelerates MMTV/c-neu-driven mammary carcinogenesis in mice. Cell Death Differ 20:1174–1182. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/CDD.2013.38
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7466">75</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 207" title="Hu B, Elinav E, Huber S, et al (2010) Inflammation-induced tumorigenesis in the colon is regulated by caspase-1 and NLRC4. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107:21635–21640. 
 https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1016814108
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR207" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7470">207</a>], deficiency of caspase-3 has been linked inversely to a decreased incidence of cancer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 147" title="Liu X, He Y, Li F, et al (2015) Caspase-3 promotes genetic instability and carcinogenesis. Mol Cell 58:284–296. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MOLCEL.2015.03.003
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7473">147</a>]. These data highlight the diverse roles of caspases, not only as tumour inhibitors but also as tumour inducers, across various pathways. In general, the apoptotic pathway seems to be more conserved compared to non-apoptotic mechanisms, and disruption of the apoptotic function of caspases results in more devastating effect compared to abnormalities resulting from their non-apoptotic roles.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec39">Future perspective of caspase research</h4><p>Caspases have been recognized as great promising targets for treating various human diseases [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="McIlwain DR, Berger T, Mak TW (2015) Caspase functions in cell death and disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 7. 
 https://doi.org/10.1101/CSHPERSPECT.A026716
 
 " href="#ref-CR273" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7484">273</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kudelova J, Fleischmannova J, Adamova E, Matalova E (2015) Pharmacological caspase inhibitors: research towards therapeutic perspectives. J Physiol Pharmacol an off J Polish Physiol Soc 66:473–482" href="#ref-CR274" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7484_1">274</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 275" title="Dhani S, Zhao Y, Zhivotovsky B (2021) A long way to go: caspase inhibitors in clinical use. Cell Death Dis 12:949. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-021-04240-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR275" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7487">275</a>]. However, the efficacy, specificity, and side effects of pharmacological caspase inhibitors, the primary tools in clinical studies and future applications, remain significant challenges [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 275" title="Dhani S, Zhao Y, Zhivotovsky B (2021) A long way to go: caspase inhibitors in clinical use. Cell Death Dis 12:949. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-021-04240-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR275" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7490">275</a>]. Despite recent advancement such as nanoparticle delivery systems and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing showing promising potential in caspase treatment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 276" title="Duan H, Liu Y, Gao Z, Huang W (2021) Recent advances in drug delivery systems for targeting cancer stem cells. Acta Pharm Sin B 11:55–70. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2020.09.016
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR276" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7493">276</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 277" title="Karlgren M, Simoff I, Keiser M, et al (2018) CRISPR-Cas9: a new addition to the drug metabolism and disposition tool box. Drug Metab Dispos 46:1776–1786. 
 https://doi.org/10.1124/dmd.118.082842
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR277" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7496">277</a>], many questions about caspases themselves remain unanswered. The main challenge lies in describing and understanding the multiple and sometimes contradictory functions of caspases. This is closely related to further identification of their substrates and downstream pathways, including caspase regulators. Notably, the switch between lethal and non-lethal functions is considered a fundamental question, with several mechanisms proposed to regulate the process, such as subcellular localisation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 278" title="Prokhorova EA, Kopeina GS, Lavrik IN, Zhivotovsky B (2018) Apoptosis regulation by subcellular relocation of caspases. Sci Rep 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-018-30652-X
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR278" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7500">278</a>], availability of specific substrates [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 279" title="Nakajima Y, Kuranaga E (2017) Caspase-dependent non-apoptotic processes in development. Cell Death Differ 24:1422–1430. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2017.36
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR279" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7503">279</a>], compensation by anti-apoptotic proteins [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 280" title="Huesmann GR, Clayton DF (2006) Dynamic role of postsynaptic caspase-3 and BIRC4 in zebra finch song-response habituation. Neuron 52:1061–1072. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEURON.2006.10.033
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR280" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7506">280</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 281" title="Grabow S, Kueh AJ, Ke F, et al (2018) Subtle changes in the levels of BCL-2 proteins cause severe craniofacial abnormalities. Cell Rep 24:3285–3295.e4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.08.048
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR281" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7509">281</a>], various levels of activation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 282" title="Basu S, Rajakaruna S, Menko AS (2012) Insulin-like growth factor receptor-1 and nuclear factor κB are crucial survival signals that regulate caspase-3-mediated lens epithelial cell differentiation initiation. J Biol Chem 287:8384–97. 
 https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112.341586
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR282" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7512">282</a>], the biological status of cells (cell type, state of growth/differentiation), cellular context (environment), caspase activation vs. non-activated state, and mechanisms of activation. Many of these aspects may be further explored using mouse models, with temporal (Tamoxifen-inducible gene deletion) and/or spatial regulation (Cre/loxP recombination system) of caspase deficiency helping to specify caspase engagement in the development of different organs. However, it is important to note that while mouse models are valuable, there are limitations to directly extrapolating their findings to human research. For instance, caspase-8 deficiency is incompatible with life in mice but only results in immunological disorders in human [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 283" title="Bazgir N, Tahvildari A, Chavoshzade Z, et al (2023) A rare immunological disease, caspase 8 deficiency: case report and literature review. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 19. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/S13223-023-00778-3
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z#ref-CR283" id="ref-link-section-d51374248e7515">283</a>]. Finally, the focus of the field should be on translational work and complementing mechanistic models drawn from experimentation in mice.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec40-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec40">Conclusion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec40-content"><p>Mouse caspase models has greatly contributed to the progress in explaining the traditional but also emerging roles of these cysteine-aspartate proteases in the last decades. We hope that this comprehensive overview of available mouse models will not only acknowledge their hitherto utility but also emphasize their importance in enhancement of the development within this research field associated with basic as well as applied research.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Abbreviations"><div class="c-article-section" id="abbreviations-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="abbreviations">Abbreviations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="abbreviations-content"><dl class="c-abbreviation_list"><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>AD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Alzheimer disease</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ADHD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>Aip1:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Actin interacting protein 1</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>Apoe:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Apolipoprotein E-deficient</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>APP:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>β-amyloid precursor protein</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ARF:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Acute renal failure</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ATN:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Acute tubular necrosis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>Bcl-2:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>B-cell lymphoma 2</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>CAD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Caspase-activated DNase</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>CARD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Caspase-activation recruitment domain</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>Casp:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Caspase</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>CED:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Cell death protein</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>d.p.c.:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Day post coitum</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DED:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Death effector domain</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DISC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Death-inducing signalling complex</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DMD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Duchenne muscular dystrophy</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DR:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Death receptor</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DRG:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Dorsal root ganglion</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ER:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Endoplasmic reticulum</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>HD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Huntington disease</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>HFSC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Hair follicle stem cells</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>HS:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Haemorrhagic shock</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>I/R:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Ischemia/reperfusion</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>IAP:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Inhibitor of apoptosis protein</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>IAV:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Influenza A virus</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ICE:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Interleukin-1β-converting enzyme</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>IFN:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Interferon</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>IL:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Interleukin</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>JNK:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>C-Jun N-terminal kinase</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>LPS:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Lipopolysaccharides</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MEF:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Mesenchymal embryonic fibroblasts</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MLKL:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Mixed Lineage Kinase domain-Like</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MST1:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Mammalian Sterile Twenty-like kinase</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>NF-κB:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Nuclear factor κB</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>NGF:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Nerve growth factor</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>NLRP3:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ON:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Optic nerve</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>PEK:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Primary enamel knot</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RGCs:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Retinal ganglion cells</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RIP1:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Receptor-interacting protein 1</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RIPK3:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Receptor Interacting Serine/Threonine Kinase 3</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>STAT1:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>WNV:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>West Nile virus</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>WT:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Wild type</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>YAP:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Yes-associated protein</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ZBP1:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Z-DNA-binding protein 1</p> </dd></dl></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div 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EM, YC and EJ revised it critically. ES prepared illustrations. EM received the funding. All authors approved the content of the manuscript. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Svandova, E., Vesela, B., Janeckova, E. <i>et al.</i> Exploring caspase functions in mouse models. <i>Apoptosis</i> <b>29</b>, 938–966 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-05-02">02 May 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-06-02">02 June 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Issue Date<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-08">August 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-024-01976-z</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p 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