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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Organization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Organization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governing_Body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governing_Body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Governing Body </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governing_Body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Gender roles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Beliefs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Beliefs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Beliefs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jehovah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jehovah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Jehovah </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jehovah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jesus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jesus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Jesus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jesus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_after_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_after_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Life after death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_after_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eschatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eschatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Eschatology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eschatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Family life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Practices </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practices-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Practices subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baptism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baptism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Baptism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baptism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Worship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evangelism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evangelism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Evangelism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evangelism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disciplinary_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disciplinary_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Disciplinary action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disciplinary_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separateness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separateness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Separateness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separateness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rejection_of_blood_transfusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rejection_of_blood_transfusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Rejection of blood transfusions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rejection_of_blood_transfusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Handling_of_sexual_abuse_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Handling_of_sexual_abuse_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Handling of sexual abuse cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Handling_of_sexual_abuse_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Government interactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government interactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eritrea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eritrea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Eritrea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eritrea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Greece </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Norway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.11 Singapore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.12 South Korea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.13 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Jehovah's Witnesses</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 119 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-119" aria-hidden="true" > 119 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah_se_Getuies" title="Jehovah se Getuies – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jehovah se Getuies" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%96%E1%8B%8B_%E1%88%9D%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%AE%E1%89%BD" title="የይሖዋ ምስክሮች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የይሖዋ ምስክሮች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D9%87" title="شهود يهوه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شهود يهوه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigos_de_Xehov%C3%A1" title="Testigos de Xehová – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Testigos de Xehová" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehov%C3%A1_Diosan_Qhana%C3%B1chirinakapaxa" title="Jehová Diosan Qhanañchirinakapaxa – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Jehová Diosan Qhanañchirinakapaxa" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehova_%C5%9Fahidl%C9%99ri" title="Yehova şahidləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yehova şahidləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%80" title="যিহোবার সাক্ষী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যিহোবার সাক্ষী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A2-h%C3%B4-hoa_Ki%C3%A0n-ch%C3%A8ng-j%C3%AEn" title="Iâ-hô-hoa Kiàn-chèng-jîn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iâ-hô-hoa Kiàn-chèng-jîn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%86%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Сведкі Іеговы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сведкі Іеговы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Saksi_ni_Jehova" title="Mga Saksi ni Jehova – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Mga Saksi ni Jehova" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%99%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Свидетели на Йехова – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Свидетели на Йехова" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovini_svjedoci" title="Jehovini svjedoci – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jehovini svjedoci" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testo%C3%B9_Jehovah" title="Testoù Jehovah – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Testoù Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimonis_de_Jehov%C3%A0" title="Testimonis de Jehovà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Testimonis de Jehovà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Saksi_ni_Heoba" title="Mga Saksi ni Heoba – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Mga Saksi ni Heoba" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C4%9Bdkov%C3%A9_Jehovovi" title="Svědkové Jehovovi – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Svědkové Jehovovi" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%B4akaboni_%C5%B5a_Yehova" title="Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tystion_Jehofa" title="Tystion Jehofa – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Tystion Jehofa" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovas_Vidner" title="Jehovas Vidner – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jehovas Vidner" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witness" title="Jehovah's Witness – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Jehovah's Witness" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeugen_Jehovas" title="Zeugen Jehovas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zeugen Jehovas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehoova_tunnistajad" title="Jehoova tunnistajad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jehoova tunnistajad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%99%CE%B5%CF%87%CF%89%CE%B2%CE%AC" title="Μάρτυρες του Ιεχωβά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μάρτυρες του Ιεχωβά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testim%C3%B2%E1%B9%85_ad_G%C3%A9uva" title="Testimòṅ ad Géuva – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Testimòṅ ad Géuva" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigos_de_Jehov%C3%A1" title="Testigos de Jehová – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Testigos de Jehová" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atestantoj_de_Jehovo" title="Atestantoj de Jehovo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atestantoj de Jehovo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigus_de_Jehov%C3%A1" title="Testigus de Jehová – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Testigus de Jehová" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovaren_Lekukoak" title="Jehovaren Lekukoak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jehovaren Lekukoak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehowa_%C3%90asefowo" title="Yehowa Ðasefowo – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Yehowa Ðasefowo" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D9%87" title="شاهدان یهوه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شاهدان یهوه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehova_Vitni" title="Jehova Vitni – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Jehova Vitni" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9moins_de_J%C3%A9hovah" title="Témoins de Jéhovah – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Témoins de Jéhovah" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehova%27s_Tsj%C3%BBgen" title="Jehova's Tsjûgen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Jehova's Tsjûgen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemonis_di_Jeova" title="Testemonis di Jeova – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Testemonis di Jeova" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finn%C3%A9ithe_I%C3%A1iv%C3%A9" title="Finnéithe Iáivé – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Finnéithe Iáivé" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianaisean_Ieh%C3%B2bha" title="Fianaisean Iehòbha – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Fianaisean Iehòbha" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemu%C3%B1as_de_Xehov%C3%A1" title="Testemuñas de Xehová – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Testemuñas de Xehová" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunnudet%E1%BB%8D_Jehovah_T%E1%BB%8Dn_L%E1%BA%B9" title="Kunnudetọ Jehovah Tọn Lẹ – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Kunnudetọ Jehovah Tọn Lẹ" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AC%ED%98%B8%EC%99%80%EC%9D%98_%EC%A6%9D%EC%9D%B8" title="여호와의 증인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="여호와의 증인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BE%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Եհովայի վկաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եհովայի վկաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80" title="यहोवा के साक्षी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहोवा के साक्षी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovini_svjedoci" title="Jehovini svjedoci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jehovini svjedoci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testi_di_Jehova" title="Testi di Jehova – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Testi di Jehova" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi-Saksi_Yehuwa" title="Saksi-Saksi Yehuwa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Saksi-Saksi Yehuwa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testes_de_Jehovah" title="Testes de Jehovah – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Testes de Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vottar_Jeh%C3%B3va" title="Vottar Jehóva – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vottar Jehóva" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimoni_di_Geova" title="Testimoni di Geova – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Testimoni di Geova" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%94" title="עדי יהוה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עדי יהוה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%B0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="იეჰოვას მოწმეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იეჰოვას მოწმეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D3%99%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Иегова куәгерлері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иегова куәгерлері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustunyoryon_Yehovah" title="Dustunyoryon Yehovah – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Dustunyoryon Yehovah" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashahidi_wa_Yehova" title="Mashahidi wa Yehova – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mashahidi wa Yehova" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambangi_ya_Yehowa" title="Bambangi ya Yehowa – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Bambangi ya Yehowa" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temwen_Jewova" title="Temwen Jewova – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Temwen Jewova" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahid%C3%AAn_Yehowa" title="Şahidên Yehowa – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şahidên Yehowa" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kj mw-list-item"><a href="https://kj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eendombwedi_daJehowa" title="Eendombwedi daJehowa – Kuanyama" lang="kj" hreflang="kj" data-title="Eendombwedi daJehowa" data-language-autonym="Kwanyama" data-language-local-name="Kuanyama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kwanyama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemunyos_de_Djehova" title="Testemunyos de Djehova – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Testemunyos de Djehova" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testes_Iehovae" title="Testes Iehovae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Testes Iehovae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovas_liecinieki" title="Jehovas liecinieki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jehovas liecinieki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeie_vum_Jehova" title="Zeie vum Jehova – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Zeie vum Jehova" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovos_liudytojai" title="Jehovos liudytojai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jehovos liudytojai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovagetuige" title="Jehovagetuige – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Jehovagetuige" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batatoli_ya_Yehova" title="Batatoli ya Yehova – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Batatoli ya Yehova" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimoni_de_Geova" title="Testimoni de Geova – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Testimoni de Geova" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehova_tan%C3%BAi" title="Jehova tanúi – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jehova tanúi" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Јеховини сведоци – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јеховини сведоци" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vavolombelon%27_i_Jehovah" title="Vavolombelon' i Jehovah – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vavolombelon' i Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="യഹോവയുടെ സാക്ഷികൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യഹോവയുടെ സാക്ഷികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nga_Kaiwhakaatu_o_Ihowa" title="Nga Kaiwhakaatu o Ihowa – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Nga Kaiwhakaatu o Ihowa" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="जेहूव्हाचे साक्षीदार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जेहूव्हाचे साक्षीदार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D9%87" title="شهود يهوه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شهود يهوه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi_Jehovah" title="Saksi Jehovah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Saksi Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%A7temunhas_de_Jeob%C3%A1" title="Teçtemunhas de Jeobá – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Teçtemunhas de Jeobá" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93mel%C4%81huanimeh_Jehov%C3%A1" title="Tēmelāhuanimeh Jehová – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Tēmelāhuanimeh Jehová" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehova%27s_getuigen" title="Jehova's getuigen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jehova's getuigen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%9B%E3%83%90%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%BC%E4%BA%BA" title="エホバの証人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エホバの証人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Иегован Тешаш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Иегован Тешаш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovas_vitner" title="Jehovas vitner – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jehovas vitner" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovas_vitne" title="Jehovas vitne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jehovas vitne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testim%C3%B2nis_de_Jehov%C3%A0" title="Testimònis de Jehovà – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Testimònis de Jehovà" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyegova_shohidlari" title="Iyegova shohidlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Iyegova shohidlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasi_nen_Jehovah" title="Tasi nen Jehovah – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Tasi nen Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangasinan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%81_%D8%AF%DB%92_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%81" title="یہوواہ دے گواہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہوواہ دے گواہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testigunan_di_yehova" title="Testigunan di yehova – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Testigunan di yehova" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Awiadkowie_Jehowy" title="Świadkowie Jehowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Świadkowie Jehowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testemunhas_de_Jeov%C3%A1" title="Testemunhas de Jeová – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Testemunhas de Jeová" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martorii_lui_Iehova" title="Martorii lui Iehova – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Martorii lui Iehova" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%98%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Свидетели Иеговы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Свидетели Иеговы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D3%A9%D1%80%D3%A9%D3%A9%D1%87%D1%87%D2%AF%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8D" title="Иегова көрөөччүлэрэ – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Иегова көрөөччүлэрэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-T%C3%A9moin_ti_J%C3%A9hovah" title="A-Témoin ti Jéhovah – Sango" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="A-Témoin ti Jéhovah" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="Sango" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Jehovah's Witnesses" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipaki_Tsa_Jehova" title="Lipaki Tsa Jehova – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Lipaki Tsa Jehova" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basupi_ba_ga_Jehofa" title="Basupi ba ga Jehofa – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Basupi ba ga Jehofa" data-language-autonym="Setswana" data-language-local-name="Tswana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Setswana</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ABshmitar%C3%ABt_e_Jehovait" title="Dëshmitarët e Jehovait – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dëshmitarët e Jehovait" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jehovah's Witnesses" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakazi_baJehova" title="Fakazi baJehova – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Fakazi baJehova" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovovi_svedkovia" title="Jehovovi svedkovia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jehovovi svedkovia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovove_pri%C4%8De" title="Jehovove priče – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jehovove priče" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Awjodki_Jehowe" title="Śwjodki Jehowe – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Śwjodki Jehowe" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%BE%D9%88%DB%95" title="گەوایانی یەھوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەوایانی یەھوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah_Kotoigi" title="Jehovah Kotoigi – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Jehovah Kotoigi" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Јеховини сведоци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јеховини сведоци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovini_svjedoci" title="Jehovini svjedoci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jehovini svjedoci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovan_todistajat" title="Jehovan todistajat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jehovan todistajat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovas_vittnen" title="Jehovas vittnen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jehovas vittnen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Saksi_ni_Jehova" title="Mga Saksi ni Jehova – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Saksi ni Jehova" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="யெகோவாவின் சாட்சிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யெகோவாவின் சாட்சிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2" title="พยานพระยะโฮวา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พยานพระยะโฮวา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehova%27n%C4%B1n_%C5%9Eahitleri" title="Yehova'nın Şahitleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yehova'nın Şahitleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Dehowany%C5%88_%C5%9Ea%C3%BDatlary" title="Ýehowanyň Şaýatlary – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ýehowanyň Şaýatlary" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Свідки Єгови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Свідки Єгови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%81_%DA%A9%DB%92_%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%81" title="یہوواہ کے گواہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہوواہ کے گواہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A2n_Ch%E1%BB%A9ng_Gi%C3%AA-h%C3%B4-va" title="Nhân Chứng Giê-hô-va – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhân Chứng Giê-hô-va" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E5%92%8C%E5%8D%8E%E8%A7%81%E8%AF%81%E4%BA%BA" title="耶和华见证人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="耶和华见证人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbhoni_ta_Yehovha" title="Timbhoni ta Yehovha – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Timbhoni ta Yehovha" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E5%92%8C%E8%8F%AF%E8%A6%8B%E8%AD%89%E4%BA%BA" title="耶和華見證人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="耶和華見證人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahid%C3%AA_Yehovay" title="Şahidê Yehovay – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Şahidê Yehovay" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E5%92%8C%E8%8F%AF%E8%A6%8B%E8%AD%89%E4%BA%BA" title="耶和華見證人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="耶和華見證人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi-saksi_Jehovah" title="Saksi-saksi Jehovah – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Saksi-saksi Jehovah" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35269#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Restorationist Christian denomination</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 24em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;">Jehovah's Witnesses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Picha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Picha.jpg/250px-Picha.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Picha.jpg/375px-Picha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Picha.jpg/500px-Picha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="391" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The current world headquarters for Jehovah's Witnesses in <a href="/wiki/Warwick,_New_York" title="Warwick, New York">Warwick, New York</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Classification</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Orientation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialist</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides200893-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Scripture</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protestant_Bible" title="Protestant Bible">Protestant canon</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Theology</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Governance</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses">Governing Body</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Structure</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses">Hierarchical</a><a href="#cite_note-hierarchy-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_by_country" title="Jehovah's Witnesses by country">Worldwide</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Warwick,_New_York" title="Warwick, New York">Warwick, New York</a>, US</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Founder</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a> (Bible Student movement)<a href="#cite_note-Gale-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Franklin_Rutherford" title="Joseph Franklin Rutherford">Joseph Franklin Rutherford</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Origin</th><td class="infobox-data">1870s <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a>, US</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Branched from</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergman199533-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Separations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_splinter_groups" title="Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups">Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Congregations</th><td class="infobox-data">118,767 (2024)<a href="#cite_note-jwstatistics-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Members</th><td class="infobox-data">8.8 million (2024)<a href="#cite_note-jwstatistics-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionaries</a></th><td class="infobox-data">4,091 (2021)<a href="#cite_note-missionaries-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Publications</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_publications" title="Jehovah's Witnesses publications">Jehovah's Witnesses publications</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Official website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jw.org/">jw.org</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Jehovah's Witnesses is a Christian denomination that is an outgrowth of the <a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a> in the ninteenth century. The denomination is <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nontrinitarian">nontrinitarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millenarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Millenarian">millenarian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Restorationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Restorationist">restorationist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Russell co-founded <a href="/wiki/Zion%27s_Watch_Tower_Tract_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society">Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society</a> in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications.<a href="#cite_note-Gale-3">[3]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Society_presidency_dispute_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)">leadership dispute</a> after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Franklin_Rutherford" title="Joseph Franklin Rutherford">Joseph Franklin Rutherford</a> retaining control of the Watch Tower Society and its properties.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> including adoption of the name Jehovah's witnesses in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell#Theology_and_teachings" title="Charles Taze Russell">Russell's traditions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rogerson_1969_55-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beckford_1975_30-12">[12]</a> In 2024, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a peak membership of approximately 9 million worldwide. Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their evangelism, distributing literature such as <a href="/wiki/The_Watchtower" title="The Watchtower">The Watchtower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Awake!" title="Awake!">Awake!</a>, and for <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">refusing military service</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_blood_transfusions" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions">blood transfusions</a>. They consider the use of <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Names of God in Christianity">God's name</a> vital for proper worship. They reject <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_conditionalism" title="Christian conditionalism">inherent immortality</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_Hell" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian views on Hell">hellfire</a>, which they consider unscriptural doctrines. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at <a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a> is imminent, and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Kingship_and_kingdom_of_God" title="Kingship and kingdom of God">God's kingdom</a> over earth is the only solution to all of humanity's problems.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> They do not observe <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birthday" title="Birthday">birthdays</a>, or other holidays and customs they consider to have <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> origins incompatible with Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007274–275-14">[14]</a> They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the <a href="/wiki/New_World_Translation_of_the_Holy_Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures">New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a>, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The denomination is directed by a group known as the <a href="/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses">Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses</a>, which establishes all <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_congregational_discipline" title="Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline">Congregational disciplinary actions</a> include formal expulsion and <a href="/wiki/Shunning" title="Shunning">shunning</a>, for what they consider serious offenses.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2016a139–140-21">[21]</a> Members who formally leave are considered to be disassociated and are also shunned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox2018181-22">[22]</a> Some members who leave voluntarily successfully "fade" without being shunned. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned,<a href="#cite_note-Ransom-23">[23]</a> and some seek reinstatement to maintain contact with their friends and family.<a href="#cite_note-Grendele-24">[24]</a> The group's position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to <a href="/wiki/Salute" title="Salute">salute</a> state symbols (for example, <a href="/wiki/National_anthem" title="National anthem">national anthems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">flags</a>) has brought it into conflict with <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_governments" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and governments">several governments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox20183–4-25">[25]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted, with their activities banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country">legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses</a> have influenced legislation related to <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> in several countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting19931–13-26">[26]</a> The organization has <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses">been criticized</a> regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various <a href="/wiki/Unfulfilled_Watch_Tower_Society_predictions" title="Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions">unfulfilled predictions</a> about major biblical events, such as Jesus' <a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a>, the advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%27_handling_of_child_sex_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse">handling cases of child sexual abuse</a> have been the subject of various formal inquiries. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses">Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries. In 2024, Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately 8.8 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about 119,000 congregations.<a href="#cite_note-jwstatistics-6">[6]</a> In the same year, they conducted Bible studies with 7,480,146 individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>). 4,091 members served as missionaries in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-missionaries-7">[7]</a> In 2024, Jehovah's Witnesses reported a worldwide annual increase of 2.4%. 21,119,442 people attended the annual memorial of Christ's death.<a href="#cite_note-jwstatistics-6">[6]</a> According to the Watch Tower Society, more than 25,600 members have died of <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The official published membership statistics, such as those above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> As a result, only about half of those who self-identify as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Research regarding the demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses is incredibly limited; <a href="/wiki/Sample_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample size">sample sizes</a> tend to be small and focused to a specific region. Cross-cultural studies are "virtually non-existent".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuPeltonen2025-33">[33]</a> The 2008 US <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life</a> survey found a low retention rate among members of the denomination: about 37% of people raised in the group continued to identify as Jehovah's Witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The next lowest retention rates were for Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%. The study also found that 65% of adult American Jehovah's Witnesses are converts.<a href="#cite_note-pewfact-36">[36]</a> In 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses had the lowest average household income among surveyed religious groups, with approximately half of Witness households in the United States earning less than $30,000 per year.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> As of 2016, Jehovah's Witnesses were considered to be the most racially diverse Christian denomination in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202229-38">[38]</a> A sociological comparative study by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> found that American Jehovah's Witnesses ranked highest in getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief that their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. Jehovah's Witnesses also ranked lowest in interest in politics.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">History of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> Scholarly analysis of Jehovah's Witnesses is limited in Western academia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides20221-41">[41]</a> with most works focusing on legal challenges faced by the group.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The denomination does not cooperate with scholars beyond limited communication from anonymous individuals. Consequently, academics often rely on literature written by former members such as <a href="/wiki/James_Penton" title="James Penton">James Penton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Franz" title="Raymond Franz">Raymond Franz</a> to understand its inner workings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides20223-43">[43]</a> The denomination has been variously described as a church, <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sect</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movement</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cult</a>. Usage of the various terms has been debated among sociologists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201819-44">[44]</a> When the term sect is used by sociologists, it is within the framework of <a href="/wiki/Church-sect_typology" class="mw-redirect" title="Church-sect typology">church-sect typology</a> for their activities within a specific country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201819-44">[44]</a> Sociologists from the 1940s to the 1960s frequently compared the group's structure with <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuPeltonen2025-33">[33]</a> Throughout the 1970s and 80s, sociologists determined that cult was a reductionist label when applied to Jehovah's Witnesses, noting that new members did not undergo "sudden transformations" and made a rational choice to join the group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuPeltonen2025-33">[33]</a> Academics generally stopped using the term cult in the 1980s due to its <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a> association and its usage by the <a href="/wiki/Christian_countercult_movement" title="Christian countercult movement">Christian countercult movement</a>, with new religious movement largely replacing it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201820-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Chryssides" class="mw-redirect" title="George Chryssides">George Chryssides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Knox" title="Zoe Knox">Zoe Knox</a> avoid using the term new religious movement because it also has negative connotations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201820-45">[45]</a> Chryssides refers to the denomination as an "old new religion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides20222-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C.T._Russell.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/C.T._Russell.gif/170px-C.T._Russell.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/C.T._Russell.gif/255px-C.T._Russell.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/C.T._Russell.gif 2x" data-file-width="319" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Watch Tower Society</figcaption></figure> In 1870, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a> and others formed a group in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a>, to study the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson19696-47">[47]</a> During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, Christ's return, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford19752-48">[48]</a> In 1876, he met <a href="/wiki/Nelson_H._Barbour" title="Nelson H. Barbour">Nelson H. Barbour</a>. Later that year they jointly produced the book <a href="/wiki/Three_Worlds_(book)" title="Three Worlds (book)">Three Worlds</a>, which combined <a href="/wiki/Restitution_(theology)" title="Restitution (theology)">restitutionist</a> views with <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end time</a> prophecy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford19752-48">[48]</a> The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided <a href="/wiki/Dispensationalism" title="Dispensationalism">dispensationally</a>, with each period ending with a "harvest", and that Jesus inaugurated the "harvest of the Gospel age" by means of his invisible return in 1874.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford19752-48">[48]</a> The book asserted that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton199637–39-49">[49]</a> at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, Herald of the Morning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottingBotting198436-51">[51]</a> In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine <a href="/wiki/The_Watchtower" title="The Watchtower">Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden200218-52">[52]</a> saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Jesus' reign was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-:0-53">[53]</a> From 1879, Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.<a href="#cite_note-:0-53">[53]</a> In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Conley" title="William Henry Conley">William Henry Conley</a>, and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> He also published a six book series entitled <a href="/wiki/Studies_in_the_Scriptures" title="Studies in the Scriptures">Studies in the Scriptures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202218-56">[56]</a> By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time <a href="/wiki/Colportage" title="Colportage">colporteurs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden200218-52">[52]</a> and was appointing foreign <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a> and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden200219-57">[57]</a> Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199726–29-59">[59]</a> and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> He also directed <a href="/wiki/The_Photo-Drama_of_Creation" title="The Photo-Drama of Creation">The Photo-Drama of Creation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202219-61">[61]</a> Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the <a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#International_Bible_Students_Association" title="Bible Student movement">International Bible Students Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199726-64">[64]</a> Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196931-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_Rutherford">Joseph Rutherford</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J.F._Rutherford.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/J.F._Rutherford.gif/170px-J.F._Rutherford.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/J.F._Rutherford.gif/255px-J.F._Rutherford.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/J.F._Rutherford.gif 2x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Joseph Rutherford in 1910</figcaption></figure> In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Franklin_Rutherford" title="Joseph Franklin Rutherford">Joseph Franklin Rutherford</a>, was elected as its next president. His <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Society_presidency_dispute_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)">election was disputed</a>, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199753-66">[66]</a> The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996101-67">[67]</a> Because of disappointment over the changes and <a href="/wiki/Unfulfilled_Watch_Tower_Society_predictions#1925:_Resurrection_of_the_patriarchs" title="Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions">unfulfilled predictions</a>, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196939,_52-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Penton,_1997,_58-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> the largest of which was the <a href="/wiki/Dawn_Bible_Students_Association" title="Dawn Bible Students Association">Dawn Bible Students Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996150-72">[72]</a> There are varying estimates of how many Bible Students left during Rutherford's tenure, with Alan Rogerson believing the total number to be unclear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196952-73">[73]</a> By mid-1919, an estimated one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society. By the 1920s, three-quarters were estimated to have left.<a href="#cite_note-Penton,_1997,_58-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Rutherford enacted several changes under his leadership, many of which are considered "distinctive" to modern Jehovah's Witness beliefs and practices. Some of these changes include advocating for door-to-door preaching, prohibiting celebrations believed to be pagan such as Christmas, the belief that Jesus died on a stake instead of a cross, and a more uniform <a href="#Organization">organizational</a> hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202221-75">[75]</a> In 1919, Rutherford instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"-76">[76]</a> In 1920, he announced that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">thousand-year earthly kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007144-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In July 1917, he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume to the Studies in the Scriptures series. Rutherford claimed it to be Russell's posthumous work, but it was actually written by Clayton Woodworth, George Fisher, and Gertrude Seibert.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202220-79">[79]</a> It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">Great War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199755-80">[80]</a> As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act</a> in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196944-81">[81]</a> On July 26, 1931, at a convention in <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Ohio" title="Columbus, Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>, Rutherford introduced the new name Jehovah's witnesses, based on <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a> 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods.<a href="#cite_note-Rogerson_1969_55-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beckford_1975_30-12">[12]</a> In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"-76">[76]</a> In 1938, he introduced what he called a <a href="/wiki/Theocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocratic">theocratic</a> organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"-76">[76]</a> Doctrine regarding <a href="#Life_after_death">life after death</a> also evolved under his tenure. In addition to the preexisting belief that there would be 144,000 people to survive Armageddon and live in heaven to rule over earth with Jesus, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", was introduced. This group would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199771–72-83">[83]</a> By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Jesus' presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996109–110-84">[84]</a> As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and <a href="#Government_interactions">government opposition</a> in various countries.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbe2008145-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nathan_Knorr">Nathan Knorr</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NathanHomerKnorr-WTPres.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/NathanHomerKnorr-WTPres.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="167" /></a><figcaption>Nathan Knorr, the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_doctrine" title="Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine">Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Nathan_H._Knorr" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathan H. Knorr">Nathan Knorr</a> was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> He also increased the use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct as well as a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199789–90-89">[89]</a> Watch Tower Society literature stopped crediting individual contributors during his tenure, as he believed that recognition should only be given to God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the <a href="/wiki/New_World_Translation_of_the_Holy_Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures">New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures</a>, the full version of which was released in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Various Bible scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Bruce_M._Metzger" title="Bruce M. Metzger">Bruce M. Metzger</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> and <a href="/wiki/MacLean_Gilmour" title="MacLean Gilmour">MacLean Gilmour</a>,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> have said that while scholarship is evident in New World Translation, its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.<a href="#cite_note-pentongov-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and Christian writers such as <a href="/wiki/Ray_Stedman" title="Ray Stedman">Ray C. Stedman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ralston_Martin" title="Walter Ralston Martin">Walter Martin</a>, Norman Klann,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_A._Hoekema" title="Anthony A. Hoekema">Anthony Hoekema</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963208–209-99">[99]</a> say the New World Translation is scholastically dishonest. Most criticism of the New World Translation relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name Jehovah and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions being passed to the <a href="/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses">Governing Body</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Knorr introduced these changes as he believed that people making spiritual decisions should be "called by Christ" rather than elected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202224-104">[104]</a> The presidency's role transitioned into heading the denomination's <a href="/wiki/Legal_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal entity">legal entity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202224-104">[104]</a> The distinction between these roles grew further when all Governing Body members resigned as directors and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Congregation_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.">Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.</a> was formed in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202226-105">[105]</a> Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Franz" title="Frederick Franz">Frederick Franz</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Milton_George_Henschel" title="Milton George Henschel">Milton Henschel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Don_Alden_Adams" title="Don Alden Adams">Don Alden Adams</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ciranko" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Ciranko">Robert Ciranko</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McCoy-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_development">Further development</h3></div> From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> or shortly thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-Penton,_1997,_95-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottingBotting198446-112">[112]</a> The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. From 1971 to 1981, there was a net increase of 737,241 publishers worldwide, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Stark-113">[113]</a> Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end,<a href="#cite_note-Penton,_1997,_95-111">[111]</a> though it was strongly implied. Frederick Franz, then–president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, stated at a 1975 convention that the <a href="/wiki/Great_tribulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Great tribulation">great tribulation</a> could be expected to start by the end of that year. Many Jehovah's Witnesses acted upon this information by quitting their jobs and preaching more fervently. After that prediction failed, ordinary Jehovah's Witness members were blamed for believing in the date rather than the Governing Body acknowledging responsibility. Membership declined significantly for a few years after the failed prediction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022120–122-114">[114]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses have not set any specific dates for the end since 1975. Their publications emphasize that "one cannot know the day or the hour", but they still believe Armageddon to be imminent. Verse 34 of <a href="/wiki/Matthew_24" title="Matthew 24">Matthew 24</a>, where Jesus tells his disciples that "this generation will by no means pass away until all these things happen", was interpreted to refer to the generation of people alive in 1914. The initial teaching was that Armageddon would begin before the last person alive during that timeframe had died. The time limit was removed in 1995. This doctrine changed further in 2008, where generation was interpreted to refer to both the original anointed class and their remnant, the latter of which would be alive when Armageddon began. In 2010, the meaning of generation was re-interpreted to include individuals whose lives overlapped with anointed individuals alive during 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022123–125-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses">Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_(world_headquarters).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg/220px-Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg/330px-Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg/440px-Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_%28world_headquarters%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3716" data-file-height="2478" /></a><figcaption>Former world headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses</figcaption></figure> Jehovah's Witnesses are organized <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchically</a>, in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization, reflecting their belief that it is God's visible organization on earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997211-116">[116]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses establish branch offices to manage their activities in various countries or regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202270-117">[117]</a> Each branch office is also referred to as Bethel.<a href="#cite_note-Chryssides_2008_pages=17–18-118">[118]</a> Supporting staff live on these properties where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit.<a href="#cite_note-Chryssides_2008_pages=17–18-118">[118]</a> Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered along with a basic monthly <a href="/wiki/Stipend" title="Stipend">stipend</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> These volunteers are called Bethelites and are assigned specific tasks such as printing literature or doing laundry. They are allowed to marry but must leave Bethel if they have children. Bethelites are expected to read the Bible cover-to-cover during their first year of service. Consultants are sometimes hired for specialized tasks such as legal advice. Regular Jehovah's Witness members are encouraged to visit Bethel as a recreational activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202272–73-121">[121]</a> Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_Hall" title="Kingdom Hall">Kingdom Hall</a> construction or disaster relief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997101,_233–235-122">[122]</a> Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches.<a href="#cite_note-alternative-123">[123]</a> New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner as elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.<a href="#cite_note-pentongov-94">[94]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> though elders may employ <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_privilege" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastical privilege">ecclesiastical privilege</a> regarding confession of sins.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Much of the denomination's funding is donated, primarily by members. There is no <a href="/wiki/Tithe" title="Tithe">tithing</a> or collection.<a href="#cite_note-Hans-126">[126]</a> In 2001 <a href="/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a> listed the Watch Tower Society as one of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>'s 40 richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million.<a href="#cite_note-pub_titans-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In 2016, it ranked eighteenth for donations received by registered charities in Canada at $80 million.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> From 1969 until 2015, the denomination's headquarters were housed in <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, with plans to completely move its operations to <a href="/wiki/Warwick,_New_York" title="Warwick, New York">Warwick</a> in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The property was sold to <a href="/wiki/Kushner_Companies" title="Kushner Companies">Kushner Companies</a> for $340 million in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governing_Body">Governing Body</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses">Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> The denomination is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.<a href="#cite_note-pentongov-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">Doctrines</a> of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">interpreting</a> and applying scripture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62-19">[19]</a> The Governing Body does not issue a single, comprehensive statement of faith, but expresses its doctrinal positions in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997165–171-133">[133]</a> and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997165-134">[134]</a> Sociologist Andrew Holden's <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford197589,_95,_103,_120,_204,_221-137">[137]</a> The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford197589,_95,_103,_120,_204,_221-137">[137]</a> members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned.<a href="#cite_note-Muramoto-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_roles">Gender roles</h3></div> Jehovah's Witnesses have a <a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">complementarian</a> view of women. Only men may hold positions of authority, such as ministerial servant or elder. Women may actively participate in the <a href="#Evangelism">public preaching work</a>, serve at <a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses#Branch_offices" title="Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses">Bethel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202267-139">[139]</a> and profess to be members of the <a href="#Life_after_death">144,000</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202268-140">[140]</a> They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202213-141">[141]</a> In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a <a href="/wiki/Christian_head_covering" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian head covering">head covering</a> if they are performing a teaching role.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202267-139">[139]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> people should live as the gender they were assigned at birth and view <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">gender-affirming surgery</a> as mutilation.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized for both men and women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997152,_180-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beliefs">Beliefs</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_beliefs" title="Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs">Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">first-century Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> They believe that <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">mainstream Christianity</a> departed from true worship over time, that groups such as <a href="/wiki/Cathars" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathars">Cathars</a> attempted to restore some aspects of it, and that the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> "did not go far enough".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202257,_58-145">[145]</a> Older books published by the Watch Tower Society such as those by Charles Russell and Joseph Rutherford are usually unfamiliar to a modern Jehovah's Witness, although some congregations have these publications in their libraries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202214-146">[146]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible#The_Bible_and_science" title="Criticism of the Bible">scientifically</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_history" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bible and history">historically</a> accurate and reliable and interpret much of it <a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">literally</a>, but accept parts of it as <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">symbolic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202243,_44-147">[147]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are <a href="/wiki/Old_Earth_creationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Earth creationist">old Earth creationists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202244-148">[148]</a> The entire Protestant <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">canon of scripture</a> is considered the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">inspired</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">inerrant</a> word of God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997172-149">[149]</a> Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended. Members are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.<a href="#cite_note-Bevindependent-150">[150]</a> Adherents commonly call their body of beliefs "The Truth".<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jehovah">Jehovah</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YHWH.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/YHWH.svg/170px-YHWH.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/YHWH.svg/255px-YHWH.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/YHWH.svg/340px-YHWH.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">Tetragrammaton</a></figcaption></figure> Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form <a href="/wiki/Jehovah" title="Jehovah">Jehovah</a>—a vocalization of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a>'s name based on the <a href="/wiki/Tetragrammaton" title="Tetragrammaton">Tetragrammaton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> They believe that Jehovah is the only true god, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196987-155">[155]</a> consequently, the group places more emphasis on God than on Christ.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> They believe that the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a> is God's applied power or "active force", rather than a person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196990-157">[157]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they can have a personal relationship with God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202248-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jesus">Jesus</h3></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a> is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through him by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963262-159">[159]</a> As part of their nontrinitarian beliefs, they do not believe that Jesus is <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2016b429-160">[160]</a> They do believe that he was the first <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202250-161">[161]</a> and is the only <a href="/wiki/Archangel" title="Archangel">archangel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202251-162">[162]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a> conceived Jesus as a virgin<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202243-163">[163]</a> but do not believe that she <a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">was born free from sin</a> or that she remained a <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_virginity_of_Mary" title="Perpetual virginity of Mary">virgin after his birth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2019224-164">[164]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus served as a <a href="/wiki/Redeemer_(Christianity)" title="Redeemer (Christianity)">redeemer</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Ransom_theory_of_atonement" title="Ransom theory of atonement">ransom sacrifice</a> to atone for <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963276–277-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202252,_53-166">[166]</a> They believe that he <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">died</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Crux_simplex" title="Crux simplex">single upright post</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Latin_cross" title="Latin cross">cross</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997372-167">[167]</a> which they regard as a pagan symbol. Accordingly, they do not use the word "crucifixion" when referring to Jesus' death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2016b429-160">[160]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection.<a href="#cite_note-:1-168">[168]</a> Biblical references to the <a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abaddon" title="Abaddon">Abaddon</a> (Apollyon), and <a href="/wiki/Christ_the_Logos" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ the Logos">the Word</a> are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963270-169">[169]</a> Jesus is considered the only <a href="/wiki/Intercession" title="Intercession">intercessor</a> and <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priest</a> between God and humanity, appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-:1-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_after_death">Life after death</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_salvation" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation">Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>. There is no <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_hell" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian views on hell">Hell</a> of fiery torment; <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_Hades" title="Christian views on Hades">Hades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sheol" title="Sheol">Sheol</a> are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> They consider the <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a> a life or a living body that can die.<a href="#cite_note-hoeksin-171">[171]</a> They believe that humanity is in a <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_of_sin#Protestant_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian views of sin">sinful</a> state,<a href="#cite_note-hoeksin-171">[171]</a> from which release is possible only by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or <a href="/wiki/Substitutionary_atonement" title="Substitutionary atonement">atonement</a>, for humankind's sins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997186-172">[172]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that God will resurrect the majority (the "other sheep") to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997193–194-173">[173]</a> They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202211-174">[174]</a> and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202299-175">[175]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected, taught the proper way to worship God, and then face a final test at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">millennial reign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Jesus will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead humankind. Those who fail will die, along with Satan and his demons.<a href="#cite_note-auto-177">[177]</a> They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022162-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eschatology">Eschatology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eschatology_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses">Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unfulfilled_Watch_Tower_Society_predictions" title="Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions">Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that <a href="/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity" title="Devil in Christianity">Satan</a> was originally a perfect <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a> who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-pentonsatan-179">[179]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus began to rule invisibly in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914 and that Satan was subsequently <a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">ousted from heaven to the earth</a>. They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word <a href="/wiki/Parousia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parousia">parousia</a>—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Jesus—as "presence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199717–19-180">[180]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they are the kingdom's representatives on earth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson1969105-181">[181]</a> They also believe that they must remain <a href="#Separate">separate</a> from human governments, which they consider to be controlled by Satan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202289-182">[182]</a> The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson1969106-183">[183]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses do not currently suggest any specific date for the end of the world,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2008xiv-184">[184]</a> but Watch Tower Society literature has previously made such statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2008xiv-184">[184]</a> These failed predictions were presented as "beyond doubt" and "approved by God".<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Some Watch Tower Society publications state that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.<a href="#cite_note-186">[en 1]</a> A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the world faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> This belief has been present since the group's founding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden20027-188">[187]</a> They believe that Jesus' inauguration as king in 1914 is a sign that the <a href="/wiki/Great_tribulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Great tribulation">great tribulation</a> is about to take place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton2015177-189">[188]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all other present-day religions are false, identifying them with <a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon#Jehovah's_Witnesses_view" title="Whore of Babylon">Babylon the Great</a>, the "harlot" of <a href="/wiki/Revelation_17" title="Revelation 17">Revelation 17</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> They believe that <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> had a dream where he saw a statue with a gold head, silver chest and arms, copper abdomen, iron legs, and feet that were a mixture of clay and iron. This dream is interpreted as a prophecy representing the rise and fall of empires: gold represents Babylon, silver represents Persia, copper represents Greece, iron represents Rome, and clay represents an Anglo-American empire. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is currently living in the last empire that will eventually be destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, which is also interpreted as the <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_the_United_Nations" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and the United Nations">scarlet-colored wild beast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022114–117-191">[190]</a> Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, which will prompt God to begin the war of <a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a>, during which all forms of human government will be destroyed and all people not counted as Jesus' sheep will be killed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise like the <a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997180-192">[191]</a> They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "<a href="/wiki/Second_coming" class="mw-redirect" title="Second coming">second coming</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Matthew_24" title="Matthew 24">Matthew 24</a> refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199717–19-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_life">Family life</h3></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that dating should only occur if the couple is seriously considering marriage. Dating outside the denomination is strongly discouraged and can lead to <a href="#Disciplinary_action">religious sanctions</a>. Some Jehovah's Witnesses remain <a href="/wiki/Single_by_choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Single by choice">single by choice</a>, while others wish to be in a relationship but have a lack of options. Dating Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to have a <a href="/wiki/Chaperone_(social)" title="Chaperone (social)">chaperone</a> when they are together to avoid acting on sexual desires.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022102–106-193">[192]</a> All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant;<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexual</a> activity is considered a serious sin, and <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriage</a> is forbidden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202277-195">[194]</a> Masturbation is also prohibited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202285-196">[195]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses may get married at a Kingdom Hall in a simple ceremony and practices considered pagan such as wishing good luck or throwing rice are prohibited. An elder will give a talk to the congregation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022105-197">[196]</a> Once married, a husband is considered to have <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_headship" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual headship">spiritual headship</a> over his wife, unless he is not one of Jehovah's Witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022105–106-198">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> is allowed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022104-199">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a> is forbidden if not sought on the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">adultery</a>, which is called a "scriptural divorce".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997110–112-200">[199]</a> If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the former spouse has died or is considered to have committed <a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">sexual immorality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022106-201">[200]</a> Spouses may <a href="/wiki/Legal_separation" title="Legal separation">separate</a> in cases of <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> Jehovah's Witness households are expected to have a family worship session each week.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202276-203">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practices">Practices</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_practices" title="Jehovah's Witnesses practices">Jehovah's Witnesses practices</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baptism">Baptism</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a> is considered a requirement for salvation. Baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007116–120-204">[203]</a> Before being baptized, a member will become an unbaptized publisher.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202232-205">[204]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">infant baptism</a> but allow children to be baptized as long as they meet the same requirements as other candidates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202299-175">[175]</a> To qualify for baptism, an individual must correctly answer more than a hundred questions about their own lifestyle and the denomination's beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2016b433-206">[205]</a> Individuals undergoing baptism are directed to affirm publicly that their dedication and baptism identifies each "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007116–120-204">[203]</a> though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides200814-207">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worship">Worship</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg/220px-Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg/330px-Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg/440px-Timsbury_Kingdom_Hall_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2474467.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption>The exterior of a Kingdom Hall</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg/220px-Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg/330px-Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg/440px-Reuni%C3%A3o_em_Sal%C3%A3o_do_Reino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal</figcaption></figure> Meetings for worship and study are held at <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_Hall" title="Kingdom Hall">Kingdom Halls</a>, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.<a href="#cite_note-holdenhall-208">[207]</a> Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they call "meetings", scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. Jehovah's Witnesses have "considerable worldwide uniformity", as all congregations study the same materials on a schedule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202214-146">[146]</a> Outsiders are encouraged to attend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202259-209">[208]</a> Historically, congregations met three times each week, but since 2009 meet for two sessions each week: one on a weekday and one on a weekend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202259,_61-210">[209]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are expected to study the assigned material before attending.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202241-211">[210]</a> Children also attend meetings and do not have separate arrangements such as <a href="/wiki/Sunday_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunday School">Sunday School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202230-212">[211]</a> Gatherings are opened and closed with <a href="/wiki/Hymns" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymns">hymns</a> called <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_song" title="Kingdom song">Kingdom songs</a> and brief prayers.<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> A Kingdom Hall may have multiple congregations that share the building. In 2014, decisions about which congregations would share a Kingdom Hall or whether additional Kingdom Halls should be built was transferred from individual congregations to the nearest <a href="#Organization">branch office</a>. After this change, many Kingdom Halls were sold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202228-214">[213]</a> Twice each year, Jehovah's Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet annually for a three-day "regional convention", usually at an Assembly Hall built for this purpose. Rented stadiums or auditoriums are sometimes used instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202268-140">[140]</a> New members are baptized at these conventions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202299-175">[175]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses consider their most important annual event to be the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_of_Christ%27s_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorial of Christ's death">Memorial</a>, which is observed on the <a href="/wiki/Quartodecimanism" title="Quartodecimanism">fourteenth day</a> of the Jewish month <a href="/wiki/Nisan" title="Nisan">Nisan</a> during <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2016b433-206">[205]</a> and members advertise the event to outsiders. <a href="/wiki/Unleavened_bread" title="Unleavened bread">Unleavened bread</a> and red wine is passed between attendees, but only those who consider themselves to be anointed partake (often with no one in attendance partaking), and a talk is given about the event's significance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022101,_102-215">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evangelism">Evangelism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_publications" title="Jehovah's Witnesses publications">Jehovah's Witnesses publications</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg/220px-Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg/330px-Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg/440px-Evangeliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A pair of Jehovah's Witnesses preaching door-to-door</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg/220px-Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg/330px-Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg/440px-Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_outside_the_British_Museum_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Jehovah's Witnesses outside the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, 2017</figcaption></figure> Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, distributing Watch Tower Society literature. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with anyone who is not already a member,<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; members are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members.<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> While Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for visiting people's homes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton19965-218">[217]</a> they have a variety of preaching methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox2018110-219">[218]</a> Literature carts were introduced in 2012,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202227-220">[219]</a> where Jehovah's Witnesses stay in a public place and wait for other people to approach them.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a> Methods usually undertaken by those physically unable to engage in the door-to-door ministry include calling people by phone and writing letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox2018112-222">[221]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are sometimes confused with <a href="/wiki/Mormon_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mormon missionaries">Mormon missionaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202233-223">[222]</a> Converts as a result of their door-to-door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other denominations that practice similar preaching methods.<a href="#cite_note-224">[223]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching and often do so by working in pairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201837-225">[224]</a> They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry, and are required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottingBotting198452-226">[225]</a> Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive". Children also preach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202231-227">[226]</a> Until 2023, every active Jehovah's Witness was expected to submit the amount of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report. In November 2023, this requirement was modified to only apply to members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-228">[227]</a> As of 2022, auxiliary pioneers preach for 30 hours, regular pioneers preach for 70 hours; special pioneers preach for 130 hours each month and receive a stipend to help pay for their living expenses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202231-227">[226]</a> Other members are only required to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month, along with any Bible studies they conducted.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-228">[227]</a> The denomination produces a significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities.<a href="#cite_note-pub_titans-127">[127]</a> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/The_Watchtower" title="The Watchtower">The Watchtower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Awake!" title="Awake!">Awake!</a> were the world's most widely distributed magazines.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses consider their literature to be "spiritual food" and provide it to interested parties for free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202236-230">[229]</a> The group launched its first website in 1997: watchtower.org. In 2008, it was replaced with jw.org. Their website is often referenced in their evangelism, with its logo appearing in literature displays and outside Kingdom Halls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202227-220">[219]</a> An increased reliance on electronic media has reduced their printing costs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202236-230">[229]</a> The denomination archives most of its literature online, although certain entries have been changed after publication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202214-146">[146]</a> It also offers a streaming service called JW Broadcasting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202227-220">[219]</a> An animated series aimed at children has been produced called "Become Jehovah's Friend". An application, JW Language, has been designed to facilitate preaching with people who speak different languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202236-230">[229]</a> A specialized <a href="/wiki/Internet-in-a-Box" title="Internet-in-a-Box">device</a> for use in areas with limited internet access offers downloaded materials relevant to Jehovah's Witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202237-231">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disciplinary_action">Disciplinary action</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_congregational_discipline" title="Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline">Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses require individuals to be baptized by the denomination in order to be subject to their disciplinary procedures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202238-232">[231]</a> The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford197589,_95,_103,_120,_204,_221-137">[137]</a> members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled, shunned,<a href="#cite_note-Muramoto-138">[138]</a> and condemned as <a href="/wiki/Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostate">apostates</a> who are "mentally diseased".<a href="#cite_note-Holden163-233">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007358-234">[233]</a> Some adherents "fade" and stop attending meetings without being formally subjected to the group's disciplinary procedures,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202213-141">[141]</a> although some former members have still experienced shunning through this method.<a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a> Members accused of persistent wrongdoing are brought to the attention of the elders who will then evaluate possible consequences. Members that have violated the group's standards—for example, dating a non-member—but not otherwise committed a serious sin may be "<a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_congregational_discipline#Marking" title="Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline">marked</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202238-232">[231]</a> Congregation members who are aware of another member's errant behaviour are advised to limit social contact with the marked individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202239-236">[235]</a> Elders may decide to form a committee in cases involving serious sin, which may result in the member being reproved or shunned. This process requires three elders to meet with the accused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202239-236">[235]</a> These cases usually involve sexual misconduct<a href="#cite_note-alternative-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckford197554–55-237">[236]</a> or apostasy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997106–108-238">[237]</a> Other serious sins involve accepting blood transfusions (which does not require a judicial committee),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> smoking,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> using recreational drugs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> divorce (unless a spouse committed adultery),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022106-201">[200]</a> celebration of holidays<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202296-239">[238]</a> or birthdays,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202297-240">[239]</a> abortion (which is considered murder),<a href="#cite_note-holdenmorals-241">[240]</a> and political activities such as voting in elections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202289-182">[182]</a> Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in the book, Shepherd the Flock of God, provided only to elders.<a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> People who formally leave Jehovah's Witnesses are considered to be disassociated and are also shunned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides200842-243">[242]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses can also be disassociated for accepting a blood transfusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> The practice of shunning may serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Holden163-233">[232]</a> Shunning also helps maintain a "uniformity of belief".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202213-141">[141]</a> Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned<a href="#cite_note-Ransom-23">[23]</a> and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family.<a href="#cite_note-Grendele-24">[24]</a> Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders. Reinstatement is a long process, which may be experienced as mentally and emotionally draining.<a href="#cite_note-Grendele-24">[24]</a> Shunned individuals may experience <a href="/wiki/Suicide_ideation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suicide ideation">suicide ideation</a> and often struggle with feelings of low <a href="/wiki/Self_esteem" class="mw-redirect" title="Self esteem">self esteem</a>, shame, and guilt.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> Former members may also experience <a href="/wiki/Ambiguous_loss" title="Ambiguous loss">ambiguous loss</a> or <a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">panic attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grendele-24">[24]</a> Funerals for expelled members may not be performed at Kingdom Halls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022109-245">[244]</a> Baptized children are also subject to the same moral standards and consequences for failing to comply.<a href="#cite_note-RNS-246">[245]</a> They are allowed to stay with their families until reaching the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202240-247">[246]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses lost additional funding as a religious community in <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> because of its shunning policy, with the country concluding that it was psychological violence directed towards children.<a href="#cite_note-RNS-246">[245]</a> Subsequently, the group made some changes to its shunning policy in 2024; individuals may offer "simple greetings" to shunned members instead of completely avoiding them<a href="#cite_note-CNE-248">[247]</a> if the individual is not deemed to be an apostate.<a href="#cite_note-2024_GB_update_#2-249">[248]</a> Parents are also no longer prohibited from attending judicial committees with minors.<a href="#cite_note-CNE-248">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separateness">Separateness</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sociological_classifications_of_religious_movements" title="Sociological classifications of religious movements">Sociological classifications of religious movements</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other denominations do not meet God's requirements;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202257–58-251">[250]</a> all other Christian denominations (collectively referred to as "Christendom") along with all other religions are considered "false religion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202275-252">[251]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Their literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan.<a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a danger to their faith.<a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> Attending <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> is discouraged and <a href="/wiki/Vocational_school" title="Vocational school">trade schools</a> are suggested as an alternative.<a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a> Post-secondary education is considered "spiritually dangerous".<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They believe that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic spirit. Members are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202293–98-258">[257]</a> Wedding anniversaries are allowed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2019154-259">[258]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to work in industries associated with the military and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a> They also refuse to salute flags or participate in patriotic activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202275-252">[251]</a> Adherents see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.<a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses are often viewed as being without agency or <a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">brainwashed</a> by the anti-cult movement.<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> Andrew Holden believes that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden2002x,_7-263">[262]</a> but that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit",<a href="#cite_note-Holden163-233">[232]</a> and describes the administration as <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden200222-264">[263]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> believes that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and that members "are expected to conform to rather strict standards," but adds that "enforcement tends to be very informal, sustained by the close bonds of friendship within the group", and that members see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."<a href="#cite_note-Stark-113">[113]</a> After the publication of <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_New_Religious_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Elementary Forms of New Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of New Religious Life</a>, academics began to describe various new religious movements as either world-affirming, world-accommodating, or world-rejecting. Jehovah's Witnesses were labelled as world-rejecting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChuPeltonen2025-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bryan_R._Wilson" title="Bryan R. Wilson">Bryan R. Wilson</a> believed that Jehovah's Witnesses conflict with society at large, impose "tests of merit on would-be members", have strict disciplinary procedures, and expect absolute commitment.<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a> Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that the group's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.<a href="#cite_note-266">[265]</a> Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196950-267">[266]</a> while historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Irvin_Lichti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Irvin Lichti (page does not exist)">James Irvin Lichti</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Irvin_Lichti" class="extiw" title="de:James Irvin Lichti">de</a>] rejects this interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_A._Beckford" title="James A. Beckford">James A. Beckford</a> classified the group's organizational structure as totalizing, with assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to cooperate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a> Beckford also identified the group's chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), absolutism (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).<a href="#cite_note-270">[269]</a> Former members <a href="/wiki/Heather_Botting" title="Heather Botting">Heather Botting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gary_Botting" title="Gary Botting">Gary Botting</a> compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottingBotting1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-271">[270]</a> Critics believe that by disparaging individual decision-making, the group's leaders cultivate a system of unquestioning obedience<a href="#cite_note-Bevindependent-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[271]</a> in which members abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.<a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[273]</a> Critics also accuse the group's leaders of exercising "intellectual dominance" over adherents,<a href="#cite_note-275">[274]</a> controlling information,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden2002153-276">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a> and creating "mental isolation", which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_12"-278">[277]</a> Some Jehovah's Witnesses describe themselves to academics as "Physically In, Mentally Out" (PIMO); these individuals privately question certain doctrine but remain inside the organization to maintain contact with their friends and family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202213-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rejection_of_blood_transfusions">Rejection of blood transfusions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_blood_transfusions" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions">Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses typically refuse <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusions</a>, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Acts_15" title="Acts 15">Acts 15</a>:28, 29 and other scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton1997i-279">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolden200291-280">[279]</a> This prohibition has existed since 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">[90]</a> They also do not eat <a href="/wiki/Blood_as_food" title="Blood as food">blood-based foods</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Blood_sausage" title="Blood sausage">blood sausage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202287-281">[280]</a> Since 1961, acceptance of a blood transfusion without subsequent repentance has been grounds for expulsion from the group.<a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a> Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".<a href="#cite_note-283">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottingBotting198429–30-284">[283]</a> Their literature implies that there is a blood alternative for every medical situation and "emphasizes the danger of blood transfusions".<a href="#cite_note-Muramoto-138">[138]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept the transfusion of "whole blood, packed red cells, platelets, white cells or plasma". <a href="/wiki/Autologous_blood_donation" class="mw-redirect" title="Autologous blood donation">Autologous blood donation</a>, where one's blood is stored for later use, is also considered unacceptable.<a href="#cite_note-285">[284]</a> Members may accept some <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma_fractionation" title="Blood plasma fractionation">blood plasma fractions</a> at their own discretion.<a href="#cite_note-286">[285]</a> Some Jehovah's Witnesses may accept prohibited blood products if <a href="/wiki/Medical_confidentiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical confidentiality">medical confidentiality</a> is upheld,<a href="#cite_note-Annals-287">[286]</a> although Jehovah's Witnesses who work in a hospital may break such confidentiality.<a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a> Jehovah's Witness patients are generally open to non-blood alternative treatments, even if they are less effective.<a href="#cite_note-Annals-287">[286]</a> Courts have intervened in life-threatening situations involving children that require blood transfusions to allow the treatment to take place.<a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[289]</a> Courts may allow <a href="/wiki/Mature_minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mature minor">mature minors</a> to reject blood transfusions based on their beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a> The May 22, 1994 issue of Awake! entitled Youths Who Put God First featured children who died from refusing blood transfusions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox2018175-292">[291]</a> The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted <a href="/wiki/Power_of_attorney#Durable_power_of_attorney" title="Power of attorney">durable power of attorney</a> documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will accept.<a href="#cite_note-293">[292]</a> The denomination has established <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_blood_transfusions#Hospital_Liaison_Committees" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions">Hospital Liaison Committees</a> as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witness members and medical professionals and hospitals to provide information about bloodless treatment options.<a href="#cite_note-294">[293]</a> Patients who accept certain blood products in the committee's presence are deemed to have disassociated and are shunned.<a href="#cite_note-295">[294]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Secular_Society" title="National Secular Society">National Secular Society</a> advocates against hospitals partnering with hospital liaison committees due to medical <a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">coercion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handling_of_sexual_abuse_cases">Handling of sexual abuse cases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%27_handling_of_child_sex_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse">Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg/170px-CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg/255px-CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg/340px-CS_54_Jehovah_PublicHearing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Case Study of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_into_Institutional_Responses_to_Child_Sexual_Abuse" title="Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse">Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse</a></figcaption></figure> Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization.<a href="#cite_note-ousted-297">[296]</a> When investigating cases of child abuse, elders are instructed to immediately call the organization's headquarters or branch office. The group states that this requirement is to ensure compliance with the law.<a href="#cite_note-Bradley-298">[297]</a> An investigation by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a> determined that elders were asked questions such as, "How many elders believe the victim is to blame or willingly participated in the act?"<a href="#cite_note-299">[298]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses have been criticized for the "two witness rule" for <a href="#Disciplinary_action">congregational discipline</a>, based on an application of scriptures in Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies wrongdoing.<a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a> In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands".<a href="#cite_note-Bradley-298">[297]</a> A former member has said that the policy effectively requires that there be third-party witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility".<a href="#cite_note-NBC-302">[301]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a database of confidential files in regards to child abuse,<a href="#cite_note-303">[302]</a> which are marked as "Do Not Destroy". An elder in New Zealand was tasked with destroying "personal notes" in their database when the organization was under investigation for child abuse.<a href="#cite_note-304">[303]</a> In the United States, the group was fined four thousand dollars daily (accruing a total of two million dollars) for delaying an order to provide its documentation.<a href="#cite_note-305">[304]</a> The group's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized.<a href="#cite_note-306">[305]</a> The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that up to the victim and their family.<a href="#cite_note-307">[306]</a> In jursidictions with <a href="/wiki/Priest%E2%80%93penitent_privilege" title="Priest–penitent privilege">priest–penitent privilege</a>, confessions of abuse may be considered confidential.<a href="#cite_note-308">[307]</a> William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the <a href="/wiki/Silentlambs" title="Silentlambs">Silentlambs</a> organization to assist sex abuse victims in the denomination, has claimed that Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities. Other critics have alleged that the organization is reluctant to alert authorities to protect its "crime-free" reputation.<a href="#cite_note-ousted-297">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[308]</a> However, in response to the charge that their policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children",<a href="#cite_note-NBC-302">[301]</a> the organization has maintained that the best way to protect children is to educate parents; they also say they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.<a href="#cite_note-310">[309]</a> In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States, the Watch Tower Society has been found negligent in its protection of children from known sex offenders within the congregation.<a href="#cite_note-311">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[311]</a> The Society has <a href="/wiki/Settlement_(litigation)" title="Settlement (litigation)">settled</a> other child abuse lawsuits out of court, paying $780,000 in one case.<a href="#cite_note-NBC-302">[301]</a> In 2015, the Australian <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_into_Institutional_Responses_to_Child_Sexual_Abuse" title="Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse">Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse</a> found that "there was no evidence before the Royal Commission of the Jehovah's Witness organisation having or not having reported to police any of the 1,006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the organisation since 1950."<a href="#cite_note-ARCReport-313">[312]</a> The Royal Commission also found that the Watch Tower Society legal department routinely provided incorrect information to elders based on an incorrect understanding of what constitutes a legal obligation to report crimes in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[314]</a> In 2017, the <a href="/wiki/Charity_Commission_for_England_and_Wales" title="Charity Commission for England and Wales">Charity Commission for England and Wales</a> began an inquiry into Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of allegations of child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-316">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[316]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] In 2021, Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia agreed to join the nation's <a href="/wiki/National_Redress_Scheme" title="National Redress Scheme">redress scheme</a> for sexual assault survivors to maintain its charity status there.<a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_interactions">Government interactions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_governments" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and governments">Jehovah's Witnesses and governments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png/250px-Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png/375px-Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png/500px-Jehovas_Zeugen_-_L%C3%A4nder_ohne_berichtete_Aktivitat.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Countries where Jehovah's Witnesses' activities are banned</figcaption></figure> Controversy about various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and other religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote, "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."<a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a> Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses">Supreme Courts worldwide</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_320-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting1993[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2022]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2022)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-320">[319]</a> They generally relate to the right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015286-321">[320]</a> Cases in their favor have been heard in the United States, Canada and many European countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015292-322">[321]</a> Political and religious animosity toward Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to <a href="/wiki/Mob_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Mob action">mob action</a> and <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> oppression in various countries. Their political neutrality and refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and other periods of compulsory <a href="/wiki/National_service" title="National service">national service</a>, especially in countries that do not provide <a href="/wiki/Religious_exemption" title="Religious exemption">religious exemptions</a>. Their religious activities are banned or restricted in some countries,<a href="#cite_note-323">[322]</a> including <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim-majority countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-324">[323]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div> In 1931, the Australian government monitored radio broadcasts of Rutherford's sermons as they had received complaints about anti-Catholic rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201872-325">[324]</a> The religious group became especially unpopular after 1940 due to their political neutrality in the second world war, prompting people to write to government officials about the names and addresses of known members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201873-326">[325]</a> In 1941, Jehovah's Witnesses became an illegal organization. Various groups supported the ban,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201863-327">[326]</a> which caused political pressure to enforce it;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201875-328">[327]</a> Member of Parliament <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Blackburn" title="Maurice Blackburn">Maurice Blackburn</a> opposed a ban, believing it to be caused by <a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">religious intolerance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201875-328">[327]</a> Once the ban was enacted, the assets of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society were seized by the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201876-329">[328]</a> Witness homes were raided to confiscate their religious literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201877-330">[329]</a> Despite these measures, Jehovah's Witnesses continued their activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201878-331">[330]</a> The ban was overturned in 1943 when the High Court concluded that these restrictions violated the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201878–79-332">[331]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Canada" title="Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada">Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada</a></div> In the early 1900s, radio stations were operated by individual congregations in <a href="/wiki/Saskatoon" title="Saskatoon">Saskatoon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmonton" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>. In 1927, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cardin" title="Arthur Cardin">Arthur Cardin</a> revoked the licenses for these radio stations because they shared airspace with the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_in_Canada" title="Ku Klux Klan in Canada">Ku Klux Klan in Canada</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Gary_Botting" title="Gary Botting">Gary Botting</a>, this "strange alliance" was formed due to a mutual opposition against the Roman Catholic church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199321–23-333">[332]</a> In response, Rutherford bought airtime from other radio stations. When <a href="/wiki/Hector_Charlesworth" title="Hector Charlesworth">Hector Charlesworth</a> banned this activity as well, he was "indirectly attacked" in an issue of the Golden Age and Jehovah's Witnesses launched a petition to regain their licenses that resulted in 406,270 signatures. Charlesworth's actions were debated by the House of Commons in 1933. While multiple members expressed concern that this prohibition was censorship of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>, the ban was not lifted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199323–25-334">[333]</a> In 1940, a year after Canada entered World War II, the denomination itself was banned under the <a href="/wiki/War_Measures_Act" title="War Measures Act">War Measures Act</a> as a subversive organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199329-335">[334]</a> This ban continued until 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015290-336">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[336]</a> A separate ban on the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society was not lifted until 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199329-335">[334]</a> More than 100,000 dollars in assets were seized by the Canadian government and <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> of literature produced by the group were confiscated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199326-338">[337]</a> Hundreds of adherents were prosecuted as members of an illegal organization.<a href="#cite_note-339">[338]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent.<a href="#cite_note-340">[339]</a> During this period, many Jehovah's Witness children were expelled from school, while others were placed in foster homes or juvenile detention.<a href="#cite_note-341">[340]</a> After the ban was lifted, men who had been jailed tried to apply for the ordained minister exemption of the <a href="/wiki/National_Selective_Service_Mobilization_Regulations" class="mw-redirect" title="National Selective Service Mobilization Regulations">National Selective Service Mobilization Regulations</a> without success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199329–30-342">[341]</a> This led to a legal case being filed, <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._v._Stewart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. v. Stewart (page does not exist)">R. v. Stewart</a>, which ruled that Jehovah's Witnesses were participants in a "commercial undertaking" and did not qualify as ministers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199330-343">[342]</a> A similar outcome was reached in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenlees_v._A.G._Canada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greenlees v. A.G. Canada (page does not exist)">Greenlees v. A.G. Canada</a>, where the judge decided that Jehovah's Witnesses could not be ministers because they considered every member to be one and that they did not have an organizational structure independent of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting199331–33-344">[343]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses faced discrimination in <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Quiet_Revolution" title="Quiet Revolution">Quiet Revolution</a>, including bans on distributing literature or holding meetings.<a href="#cite_note-345">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[345]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roncarelli_v_Duplessis" title="Roncarelli v Duplessis">Roncarelli v Duplessis</a> was a 1959 legal case heard by the Supreme Court of Canada. The court held that in 1946 <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Duplessis" title="Maurice Duplessis">Maurice Duplessis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_Quebec" title="Premier of Quebec">Premier</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ministers_of_Justice_of_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ministers of Justice of Quebec">Attorney General</a> of Quebec, had overstepped his authority by ordering the manager of the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_alcools_du_Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Société des alcools du Québec">Liquor Commission</a> to revoke the liquor licence of Frank Roncarelli, a Montreal restaurant owner and Jehovah's Witness who was an outspoken critic of the Roman Catholic Church in Quebec. Roncarelli provided bail for Jehovah's Witnesses arrested for distributing pamphlets attacking the Roman Catholic Church. The Supreme Court found Duplessis liable for $33,000 in damages plus Roncarelli's court costs.<a href="#cite_note-canencyc-347">[346]</a> Another legal case heard that year was <a href="/wiki/Lamb_v_Benoit" title="Lamb v Benoit">Lamb v Benoit</a>, where a Jehovah's Witness woman was arrested for distributing religious pamphlets.<a href="#cite_note-LambvBenoit-348">[347]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div> Jehovah's Witnesses are banned in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022136-349">[348]</a> Missionaries like <a href="/wiki/Amber_Scorah" title="Amber Scorah">Amber Scorah</a> were sent there to preach clandestinely.<a href="#cite_note-350">[349]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eritrea">Eritrea</h3></div> Religious groups must be registered in order to legally worship in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. Jehovah's Witnesses, as well as other Christian and Muslim groups, have been refused this legal recognition. Jehovah's Witnesses have been imprisoned for their refusal to perform military service and for attending religious services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022138-351">[350]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_France" title="Jehovah's Witnesses in France">Jehovah's Witnesses in France</a></div> Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as a religious group in France in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015298-352">[351]</a> In 1995, they were designated as a "dangerous sect" by French law.<a href="#cite_note-353">[352]</a> In 1999, the country demanded <a href="/wiki/Back_taxes" title="Back taxes">back taxes</a> on donations to the religious group's organization from 1993 and 1996, which would have been €57.5 million. This tax ruling was overturned by the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> on June 30, 2011.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015298-352">[351]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purple_Triangle.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Purple_Triangle.JPG/220px-Purple_Triangle.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Purple_Triangle.JPG/330px-Purple_Triangle.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Purple_Triangle.JPG/440px-Purple_Triangle.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Jehovah's Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps.</figcaption></figure> In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>,<a href="#cite_note-354">[353]</a> of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Jehovah's Witnesses suffered <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> because they <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">refused military service</a> and allegiance to Hitler's National Socialist Party.<a href="#cite_note-355">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wrobel_2006-356">[355]</a> Of those, 2,000 were sent to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>, where they were identified by <a href="/wiki/Purple_triangle" title="Purple triangle">purple triangles</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Wrobel_2006-356">[355]</a> as many as 1,200 died, including 250 who were executed.<a href="#cite_note-357">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[357]</a> They were hanged,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200116-359">[358]</a> beheaded,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200147-360">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200160-361">[360]</a> beaten to death,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200172-362">[361]</a> or shot dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard2001129-363">[362]</a> Conditions for Jehovah's Witnesses improved in 1942, when they were increasingly given work details that required little supervision, such as farming, gardening, transportation and unloading goods, while others worked in civilian clothing in a health resort, as housekeepers for Nazi officials, or were given construction and craft tasks at military buildings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbe2008440–447-364">[363]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a>, who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by signing a document indicating renunciation of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.<a href="#cite_note-holocaust-trc.org-365">[364]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Sybil_Milton" title="Sybil Milton">Sybil Milton</a> writes, "their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects."<a href="#cite_note-BaumelLaquer2001-366">[365]</a> Jehovah's Witnesses would preach inside the concentration camps,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard2001123-367">[366]</a> hold meetings, and smuggle in their religious literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard2001172–173-368">[367]</a> Approximately 800 children of Jehovah's Witnesses <a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_Holocaust" title="Children in the Holocaust">were taken away from their families</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200162-369">[368]</a> Witness children typically expressed defiance to the Nazi regime's attempts to make them act against their beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200152-370">[369]</a> They were often expelled from public schools due to their refusal to say "<a href="/wiki/Heil_Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Heil Hitler">Heil Hitler</a>". Some children were sent to reeducation centers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200156-371">[370]</a> while others were adopted by families in good standing with the Nazi regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynaudGraffard200162-369">[368]</a> In <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, from the 1950s to the 1980s, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted extensively by the <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>, which frequently used <a href="/wiki/Zersetzung" title="Zersetzung">decomposition methods</a> against them. Jehovah's Witnesses were considered a threat because their beliefs did not conform to <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> standards and their members sometimes had contact with the West.<a href="#cite_note-372">[371]</a> In 2023, there was a <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamburg_shooting" title="2023 Hamburg shooting">mass shooting</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> that targeted Jehovah's Witnesses, killing six people. Police were warned about the shooter ahead of time, but failed to take action.<a href="#cite_note-373">[372]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3></div> Greece had a ban on public evangelism in the 1930s. Approximately 60 Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned for violating this law. The case was eventually appealed to the European Court of Human Rights, who ruled in favour of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1993. This decision also <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">benefited other religious groups</a> in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022136-349">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div> In Japan, following the publication of <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%ABky%C5%8D_nisei" title="Shūkyō nisei">Shūkyō nisei</a>-related guidelines, a survey was conducted about child abuse within Jehovah's Witnesses, the results of which were forwarded to the government.<a href="#cite_note-374">[373]</a> Ninety-two percent of 583 respondents reported that they had experienced <a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">physical abuse</a> as children. The lawyer's group conducting the survey believed this to be evidence of systemic <a href="/wiki/Religious_abuse" title="Religious abuse">religious abuse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-375">[374]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norway">Norway</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> provides state subsidies to religious communities, with some restrictions. Although Jehovah's Witnesses qualified for more than thirty years, they did not receive this funding in <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viken_(county)" title="Viken (county)">Viken</a> in 2022. The decision was appealed and upheld by the Ministry of Children and Families.<a href="#cite_note-USreport-376">[375]</a> In 2023, Jehovah's Witnesses were <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Norway#Religious_group_registration" title="Freedom of religion in Norway">fully deregistered</a> as a religious community in Norway as a result of their <a href="#Disciplinary_action">shunning practice</a>. The Supreme Court ruled that religious communities can determine who can be members but that restrictions on additional funding are acceptable.<a href="#cite_note-USreport-376">[375]</a> Therefore, the organization no longer receives 1.3 million euros each year in state subsidies.<a href="#cite_note-CNE-248">[247]</a> The denomination's deregistration also means that they lost the right to perform civil marriages.<a href="#cite_note-377">[376]</a> The director of <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Without_Frontiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Without Frontiers">Human Rights Without Frontiers</a> believes that by deregistering Jehovah's Witnesses, Norway is interfering with the group's religious freedom.<a href="#cite_note-CNE-248">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Russia" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia</a></div> In April 1951, about 9,300 Jehovah's Witnesses in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> were deported to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_North" title="Operation North">Operation North</a>.<a href="#cite_note-378">[377]</a> In April 2017, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Russia" title="Supreme Court of Russia">Supreme Court of Russia</a> labeled Jehovah's Witnesses an extremist organization, banned its activities in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and issued an order to confiscate its assets.<a href="#cite_note-379">[378]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Singapore" title="Jehovah's Witnesses in Singapore">Jehovah's Witnesses in Singapore</a></div> In 1941, all publications by the <a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Bible_and_Tract_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania">Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania</a> were banned, as a result of Jehovah's Witnesses' persistent refusal to enlist in the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Forces</a> in World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereira201699-380">[379]</a> In 1960, Jehovah's Witnesses were officially registered as a society under the Societies Ordinance Act of 1890.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPereira201699-380">[379]</a> In 1972, Jehovah's Witnesses were deregistered for being "prejudicial to public welfare and order",<a href="#cite_note-TNP270798-381">[380]</a> with their refusal to take part in <a href="/wiki/National_service_in_Singapore" title="National service in Singapore">mandatory military service</a> being cited as an aggravating factor.<a href="#cite_note-382">[381]</a> Since their deregistration, all Witnesses who refuse to serve in the military—around six men annually—have faced imprisonment under the <a href="/wiki/Enlistment_Act_1970" title="Enlistment Act 1970">Enlistment Act 1970</a>, but none of these men have incurred permanent criminal records as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jehovah%27s_Witnesses&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-383">[382]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3></div> South Korea did not have a religious exemption for military service until 2018, which led to more than 19,000 Jehovah's Witnesses being imprisoned there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022137–138-384">[383]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_the_United_States" title="Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States">Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States</a></div> In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting19931–14-385">[384]</a><a href="#cite_note-386">[385]</a> Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the US are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse.<a href="#cite_note-387">[386]</a> Authors including <a href="/wiki/William_J._Whalen" title="William J. Whalen">William Whalen</a>, Shawn Francis Peters and former members <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Grizzuti_Harrison" title="Barbara Grizzuti Harrison">Barbara Grizzuti Harrison</a>, Alan Rogerson, and William Schnell have claimed the arrests and mob violence in the 1930s and 1940s were the consequence of what appeared to be a deliberate course of provocation of authorities and other religious groups by Jehovah's Witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-388">[387]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196959-389">[388]</a> Harrison, Schnell, and Whalen have suggested Rutherford invited and cultivated opposition for publicity purposes in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution by the outside world was evidence of the truth of their struggle to serve God.<a href="#cite_note-390">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-391">[390]</a> In 1943, the Supreme Court ruled in <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a> that requiring students to salute the flag was a violation of their <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201869-392">[391]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_works_on_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of works on Jehovah's Witnesses">Bibliography of works on Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses">Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses">List of Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1972241">"They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them"</a>. The Watchtower. April 1, 1972. pp. 197–200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Watchtower&rft.atitle=They+Shall+Know+That+a+Prophet+Was+Among+Them&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E200&rft.date=1972-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwol.jw.org%2Fen%2Fwol%2Fd%2Fr1%2Flp-e%2F1972241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come". He also cites <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1997323">"Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger"</a>. The Watchtower. May 1, 1997. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Watchtower&rft.atitle=Identifying+the+Right+Kind+of+Messenger&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1997-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwol.jw.org%2Fen%2Fwol%2Fd%2Fr1%2Flp-e%2F1997323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1101971004">Commissioned to Speak in the Divine Name</a>. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 1971. pp. 70, 292.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commissioned+to+Speak+in+the+Divine+Name&rft.pages=70%2C+292&rft.pub=Watchtower+Bible+and+Tract+Society&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwol.jw.org%2Fen%2Fwol%2Fd%2Fr1%2Flp-e%2F1101971004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1980765">"Execution of the Great Harlot Nears"</a>. The Watchtower. October 15, 1980. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Watchtower&rft.atitle=Execution+of+the+Great+Harlot+Nears&rft.pages=17&rft.date=1980-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwol.jw.org%2Fen%2Fwol%2Fd%2Fr1%2Flp-e%2F1980765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end". </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides200893-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides200893_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2008">Chryssides 2008</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-hierarchy-2"><a href="#cite_ref-hierarchy_2-0">^</a> <cite>Cobb v. Brede</cite> (California Superior Court, San Mateo County February 22, 2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Gale-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gale_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gale_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley_I._Kutler2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kutler" title="Stanley Kutler">Stanley I. Kutler</a>, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/christianity/protestant-denominations/jehovahs-witnesses#1G23401802183">"Jehovah's Witnesses"</a>. Dictionary of American History (3rd ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80533-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80533-7"><bdi>978-0-684-80533-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+American+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80533-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fphilosophy-and-religion%2Fchristianity%2Fprotestant-denominations%2Fjehovahs-witnesses%231G23401802183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergman199533-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergman199533_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBergman1995">Bergman 1995</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-jwstatistics-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jwstatistics_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jwstatistics_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jwstatistics_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jwstatistics_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/2024-Service-Year-Report-of-Jehovahs-Witnesses-Worldwide/2024-Grand-Totals//">"2024 Grand Totals"</a>. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 2024. Retrieved January 9, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2024+Grand+Totals&rft.pub=Watchtower+Bible+and+Tract+Society&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jw.org%2Fen%2Flibrary%2Fbooks%2F2024-Service-Year-Report-of-Jehovahs-Witnesses-Worldwide%2F2024-Grand-Totals%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-missionaries-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-missionaries_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-missionaries_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jw.org/en/library/series/how-your-donations-are-used/Missionaries-to-the-Most-Distant-Part-of-the-Earth/">"Missionaries "to the Most Distant Part of the Earth""</a>. jw.org. June 1, 2021. Retrieved March 22, 2024. <q>Currently, there are 3,090 field missionaries worldwide. These missionaries are assigned to congregations where there is a need in the preaching work. Another 1,001 field missionaries serve in the circuit work.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jw.org&rft.atitle=Missionaries+%22to+the+Most+Distant+Part+of+the+Earth%22&rft.date=2021-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jw.org%2Fen%2Flibrary%2Fseries%2Fhow-your-donations-are-used%2FMissionaries-to-the-Most-Distant-Part-of-the-Earth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Sources for descriptors: <ul><li>Millenarian: <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, pp. 118–119, 151, 200–201</li> <li>Restorationist: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarkIannaccone1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Iannaccone" title="Laurence Iannaccone">Iannaccone, Laurence R.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228112238/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6295/f3db6a97bbd6909aa18df688e24a8fe945a9.pdf">"Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow so Rapidly: A Theoretical Application"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Contemporary_Religion" title="Journal of Contemporary Religion">Journal of Contemporary Religion</a>. 12 (2): 133–157. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13537909708580796">10.1080/13537909708580796</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1353-7903">1353-7903</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6295/f3db6a97bbd6909aa18df688e24a8fe945a9.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 28, 2017. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+Religion&rft.atitle=Why+the+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+Grow+so+Rapidly%3A+A+Theoretical+Application&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13537909708580796&rft.issn=1353-7903&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft.au=Iannaccone%2C+Laurence+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F6295%2Ff3db6a97bbd6909aa18df688e24a8fe945a9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Protestant: <a href="#CITEREFBergman1995">Bergman 1995</a>, pp. 33–46</li> <li>Christian: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000511015547/http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_defn.htm">"Who is a Christian?"</a>. www.religioustolerance.org. <a href="/wiki/Ontario_Consultants_on_Religious_Tolerance" title="Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance">Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_defn.htm">the original</a> on May 11, 2000. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.religioustolerance.org&rft.atitle=Who+is+a+Christian%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religioustolerance.org%2Fchr_defn.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study">"Religious Landscape Study"</a>. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. May 11, 2015. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Religion+%26+Public+Life+Project&rft.atitle=Religious+Landscape+Study&rft.date=2015-05-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2Freligious-landscape-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldalmanacbook01newy/page/704">World Almanac and Book of Facts</a>. New York, NY: Infobase Learning. 2011. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldalmanacbook01newy/page/704">704–705</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60057-133-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60057-133-6"><bdi>978-1-60057-133-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Almanac+and+Book+of+Facts&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=704-705&rft.pub=Infobase+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60057-133-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldalmanacbook01newy%2Fpage%2F704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Denomination: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/witnesses/ataglance/glance.shtml">"Jehovah's Witnesses at a glance"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. September 29, 2009. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+at+a+glance&rft.date=2009-09-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fwitnesses%2Fataglance%2Fglance.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Jehovah's+Witness">"Jehovah's Witness"</a>. TheFreeDictionary.com. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Heritage Dictionary">The American Heritage Dictionary</a>. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheFreeDictionary.com&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witness&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2FJehovah%27s%2BWitness&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://auschwitz.org/en/museum/news/imprisoned-for-their-faith-jehovahs-witnesses-in-auschwitz,351.html">"Imprisoned for Their Faith: Jehovah's Witnesses in Auschwitz"</a>. auschwitz.org. <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz-Birkenau_State_Museum" title="Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum">Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum</a>. February 5, 2004. Retrieved December 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=auschwitz.org&rft.atitle=Imprisoned+for+Their+Faith%3A+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+in+Auschwitz&rft.date=2004-02-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fauschwitz.org%2Fen%2Fmuseum%2Fnews%2Fimprisoned-for-their-faith-jehovahs-witnesses-in-auschwitz%2C351.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Hill1972" class="citation journal cs1">Michael Hill, ed. (1972). "The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect's Development: The Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain (5): 11–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Yearbook+of+Religion+in+Britain&rft.atitle=The+Embryonic+State+of+a+Religious+Sect%27s+Development%3A+The+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=1972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeo_P._Chall1978" class="citation journal cs1">Leo P. Chall (1978). "Sociological Abstracts". Sociology of Religion. 26 (1–3): 193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociology+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Sociological+Abstracts&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=193&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Leo+P.+Chall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rogerson_1969_55-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rogerson_1969_55_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rogerson_1969_55_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-Beckford_1975_30-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beckford_1975_30_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beckford_1975_30_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Jehovah's Witness". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-293-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-293-2"><bdi>978-1-59339-293-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witness&rft.btitle=Britannica+Concise+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-293-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007274–275-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranz2007274–275_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranz2007">Franz 2007</a>, pp. 274–275. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2001" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Linda (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_s5t3/page/438">A Brief Guide to Beliefs</a>. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22259-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22259-8"><bdi>978-0-664-22259-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Guide+to+Beliefs&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.pages=438&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22259-8&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_s5t3%2Fpage%2F438&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2008">Chryssides 2008</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, p. 280–283. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, p. 221: "Doctrine has always emanated from the Society's elite in Brooklyn and has never emerged from discussion among, or suggestion from, rank-and-file Witnesses." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199758,_61–62_19-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, pp. 58, 61–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Chryssides" class="mw-redirect" title="George Chryssides">Chryssides, George D.</a> (1999). 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Journal of Religion and Health. 61 (3): 2458–2480. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10943-020-01156-8">10.1007/s10943-020-01156-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9142413">9142413</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33469793">33469793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion+and+Health&rft.atitle=Grieving+the+Living%3A+The+Social+Death+of+Former+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2458-%3C%2Fspan%3E2480&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9142413%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33469793&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10943-020-01156-8&rft.aulast=Ransom&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft.au=Monk%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Heim%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9142413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grendele-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grendele_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grendele_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grendele_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grendele_24-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrendeleBapir-TardyFlax2023" class="citation journal cs1">Grendele, Windy; Bapir-Tardy, Savin; Flax, Maya (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11089-023-01074-y">"Experiencing Religious Shunning: Insights into the Journey From Being a Member to Leaving the Jehovah's Witnesses Community"</a>. 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Vol. 7. 1910. p. 374.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Schaff%E2%80%93Herzog+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Knowledge&rft.pages=374&rft.date=1910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199726-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199726_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196931-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson196931_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199753-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199753_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996101-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrompton1996101_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrompton1996">Crompton 1996</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196939,_52-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson196939,_52_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, pp. 39, 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_H._Stroup1945" class="citation book cs1">Herbert H. Stroup (1945). The Jehovah's Witnesses. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 14, 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14%2C+15&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.au=Herbert+H.+Stroup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Penton,_1997,_58-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Penton,_1997,_58_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penton,_1997,_58_70-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA58">58</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA61">61</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruss2001" class="citation book cs1">Gruss, Edmond C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kSZL8BWc9KcC&pg=PA218">Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?</a>. Xulon Press. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931232-30-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931232-30-2"><bdi>978-1-931232-30-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%3A+Their+Claims%2C+Doctrinal+Changes%2C+and+Prophetic+Speculation.+What+Does+the+Record+Show%3F&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Xulon+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-931232-30-2&rft.aulast=Gruss&rft.aufirst=Edmond+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkSZL8BWc9KcC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996150-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrompton1996150_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrompton1996">Crompton 1996</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196952-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson196952_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruss1970" class="citation book cs1">Gruss, Edmond C. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ApostlesOfDenial/1970_Apostles_Of_Denial#page/n275/mode/1up">Apostles of Denial: An Examination and Exposé of the History, Doctrines and Claims of the Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87552-305-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87552-305-7"><bdi>978-0-87552-305-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apostles+of+Denial%3A+An+Examination+and+Expos%C3%A9+of+the+History%2C+Doctrines+and+Claims+of+the+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Presbyterian+and+Reformed+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-87552-305-7&rft.aulast=Gruss&rft.aufirst=Edmond+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FApostlesOfDenial%2F1970_Apostles_Of_Denial%23page%2Fn275%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202221-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202221_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2022">Chryssides 2022</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"_76-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranz2007"Chapter_4"_76-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranz2007">Franz 2007</a>, "Chapter 4". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranz2007144-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFranz2007144_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFranz2007">Franz 2007</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Chryssides" class="mw-redirect" title="George Chryssides">Chryssides, George D.</a> (2010). "How Prophecy Succeeds: The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations". International Journal for the Study of New Religions. 1 (1): 27–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fijsnr.v1i1.27">10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-952X">2041-952X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+for+the+Study+of+New+Religions&rft.atitle=How+Prophecy+Succeeds%3A+The+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+and+Prophetic+Expectations&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fijsnr.v1i1.27&rft.issn=2041-952X&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202220-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202220_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2022">Chryssides 2022</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199755-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199755_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196944-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson196944_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, p. 31 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199771–72-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199771–72_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, pp. 71–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1996109–110-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrompton1996109–110_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrompton1996">Crompton 1996</a>, pp. 109–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, p. 35 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarbe2008145-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarbe2008145_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarbe2008">Garbe 2008</a>, pp. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, pp. 47–52 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, pp. 52–55 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenton199789–90-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenton199789–90_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, pp. 89–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides202223_90-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2022">Chryssides 2022</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckford1975">Beckford 1975</a>, pp. 47–52 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzger1964" class="citation journal cs1">Metzger, Bruce (July 1, 1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200802013602/http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49">"Book Review: New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures"</a>. The Bible Translator. 15 (3): 151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000608446401500311">10.1177/000608446401500311</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220318160">220318160</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49">the original</a> on August 2, 2020. Retrieved October 30, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bible+Translator&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+New+World+Translation+of+the+Christian+Greek+Scriptures&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=151&rft.date=1964-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F000608446401500311&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220318160%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Metzger&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ubs-translations.org%2Ftbt%2F1964%2F03%2FTBT196403.html%3Fseq%3D49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilmour1966" class="citation journal cs1">Gilmour, MacLean (September 1, 1966). "The Use and Abuse of the Book of Revelation". Andover Newton Quarterly. 7 (1): 25–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Andover+Newton+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Use+and+Abuse+of+the+Book+of+Revelation&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1966-09-01&rft.aulast=Gilmour&rft.aufirst=MacLean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pentongov-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pentongov_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pentongov_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pentongov_94-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenton1997">Penton 1997</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA175">174–176</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_AnkerbergJohn_WeldonDillon_Burroughs2008" class="citation book cs1">John Ankerberg; John Weldon; Dillon Burroughs (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rLHuulPCiTgC&pg=PA43">The Facts on Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers. pp. 43–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7369-3907-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7369-3907-2"><bdi>978-0-7369-3907-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Facts+on+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.place=Eugene%2C+OR&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.pub=Harvest+House+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7369-3907-2&rft.au=John+Ankerberg&rft.au=John+Weldon&rft.au=Dillon+Burroughs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrLHuulPCiTgC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> See also John Ankerberg and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029043702/http://www.johnankerberg.org/Articles/ATRI-Bible-School/Fall-Bible-School/fall-bible-school-jw-new-world-translation.htm">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmond_C._Gruss" class="citation book cs1">Edmond C. Gruss. Apostles of Denial. p. 211.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apostles+of+Denial&rft.pages=211&rft.au=Edmond+C.+Gruss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Stedman, R.C., "The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures", Our Hope 50; 34, July 1953. 30 as quoted in Edmond C. Gruss, Apostles of Denial, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinKlann1974" class="citation book cs1">Martin, W.; Klann, N. (1974). Jehovah of the Watchtower. Minneapolis: Bethany. p. 161.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah+of+the+Watchtower&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Bethany&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Klann%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963208–209-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoekema1963208–209_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoekema1963">Hoekema 1963</a>, p. 208–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Hébert2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">G. Hébert, ed. (2005). "Jehovah's Witnesses". The New Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. Gale. p. 751.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.btitle=The+New+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=751&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_A._Hoekema1963" class="citation book cs1">Anthony A. Hoekema (1963). The Four Major Cults: Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Seventh-day Adventism. William B. 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Retrieved December 30, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anesthesia+%26+Analgesia&rft.atitle=Coagulopathy+After+Cardiopulmonary+Bypass+in+Jehovah%27s+Witness+Patients%3A+Management+of+Two+Cases+Using+Fractionated+Components+and+Factor+VIIa&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E763-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2007-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45882634%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17377078&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1213%2F01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3&rft.au=Sniesinski&rft.au=Chen%2C+EP&rft.au=Levy%2C+JH&rft.au=Szlam%2C+F&rft.au=Tanaka%2C+KA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freeminds.org%2Fdoctrine%2Fsniecinski_analgesia2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Annals-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Annals_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annals_287-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroweDiSimone2022" class="citation journal cs1">Crowe, Elizabeth; DiSimone, Robert (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aob.amegroups.org/article/view/6723/html">"When blood transfusion is not an option owing to religious beliefs"</a>. Annals of Blood. 7: 22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21037%2Faob-21-58">10.21037/aob-21-58</a>. Retrieved July 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Blood&rft.atitle=When+blood+transfusion+is+not+an+option+owing+to+religious+beliefs&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=22&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21037%2Faob-21-58&rft.aulast=Crowe&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=DiSimone%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faob.amegroups.org%2Farticle%2Fview%2F6723%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuramoto2001" class="citation journal cs1">Muramoto, Osamu (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119307">"Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses"</a>. BMJ. 7277 (322): 37–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.322.7277.37">10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119307">1119307</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11141155">11141155</a>. <q>This religion has a history of tacitly instructing its members to breach medical confidentiality when other members are non-compliant with the religion's medical policy. This tradition was not changed in the recent directive. As long as unsolicited visitors and hospital workers who belong to the religion closely monitor the blood based treatment of patients who are Jehovah's Witnesses, there remains a possibility that the patient will be forced to disassociate from the religion because of a breach of confidentiality.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Bioethical+aspects+of+the+recent+changes+in+the+policy+of+refusal+of+blood+by+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.volume=7277&rft.issue=322&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1119307%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11141155&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.322.7277.37&rft.aulast=Muramoto&rft.aufirst=Osamu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1119307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/1.4299992">"Jehovah's Witness, 14, ordered to receive blood transfusion despite beliefs"</a>. CBC News. Retrieved July 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witness%2C+14%2C+ordered+to+receive+blood+transfusion+despite+beliefs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2F1.4299992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContiCapassoCasellaFedeli2018" class="citation journal cs1">Conti, Adelaide; Capasso, Emanuele; Casella, Claudia; Fedeli, Piergiorgio; Salzano, Francesco; Policino, Fabio; Terracciano, Lucia; Delbon, Paola (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5900417">"Blood Transfusion in Children: The Refusal of Jehovah's Witness Parents'"</a>. Open Medicine. 13 (1): 101–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fmed-2018-0016">10.1515/med-2018-0016</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11581%2F430378">11581/430378</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5900417">5900417</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29666843">29666843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Medicine&rft.atitle=Blood+Transfusion+in+Children%3A+The+Refusal+of+Jehovah%27s+Witness+Parents%27&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E104&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5900417%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29666843&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11581%2F430378&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fmed-2018-0016&rft.aulast=Conti&rft.aufirst=Adelaide&rft.au=Capasso%2C+Emanuele&rft.au=Casella%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Fedeli%2C+Piergiorgio&rft.au=Salzano%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Policino%2C+Fabio&rft.au=Terracciano%2C+Lucia&rft.au=Delbon%2C+Paola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5900417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurbank" class="citation web cs1">Burbank, Luke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2007/11/30/16763280/jehovahs-witness-kid-dies-after-refusing-medical-treatment">"Jehovah's Witness Kid Dies After Refusing Medical Treatment"</a>. NPR. Retrieved July 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witness+Kid+Dies+After+Refusing+Medical+Treatment&rft.aulast=Burbank&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2007%2F11%2F30%2F16763280%2Fjehovahs-witness-kid-dies-after-refusing-medical-treatment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox2018175-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnox2018175_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKnox2018">Knox 2018</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Durable Power of Attorney form. Watch Tower Society. January 2001. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Durable+Power+of+Attorney+form&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Watch+Tower+Society&rft.date=2001-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> Examples of permitted fractions are: <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">Interferon</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins">Immune Serum Globulins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080106083752/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Immune_Serum_Globulins">Archived</a> January 6, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Factor_VIII" title="Factor VIII">Factor VIII</a>; preparations made from <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">Hemoglobin</a> such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme">PolyHeme</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080723234940/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Polyheme">Archived</a> July 23, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemopure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemopure">Hemopure</a>. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage">cell salvage</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080706171315/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Intraoperative_blood_salvage">Archived</a> July 6, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution">hemodilution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907143504/http://noblood.org/wiki/Acute_Normovolemic_Hemodilution">Archived</a> September 7, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_lung_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart lung machine">heart lung machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch">epidural blood patch</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905212647/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Epidural_Blood_Patch">Archived</a> September 5, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmapheresis" title="Plasmapheresis">plasmapheresis</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy">blood labeling or tagging</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080106084037/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Blood_cell_scintigraphy">Archived</a> January 6, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel">platelet gel</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080106083757/http://www.noblood.org/wiki/Platelet_Gel">Archived</a> January 6, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Autologous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autologous">autologous</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim_Archer2007" class="citation news cs1">Kim Archer (May 15, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/article.aspx?articleID=070515_1_A9_hThef38217">"Jehovah's Witness liaisons help surgeons adapt"</a>. Tulsa World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tulsa+World&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witness+liaisons+help+surgeons+adapt&rft.date=2007-05-15&rft.au=Kim+Archer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tulsaworld.com%2Fnews%2Farticle.aspx%3FarticleID%3D070515_1_A9_hThef38217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/jehovahs-witnesses-childbirth-quebec-hospital-1.3816979">"Jehovah's Witnesses defend hospital visits that push for bloodless treatment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CBC_News" title="CBC News">CBC News</a>. Retrieved May 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+defend+hospital+visits+that+push+for+bloodless+treatment&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fmontreal%2Fjehovahs-witnesses-childbirth-quebec-hospital-1.3816979&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.secularism.org.uk/news/2020/09/rethink-relations-with-jehovahs-witnesses-committees-nss-urges-nhs">"Rethink relations with Jehovah's Witnesses committees, NSS urges NHS"</a>. National Secular Society. September 24, 2020. Retrieved July 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Secular+Society&rft.atitle=Rethink+relations+with+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+committees%2C+NSS+urges+NHS&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.secularism.org.uk%2Fnews%2F2020%2F09%2Frethink-relations-with-jehovahs-witnesses-committees-nss-urges-nhs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ousted-297">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ousted_297-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ousted_297-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodstein2002" class="citation news cs1">Goodstein, Laurie (August 11, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/11/us/ousted-members-say-jehovah-s-witnesses-policy-on-abuse-hides-offenses.html">"Ousted members say Jehovah's Witnesses' policy on abuse hides offenses"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved October 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ousted+members+say+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%27+policy+on+abuse+hides+offenses&rft.date=2002-08-11&rft.aulast=Goodstein&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F08%2F11%2Fus%2Fousted-members-say-jehovah-s-witnesses-policy-on-abuse-hides-offenses.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_298-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2023" class="citation web cs1">Bradley, Amanda (August 16, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/495876/the-rules-and-culture-that-keep-child-sex-offenders-hidden-from-followers-of-the-jehovah-s-witness-faith">"The rules and culture that keep child sex offenders hidden from followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith"</a>. RNZ. Retrieved December 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RNZ&rft.atitle=The+rules+and+culture+that+keep+child+sex+offenders+hidden+from+followers+of+the+Jehovah%27s+Witness+faith&rft.date=2023-08-16&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rnz.co.nz%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F495876%2Fthe-rules-and-culture-that-keep-child-sex-offenders-hidden-from-followers-of-the-jehovah-s-witness-faith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/jehovah-witnesses-abuse-1.3874884">"Jehovah's Witnesses' process for handling child sex abuse allegations keeps authorities in the dark"</a>. CBC News. Retrieved December 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%27+process+for+handling+child+sex+abuse+allegations+keeps+authorities+in+the+dark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fmontreal%2Fjehovah-witnesses-abuse-1.3874884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20152%20-%2004082015.pdf">Public Hearing - Case Study 29 (Day 152)</a> (PDF). Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Australia (Report). pp. 67, 72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Public+Hearing+-+Case+Study+29+%28Day+152%29&rft.pages=67%2C+72&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffile-list%2FCase%2520Study%252029%2520-%2520Transcript%2520-%2520Jehovahs%2520Witnesses%2520-%2520Day%2520152%2520-%252004082015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Transcript%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses%20-%20Day%20155%20-%2014082015.pdf">Public Hearing - Case Study 29 (Day 155)</a> (PDF). 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The Review of Faith & International Affairs. 14 (4): 65–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15570274.2016.1248537">10.1080/15570274.2016.1248537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Faith+%26+International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Law%2C+Religion%2C+and+the+state+in+Singapore&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15570274.2016.1248537&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Y.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCai2021" class="citation news cs1">Cai, Derek (October 13, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58647485">"The men going to military jail for their faith"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+men+going+to+military+jail+for+their+faith&rft.date=2021-10-13&rft.aulast=Cai&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-58647485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022137–138-384"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChryssides2022137–138_384-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChryssides2022">Chryssides 2022</a>, pp. 137–138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotting19931–14-385"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotting19931–14_385-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotting1993">Botting 1993</a>, pp. 1–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShawn_Francis_Peters2000" class="citation book cs1">Shawn Francis Peters (2000). Judging Jehovah's Witnesses. University Press of Kansas. pp. 12–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Shawn+Francis+Peters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120901075011/http://www.knocking.org/Jehovahs_Witness_History_Civil_Rights.html">"Jehovah's Witnesses and civil rights"</a>. Knocking.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knocking.org/Jehovahs_Witness_History_Civil_Rights.html">the original</a> on September 1, 2012. Retrieved August 16, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+and+civil+rights&rft.pub=Knocking.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.knocking.org%2FJehovahs_Witness_History_Civil_Rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2000" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Shawn Francis (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/judgingjehovahsw0000pete">Judging Jehovah's Witnesses: Religious Persecution and the Dawn of the Rights Revolution</a>. University Press of Kansas. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1008-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1008-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-1008-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%3A+Religious+Persecution+and+the+Dawn+of+the+Rights+Revolution&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1008-2&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Shawn+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjudgingjehovahsw0000pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson196959-389"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson196959_389-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogerson1969">Rogerson 1969</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Grizzuti_Harrison1978" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Grizzuti Harrison (1978). 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New York: John Day Company. p. 190.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armageddon+Around+the+Corner%3A+A+Report+on+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=John+Day+Company&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Whalen&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnox201869-392"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnox201869_392-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKnox2018">Knox 2018</a>, p. 69. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckford1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Beckford" title="James A. Beckford">Beckford, James A.</a> (1975). The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. 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In <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Miller" title="Timothy Miller">Miller, Timothy</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC">America's Alternative Religions</a>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 33–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2397-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2397-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-2397-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC">Archived</a> from the original on July 24, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Adventist+and+Jehovah%27s+Witness+Branch+of+Protestantism&rft.btitle=America%27s+Alternative+Religions&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-2397-4&rft.aulast=Bergman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dog_u0Re1uwUC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChuPeltonen2025" class="citation book cs1">Chu, Jolene; Peltonen, Ollimatti (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/jehovahs-witnesses/605AED05C9FA13DC68BB74FE3D2C651D">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009375191">10.1017/9781009375191</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-37519-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-37519-1"><bdi>978-1-009-37519-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Elements+in+New+Religious+Movements&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2025&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009375191&rft.isbn=978-1-009-37519-1&rft.aulast=Chu&rft.aufirst=Jolene&rft.au=Peltonen%2C+Ollimatti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Felements%2Fjehovahs-witnesses%2F605AED05C9FA13DC68BB74FE3D2C651D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotting1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Botting" title="Gary Botting">Botting, Gary</a> (1993). Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Calgary Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-895176-06-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-895176-06-3"><bdi>978-1-895176-06-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Freedoms+and+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.pub=University+of+Calgary+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-895176-06-3&rft.aulast=Botting&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBottingBotting1984" class="citation book cs1">Botting, Heather; <a href="/wiki/Gary_Botting" title="Gary Botting">Botting, Gary</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/orwellianworldof0000bott">The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6545-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6545-2"><bdi>978-0-8020-6545-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orwellian+World+of+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-6545-2&rft.aulast=Botting&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft.au=Botting%2C+Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forwellianworldof0000bott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_D._Chryssides" title="George D. Chryssides">Chryssides, George D.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx6nUwZzeCsC">Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses</a>. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6074-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6074-2"><bdi>978-0-8108-6074-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6074-2&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXx6nUwZzeCsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2016a" class="citation book cs1">——— (2016a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jDOoDQAAQBAJ">Jehovah's Witnesses: Continuity and Change</a>. Ashgate New Religions. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781409456087" title="Special:BookSources/9781409456087"><bdi>9781409456087</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%3A+Continuity+and+Change&rft.place=Farnham%2C+Surrey&rft.series=Ashgate+New+Religions&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781409456087&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjDOoDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2016b" class="citation book cs1">——— (2016b). "Jehovah's Witnesses: Anticipating Armageddon". In Hunt, Stephen J. (ed.). Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity: Movements, Institutions, and Allegiance. Brill. pp. 422–440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31078-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31078-0"><bdi>978-90-04-31078-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jehovah%E2%80%99s+Witnesses%3A+Anticipating+Armageddon&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Global+Contemporary+Christianity%3A+Movements%2C+Institutions%2C+and+Allegiance&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E422-%3C%2Fspan%3E440&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-31078-0&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2019" class="citation book cs1">——— (2019). "'Be not conformed' - A historical survey of the Watch Tower Society's relationship with society". In <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Besier" title="Gerhard Besier">Besier, Gerhard</a>; Huhta, Ilkka (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=55V9DwAAQBAJ">Religious Freedom: Its Confirmation and Violation During the 20th and 21st Centuries. 18. Jahrgang (2017), Heft 1+2</a>. Issue 1-2 de Religion - Staat - Gesellschaft - Zeitsch, ISSN 1438-955X / Religion, Staat, Gesellschaft : Zeitschrift für Glaubensformen und Weltanschauungen. Vol. 18. LIT Verlag Münster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643997456" title="Special:BookSources/9783643997456"><bdi>9783643997456</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Be+not+conformed%27+-+A+historical+survey+of+the+Watch+Tower+Society%27s+relationship+with+society&rft.btitle=Religious+Freedom%3A+Its+Confirmation+and+Violation+During+the+20th+and+21st+Centuries.+18.+Jahrgang+%282017%29%2C+Heft+1%2B2&rft.series=Issue+1-2+de+Religion+-+Staat+-+Gesellschaft+-+Zeitsch%2C+ISSN+1438-955X+%2F+Religion%2C+Staat%2C+Gesellschaft+%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Glaubensformen+und+Weltanschauungen&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783643997456&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D55V9DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChryssides2022" class="citation book cs1">——— (2022). Jehovah's Witnesses: A New Introduction. Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3501-9089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3501-9089-4"><bdi>978-1-3501-9089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%3A+A+New+Introduction&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-3501-9089-4&rft.aulast=Chryssides&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrompton1996" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-227-67939-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-227-67939-3"><bdi>0-227-67939-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counting+the+Days+to+Armageddon&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Co&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-227-67939-3&rft.aulast=Crompton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranz2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Franz" title="Raymond Franz">Franz, Raymond</a> (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914675-16-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-914675-16-7"><bdi>978-0-914675-16-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Christian+Freedom&rft.pub=Commentary+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-914675-16-7&rft.aulast=Franz&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914675-17-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-914675-17-4">978-0-914675-17-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoekema1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_A._Hoekema" title="Anthony A. Hoekema">Hoekema, Anthony A.</a> (1963). The Four Major Cults. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3117-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3117-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-3117-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Four+Major+Cults&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3117-0&rft.aulast=Hoekema&rft.aufirst=Anthony+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolden2002" class="citation book cs1">Holden, Andrew (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jehovahswitnesse00andr">Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26610-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26610-9"><bdi>978-0-415-26610-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses%3A+Portrait+of+a+Contemporary+Religious+Movement&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26610-9&rft.aulast=Holden&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjehovahswitnesse00andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenton1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Penton" title="James Penton">Penton, M. James</a> (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7973-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-7973-2"><bdi>978-0-8020-7973-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apocalypse+Delayed%3A+The+Story+of+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-7973-2&rft.aulast=Penton&rft.aufirst=M.+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Richardson" title="James T. Richardson">Richardson, James T.</a> (2015). "In Defense of Religious Rights: Jehovah's Witness Legal Cases around the World". In Hunt, Stephen J. (ed.). Handbook of Global Contemporary Christianity. Brill. pp. 285–307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29102-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29102-7"><bdi>978-90-04-29102-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=In+Defense+of+Religious+Rights%3A+Jehovah%27s+Witness+Legal+Cases+around+the+World&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Global+Contemporary+Christianity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E285-%3C%2Fspan%3E307&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-29102-7&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogerson1969" class="citation book cs1">Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. London: Constable & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0094559400" title="Special:BookSources/978-0094559400"><bdi>978-0094559400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Millions+Now+Living+Will+Never+Die&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Co&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0094559400&rft.aulast=Rogerson&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynaudGraffard2001" class="citation book cs1">Reynaud, Michel; Graffard, Sylvie (2001). The Jehovah's Witnesses and the Nazis: Persecution, Deportation and Murder. Cooper Square Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8154-1076-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8154-1076-X"><bdi>0-8154-1076-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+and+the+Nazis%3A+Persecution%2C+Deportation+and+Murder&rft.pub=Cooper+Square+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8154-1076-X&rft.aulast=Reynaud&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Graffard%2C+Sylvie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnox2018" class="citation book cs1">Knox, Zoe (2018). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Secular World: From the 1870s to the Present. London: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-39604-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-39604-4"><bdi>978-1-137-39604-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+and+the+Secular+World%3A+From+the+1870s+to+the+Present&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-137-39604-4&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Zoe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPereira2016" class="citation book cs1">Pereira, Shane (2016). "The Management of New Religious Movements in Singapore". In Mathews, Mathew; Chiang, Wai Fong (eds.). Managing Diversity In Singapore: Policies And Prospects. World Scientific. pp. 85–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781783269556" title="Special:BookSources/9781783269556"><bdi>9781783269556</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Management+of+New+Religious+Movements+in+Singapore&rft.btitle=Managing+Diversity+In+Singapore%3A+Policies+And+Prospects&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781783269556&rft.aulast=Pereira&rft.aufirst=Shane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJehovah%27s+Witnesses" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Template:Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_navbox" title="Template:Jehovah's Witnesses navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_navbox" title="Template talk:Jehovah's Witnesses navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jehovah's Witnesses navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jehovah&#039;s_Witnesses482" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses">Organizational structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporations_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses">Corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses">Governing Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Bible_and_Tract_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania">Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_doctrine" title="Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine">Doctrinal development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch_Tower_Society_presidency_dispute_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)">Leadership dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_splinter_groups" title="Jehovah's Witnesses splinter groups">Splinter groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfulfilled_Watch_Tower_Society_predictions" title="Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions">Unfulfilled predicitions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_by_country" title="Jehovah's Witnesses by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_beliefs" title="Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithful_and_discreet_slave" title="Faithful and discreet slave">Faithful and discreet slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah" title="Jehovah">God's name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_salvation" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/144000_(number)#Jehovah's_Witnesses" class="mw-redirect" title="144000 (number)">The 144,000</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_practices" title="Jehovah's Witnesses practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_and_blood_transfusions" title="Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_congregational_discipline" title="Jehovah's Witnesses congregational discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower_Bible_School_of_Gilead" title="Watchtower Bible School of Gilead">Gilead School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom songs">Hymns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_Hall" title="Kingdom Hall">Kingdom Hall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_publications" title="Jehovah's Witnesses publications">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awake!" title="Awake!">Awake!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Translation_of_the_Holy_Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures">New World Translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Watchtower" title="The Watchtower">The Watchtower</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opposition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country">Supreme Court cases by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #ddddff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">People</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Watch_Tower_Society_presidents" title="Category:Watch Tower Society presidents">Watch Tower presidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Conley" title="William Henry Conley">W. H. Conley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">C. T. Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Franklin_Rutherford" title="Joseph Franklin Rutherford">J. F. Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Homer_Knorr" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathan Homer Knorr">N. H. Knorr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Franz" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William Franz">F. W. Franz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_George_Henschel" title="Milton George Henschel">M. G. Henschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Alden_Adams" title="Don Alden Adams">D. A. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ciranko" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Ciranko">R. L. Ciranko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formative influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Miller_(preacher)" title="William Miller (preacher)">William Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Grew" title="Henry Grew">Henry Grew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stetson" title="George Stetson">G. W. Stetson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Storrs" title="George Storrs">George Storrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_H._Barbour" title="Nelson H. Barbour">N. H. Barbour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Category:Former Jehovah's Witnesses">Notable former members</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Franz" title="Raymond Franz">R. V. Franz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olin_R._Moyle" title="Olin R. Moyle">O. R. Moyle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity965" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity965" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">Auto-da-fé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_apathy" title="Divine apathy">Divine apathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">Fall of man</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Last Judgement">Final Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">Good works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Christianity" title="Heaven in Christianity">Heaven</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity" title="Hell in Christianity">Hell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_water" title="Holy water">Holy water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Kingdom of God (Christianity)">Kingdom of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_Christ" title="Love of Christ">of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_of_God" title="Love of God">of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_(theology)" title="Mortification (theology)">Mortification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_in_Catholic_theology" title="Mortification in Catholic theology">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh" title="Mortification of the flesh">Of the flesh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Old Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Views</a> * <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_sin" title="Eternal sin">Eternal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortal_sin" title="Mortal sin">Mortal sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sins_that_cry_to_Heaven_for_Vengeance" title="Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance">Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venial_sin" title="Venial sin">Venial sin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mortgage" title="Social mortgage">Social mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_destination_of_goods" title="Universal destination of goods">Universal destination of goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worldview" title="Christian worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_alcohol" title="Christian views on alcohol">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atonement" title="Atonement">Atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Lists of cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">Crucifix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupio_dissolvi" title="Cupio dissolvi">Cupio dissolvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Catechesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Catholic priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk Christianity">Folk Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-air_preaching" title="Open-air preaching">Open-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">Pastor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Catholic priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallen_woman" title="Fallen woman">Fallen woman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magdalene_asylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Magdalene asylum">Magdalene asylum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellant" title="Flagellant">Flagellant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marriage in the Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">Choir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introit" title="Introit">Introit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalm" class="mw-redirect" title="Psalm">Psalm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requiem" title="Requiem">Requiem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemptive_suffering" title="Redemptive suffering">Redemptive suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-flagellation" title="Self-flagellation">Self-flagellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross" title="Sign of the cross">Sign of the cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">Evangelism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_supremacy" title="Christian supremacy">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_terrorism" title="Christian terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">... and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">... and other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_violence" title="Christianity and violence">... and violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">... as an ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jesus" title="Criticism of Jesus">Jesus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_Christian" title="Nominal Christian">Nominal Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_love" title="Religious views on love">Religious views on love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role of Christianity in civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_homosexuality" title="Christianity and homosexuality">Views on homosexuality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="New_religious_movements155" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:New_Religious_Movements" title="Template:New Religious Movements"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:New_Religious_Movements" title="Template talk:New Religious Movements"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:New_Religious_Movements" title="Special:EditPage/Template:New Religious Movements"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="New_religious_movements155" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Dharm" title="Adi Dharm">Adi Dharm</a>/<a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_God_(Seventh_Day)" title="Church of God (Seventh Day)">CoG7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">SDA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetherius_Society" title="Aetherius Society">Aetherius Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement">Lahore Ahmadiyya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Marga" title="Ananda Marga">Ananda Marga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMORC" title="AMORC">AMORC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophical_Society" title="Anthroposophical Society">Anthroposophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoinism" title="Antoinism">Antoinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armstrongism" title="Armstrongism">Armstrongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a>/<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Kumaris" title="Brahma Kumaris">Brahma Kumaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_Davidians" title="Branch Davidians">Branch Davidians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_the_Cross_and_Star" title="Brotherhood of the Cross and Star">Brotherhood of the Cross and Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahidism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinmaya_Mission" title="Chinmaya Mission">Chinmaya Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Divine_Science" title="Church of Divine Science">Church of Divine Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scientology" title="Church of Scientology">Church of Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Church of the Guanche People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity_(religion)" title="Creativity (religion)">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Family_International" title="The Family International">The Family International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fung_Loy_Kok_Institute_of_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fung Loy Kok Institute of Taoism">Fung Loy Kok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven%27s_Gate_(religious_group)" title="Heaven's Gate (religious group)">Heaven's Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Peace_Mission_movement" title="International Peace Mission movement">International Peace Mission movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness" title="International Society for Krishna Consciousness">ISKCON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitation_to_Life" title="Invitation to Life">Invitation to Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Jewish Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jesus_Christ_(church)" title="Kingdom of Jesus Christ (church)">Kingdom of Jesus Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary_Church_of_Kopimism" title="Missionary Church of Kopimism">Kopimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saints</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Bodhi_Society" title="Maha Bodhi Society">Maha Bodhi Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahikari_movement" title="Mahikari movement">Mahikari movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sukyo_Mahikari" title="Sukyo Mahikari">Sukyo Mahikari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Divine_Light" title="World Divine Light">World Divine Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" title="Messianic Judaism">Messianic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Rodnovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America" title="Moorish Science Temple of America">Moorish Science Temple of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Apostolic_Church" title="New Apostolic Church">New Apostolic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">The New Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kadampa_Tradition" title="New Kadampa Tradition">New Kadampa Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Science" title="Religious Science">Religious Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Church" title="Unity Church">Unity Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuwaubian_Nation" title="Nuwaubian Nation">Nuwaubian Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oomoto" title="Oomoto">Oomoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opus_Dei" title="Opus Dei">Opus Dei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmarian_Catholic_Church" title="Palmarian Catholic Church">Palmarian Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_Temple" title="Peoples Temple">Peoples Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_of_Ar%C3%A8s" title="Pilgrims of Arès">Pilgrims of Arès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathyaksha_Raksha_Daiva_Sabha" title="Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha">Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_Church_of_the_Final_Judgment" title="Process Church of the Final Judgment">The Process Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna_Mission" title="Ramakrishna Mission">Ramakrishna Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%8D_K%C5%8Dsei_Kai" title="Risshō Kōsei Kai">Risshō Kōsei Kai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahaja_Yoga" title="Sahaja Yoga">Sahaja Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Muerte" title="Santa Muerte">Santa Muerte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Daime" title="Santo Daime">Santo Daime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LaVeyan_Satanism" title="LaVeyan Satanism">LaVeyan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Satan" title="Church of Satan">Church of Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Set" title="Temple of Set">Temple of Set</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Satanic_Temple" title="The Satanic Temple">The Satanic Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_Satanism" title="Theistic Satanism">Theistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joy_of_Satan_Ministries" title="Joy of Satan Ministries">Joy of Satan Ministries</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba_movement" title="Sathya Sai Baba movement">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakers" title="Shakers">Shakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Training" title="Shambhala Training">Shambhala Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shri_Ram_Chandra_Mission" title="Shri Ram Chandra Mission">Shri Ram Chandra Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soka_Gakkai" title="Soka Gakkai">Soka Gakkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation_movement" title="Transcendental Meditation movement">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_Buddha_School" title="True Buddha School">True Buddha School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_communities" title="Twelve Tribes communities">Twelve Tribes communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unarius_Academy_of_Science" title="Unarius Academy of Science">Unarius Academy of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_Church" title="Unification Church">Unification Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalist_Association" title="Unitarian Universalist Association">Unitarian Universalist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism#United_Submitters_International" title="Quranism">United Submitters International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Church_of_the_Kingdom_of_God" title="Universal Church of the Kingdom of God">Universal Church of the Kingdom of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">Universal White Brotherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lightning" title="Eastern Lightning">Eastern Lightning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Way_International" title="The Way International">The Way International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weixinism" title="Weixinism">Weixinjiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_of_Faith" title="Word of Faith">Word of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Mission_Society_Church_of_God" title="World Mission Society Church of God">World Mission Society Church of God</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Drew_Ali" title="Noble Drew Ali">Noble Drew Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Applewhite" title="Marshall Applewhite">Marshall Applewhite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Angelo_Aquino" title="Michael Angelo Aquino">Michael Angelo Aquino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Armstrong" title="Herbert W. Armstrong">Herbert W. Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoko_Asahara" title="Shoko Asahara">Shoko Asahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1b" title="Báb">Báb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Bailey" title="Alice Bailey">Alice Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinmayananda_Saraswati" title="Chinmayananda Saraswati">Chinmayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Berg" title="David Berg">David Berg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky" title="Helena Blavatsky">Helena Blavatsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Chinmoy" title="Sri Chinmoy">Sri Chinmoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Aleister Crowley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Baker_Eddy" title="Mary Baker Eddy">Mary Baker Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josemar%C3%ADa_Escriv%C3%A1" title="Josemaría Escrivá">Josemaría Escrivá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Farrakhan" title="Louis Farrakhan">Louis Farrakhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_(Unity_Church)" title="Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)">Charles Fillmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelsang_Gyatso" title="Kelsang Gyatso">Kelsang Gyatso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hak_Ja_Han" title="Hak Ja Han">Hak Ja Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Ron_Hubbard" title="L. Ron Hubbard">L. Ron Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhi" title="Li Hongzhi">Li Hongzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Koresh" title="David Koresh">David Koresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_LaVey" title="Anton LaVey">Anton LaVey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_%C3%81ngel_Livraga_Rizzi" title="Jorge Ángel Livraga Rizzi">Jorge Ángel Livraga Rizzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Sheng-yen" title="Lu Sheng-yen">Lu Sheng-yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meher_Baba" title="Meher Baba">Meher Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikky%C5%8D_Niwano" title="Nikkyō Niwano">Nikkyō Niwano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Myung_Moon" title="Sun Myung Moon">Sun Myung Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakayama_Miki" title="Nakayama Miki">Nakayama Miki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phineas_Parkhurst_Quimby" title="Phineas Parkhurst Quimby">Phineas Parkhurst Quimby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh" title="Rajneesh">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prem_Rawat" title="Prem Rawat">Prem Rawat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helena_Roerich" title="Helena Roerich">Helena Roerich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Franklin_Rutherford" title="Joseph Franklin Rutherford">Joseph Franklin Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahn_Sahng-hong" title="Ahn Sahng-hong">Ahn Sahng-hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabhat_Ranjan_Sarkar" title="Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar">Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiv_Dayal_Singh" title="Shiv Dayal Singh">Shiv Dayal Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirmala_Srivastava" title="Nirmala Srivastava">Nirmala Srivastava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Tkach" title="Joseph W. Tkach">Joseph W. Tkach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%B6gyam_Trungpa" title="Chögyam Trungpa">Chögyam Trungpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_G._White" title="Ellen G. White">Ellen G. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poykayil_Yohannan" title="Poykayil Yohannan">Poykayil Yohannan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movements_in_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="New religious movements in the Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-initiated_church" title="African-initiated church">African-initiated church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabad_messianism" title="Chabad messianism">Chabad messianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_classifications_of_religious_movements" title="Sociological classifications of religious movements">Classifications of religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">Cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersectarianism" title="Cybersectarianism">Cybersectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_cult" title="Doomsday cult">Doomsday cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">Heresy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese new religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_religion" title="Open-source religion">Open-source religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Religious conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_syncretism" title="Religious syncretism">Religious syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">Sect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self_religion" title="Self religion">Self religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_evolution" title="Spiritual evolution">Spiritual evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CESNUR" title="CESNUR">CESNUR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INFORM" title="INFORM">INFORM (Information Network Focus on Religious Movements)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Religions_and_Spirituality_Project" title="World Religions and Spirituality Project">World Religions and Spirituality Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholarship</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_new_religious_movements" title="Academic study of new religious movements">Academic study of new religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Contemporary_Religion" title="Journal of Contemporary Religion">Journal of Contemporary Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Prophecy_Fails" title="When Prophecy Fails">When Prophecy Fails</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_new_religious_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to new religious movements">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-cult_movement" title="Anti-cult movement">Anti-cult movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_countercult_movement" title="Christian countercult movement">Christian countercult movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">Anti-Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Persecution of Ahmadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Persecution of Baháʼís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Persecution of Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Religious discrimination against modern pagans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_new_religious_movements" title="Academic study of new religious movements">Academic study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movements_and_cults_in_popular_culture" title="New religious movements and cults in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li></ul> 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[\"CITEREFSniesinskiChenLevySzlam2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley_I._Kutler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarkIannaccone1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark_and_Iannoccone1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSupreme_Court_of_Canada\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeamBarnesRushtonNewell2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres-PruñonosaPlaza-NavasBrown2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Biema2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Voorst,_Robert_E.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVergilius_Ture_Anselm_Ferm1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW.T._Ellis1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhalen1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrobel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYaffee1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFby_Walter_H._ConserSumner_B._Twiss1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Vlastuin\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 61,\n [\"Cite court\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 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