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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time | Journal of Youth and Adolescence </title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Journal of Youth and Adolescence - School bullying is a serious problem worldwide, but little is known about how teacher interventions influence the adoption of bullying-related student roles. This..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10964-022-01674-6/MediaObjects/10964_2022_1674_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="10964"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2022 51:12"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2022-09-02"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="School bullying is a serious problem worldwide, but little is known about how teacher interventions influence the adoption of bullying-related student roles. This study surveyed 750 early adolescents (50.5% female; average age: 12.9 years, SD = 0.4) from 39 classrooms in two waves, six months apart. Peer ratings of classmates were used to categorize students to five different bullying-related roles (criterion: &gt;1 SD): bully, victim, bully-victim, defender, and non-participant. Student ratings of teachers were used to obtain class-level measures of teacher interventions: non-intervention, disciplinary sanctions, group discussion, and mediation/victim support. Controlling for student- and class-level background variables, two multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses were computed to predict students’ bullying-related roles at wave 2. In the static model, predictors were teacher interventions at wave 1, and in the dynamic model, predictors were teacher intervention changes across time. The static model showed that disciplinary sanctions reduced the likelihood of being a bully or victim, and group discussion raised the likelihood of being a defender. Mediation/victim support raised the likelihood of being a bully. The dynamic model complemented these results by indicating that increases in group discussion across time raised the likelihood of being a defender, whereas increases in non-intervention across time raised the likelihood of being a victim and reduced the likelihood of being a defender. These results show that teacher interventions have distinct effects on students’ adoption of bullying-related roles and could help to better target intervention strategies. The findings carry practical implications for the professional training of prospective and current teachers."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1573-6601"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Journal of Youth and Adolescence"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2022-09-02"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="51"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="12"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="2312"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="2327"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Journal of Youth and Adolescence"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="J Youth Adolescence"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer US"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1573-6601"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="51"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="12"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/12"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/09/02"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="2312"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="2327"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Empirical Research"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="size" content="340453"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="School bullying is a serious problem worldwide, but little is known about how teacher interventions influence the adoption of bullying-related student role"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Burger, Christoph"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Strohmeier, Dagmar"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Kollerová, Lenka"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Child and School Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Clinical Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Health Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Law and Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="History of Psychology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Psychology, general"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=European Journal of Developmental Psychology; 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citation_title=Bullying intervention in schools: a multilevel analysis of teachers’ success in handling bullying from the students’ perspective; citation_author=S Wachs, L Bilz, S Niproschke, W Schubarth; citation_volume=39; citation_issue=5; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=642-668; citation_id=CR64"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Educational Psychology; citation_title=Maladjustment of bully-victims: validation with three identification methods; citation_author=A Yang, X Li, C Salmivalli; citation_volume=36; citation_issue=8; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=1390-1407; citation_id=CR65"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology; citation_title=Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: theory and a three-level meta-analysis; citation_author=DS Yeager, CJ Fong, HY Lee, DL Espelage; citation_volume=37; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=36-51; citation_id=CR66"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Journal of Community Psychology; citation_title=Adults make a difference: the protective effects of parent and teacher emotional support on emotional and behavioral problems of peer-victimized adolescents; citation_author=R Yeung, B Leadbeater; citation_volume=38; citation_issue=1; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=80-98; citation_id=CR67"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Child Development; citation_title=New approaches to defender and outsider roles in school bullying; citation_author=H Yun; citation_volume=91; citation_issue=4; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=Article e814-e832; citation_id=CR68"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Burger, Christoph"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="christoph.burger@univie.ac.at"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Faculty of Psychology, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Division of Psychological Methodology, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems, Austria"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Strohmeier, Dagmar"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="School of Medical Engineering and Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Linz, Austria"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Center for Learning Environment and Behavioral Research, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Kollerová, Lenka"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Psychology, Prague, Czech Republic"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2022/12/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time - Journal of Youth and Adolescence"/> <meta property="og:description" content="School bullying is a serious problem worldwide, but little is known about how teacher interventions influence the adoption of bullying-related student roles. This study surveyed 750 early adolescents (50.5% female; average age: 12.9 years, SD = 0.4) from 39 classrooms in two waves, six months apart. Peer ratings of classmates were used to categorize students to five different bullying-related roles (criterion: >1 SD): bully, victim, bully-victim, defender, and non-participant. Student ratings of teachers were used to obtain class-level measures of teacher interventions: non-intervention, disciplinary sanctions, group discussion, and mediation/victim support. Controlling for student- and class-level background variables, two multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses were computed to predict students’ bullying-related roles at wave 2. In the static model, predictors were teacher interventions at wave 1, and in the dynamic model, predictors were teacher intervention changes across time. The static model showed that disciplinary sanctions reduced the likelihood of being a bully or victim, and group discussion raised the likelihood of being a defender. Mediation/victim support raised the likelihood of being a bully. The dynamic model complemented these results by indicating that increases in group discussion across time raised the likelihood of being a defender, whereas increases in non-intervention across time raised the likelihood of being a victim and reduced the likelihood of being a defender. These results show that teacher interventions have distinct effects on students’ adoption of bullying-related roles and could help to better target intervention strategies. The findings carry practical implications for the professional training of prospective and current teachers."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10964-022-01674-6/MediaObjects/10964_2022_1674_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" 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This study surveyed 750 early adolescents (50.5% female; average age: 12.9 years, SD = 0.4) from 39 classrooms in two waves, six months apart. Peer ratings of classmates were used to categorize students to five different bullying-related roles (criterion: >1 SD): bully, victim, bully-victim, defender, and non-participant. Student ratings of teachers were used to obtain class-level measures of teacher interventions: non-intervention, disciplinary sanctions, group discussion, and mediation/victim support. Controlling for student- and class-level background variables, two multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses were computed to predict students’ bullying-related roles at wave 2. In the static model, predictors were teacher interventions at wave 1, and in the dynamic model, predictors were teacher intervention changes across time. The static model showed that disciplinary sanctions reduced the likelihood of being a bully or victim, and group discussion raised the likelihood of being a defender. Mediation/victim support raised the likelihood of being a bully. The dynamic model complemented these results by indicating that increases in group discussion across time raised the likelihood of being a defender, whereas increases in non-intervention across time raised the likelihood of being a victim and reduced the likelihood of being a defender. These results show that teacher interventions have distinct effects on students’ adoption of bullying-related roles and could help to better target intervention strategies. The findings carry practical implications for the professional training of prospective and current teachers.","datePublished":"2022-09-02T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2022-09-02T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"2312","pageEnd":"2327","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6","keywords":["Bullying","Teacher interventions","Teacher strategies","Anti-bullying","Disciplinary sanctions","Group discussions","Child and School Psychology","Clinical Psychology","Health Psychology","Law and Psychology","History of Psychology","Psychology","general"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10964-022-01674-6/MediaObjects/10964_2022_1674_Fig1_HTML.png"],"isPartOf":{"name":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence","issn":["1573-6601","0047-2891"],"volumeNumber":"51","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer 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<div class="c-context-bar__title"> Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Christoph-Burger-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Christoph-Burger-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3" data-author-search="Burger, Christoph" data-corresp-id="c1">Christoph Burger<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9923-5111"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-9923-5111</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a>,<a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Dagmar-Strohmeier-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Dagmar-Strohmeier-Aff4-Aff5" data-author-search="Strohmeier, Dagmar">Dagmar Strohmeier</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1479-6674"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-1479-6674</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff4">4</a>,<a href="#Aff5">5</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Lenka-Kollerov_-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Lenka-Kollerov_-Aff6" data-author-search="Kollerová, Lenka">Lenka Kollerová</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1050-454X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-1050-454X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup> </li></ul> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>14k <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>8 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>School bullying is a serious problem worldwide, but little is known about how teacher interventions influence the adoption of bullying-related student roles. This study surveyed 750 early adolescents (50.5% female; average age: 12.9 years, <i>SD</i> = 0.4) from 39 classrooms in two waves, six months apart. Peer ratings of classmates were used to categorize students to five different bullying-related roles (criterion: >1 <i>SD</i>): bully, victim, bully-victim, defender, and non-participant. Student ratings of teachers were used to obtain class-level measures of teacher interventions: non-intervention, disciplinary sanctions, group discussion, and mediation/victim support. Controlling for student- and class-level background variables, two multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses were computed to predict students’ bullying-related roles at wave 2. In the static model, predictors were teacher interventions at wave 1, and in the dynamic model, predictors were teacher intervention changes across time. The static model showed that disciplinary sanctions reduced the likelihood of being a bully or victim, and group discussion raised the likelihood of being a defender. Mediation/victim support raised the likelihood of being a bully. The dynamic model complemented these results by indicating that increases in group discussion across time raised the likelihood of being a defender, whereas increases in non-intervention across time raised the likelihood of being a victim and reduced the likelihood of being a defender. These results show that teacher interventions have distinct effects on students’ adoption of bullying-related roles and could help to better target intervention strategies. The findings carry practical implications for the professional training of prospective and current teachers.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs42380-025-00288-3/MediaObjects/42380_2025_288_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42380-025-00288-3?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s42380-025-00288-3">Classmates and Teachers Matter: Effects of Class Norms and Teachers’ Responses on Bullying Behaviors </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">06 February 2025</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11218-024-09931-1/MediaObjects/11218_2024_9931_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11218-024-09931-1?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s11218-024-09931-1">Students as victims of bullying by teachers: Longitudinal antecedents and consequences </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">13 June 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10648-024-09951-5/MediaObjects/10648_2024_9951_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-024-09951-5?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s10648-024-09951-5">Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Bullying and Intervention Responses: A Systematic and Meta-analytic Review </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">22 October 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1739998604, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=10964" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Healthy and safe schools play a critical role in positive youth development (D’Urso et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="D’Urso, G., Symonds, J., & Pace, U. (2021). Positive youth development and being bullied in early adolescence: a sociocultural analysis of national cohort data. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 41(4), 577–606. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431620931199
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e562">2021</a>). However, bullying affects students worldwide and has been shown to have potentially serious and long-lasting effects on health, well-being, academic performance, and occupational success (Burger & Bachmann, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Burger, C., & Bachmann, L. (2021). Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: a variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, Article 10429 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910429
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e565">2021</a>), not only for victims but for all students involved (Hysing et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Hysing, M., Askeland, K. G., La Greca, A. M., Solberg, M. E., Breivik, K., & Sivertsen, B. (2021). Bullying involvement in adolescence: Implications for sleep, mental health, and academic outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(17–18), NP8992–NP9014. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519853409
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e568">2021</a>). This is particularly true for students in early adolescence where bullying peaks (Swearer et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Swearer, S. M., Martin, M., Brackett, M., & Palacios, II, R. A. (2017). Bullying intervention in adolescence: The intersection of legislation, policies, and behavioral change. Adolescent Research Review, 2(1), 23–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-016-0037-9
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e571">2017</a>) and where students are even at a higher risk for developing mental health disorders due to changes in social dynamics, biology, and cognition (Salmivalli et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Salmivalli, C., Laninga-Wijnen, L., Malamut, S. T., & Garandeau, C. F. (2021). Bullying prevention in adolescence: solutions and new challenges from the past decade. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(4), 1023–1046. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12688
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e574">2021</a>). It has been demonstrated that teachers can stop bullying (Troop-Gordon & Ladd, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Troop-Gordon, W., & Ladd, G. W. (2015). Teachers’ victimization-related beliefs and strategies: associations with students’ aggressive behavior and peer victimization. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 45–60. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9840-y
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e578">2015</a>) and that teacher interventions have a central role in the fight against bullying (Colpin et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Colpin, H., Bauman, S., & Menesini, E. (2021). Teachers’ responses to bullying: Unravelling their consequences and antecedents. Introduction to the special issue. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 781–797. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1954903
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e581">2021</a>). But there is debate about which teacher interventions are effective (Bauman et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Bauman, S., Menesini, E., & Colpin, H. (2021). Teachers’ responses to bullying: next steps for researchers. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 965–974. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1954904
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e584">2021</a>) because previous studies have largely relied on cross-sectional and variable-centered approaches. It is unclear what kind of teacher interventions are followed by actual changes in bullying-related student behaviors and whether the effects of teacher interventions differ for bullies, victims, bully-victims, defenders and bystanders. In addition, previous research has typically used teacher self-reports to assess teacher interventions and student self-reports to measure bullying-related behaviors, both of which are susceptible to social desirability bias (Wachs et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wachs, S., Bilz, L., Niproschke, S., & Schubarth, W. (2019). Bullying intervention in schools: a multilevel analysis of teachers’ success in handling bullying from the students’ perspective. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 39(5), 642–668. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431618780423
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e587">2019</a>). The present study aims to overcome these methodological limits by applying a person-centered approach using multiple informants (both teacher and student behavior were based on multiple observations of students in each class). Using a longitudinal research design, the present study aims to elucidate whether and to what extent different teacher interventions have differential effects on the adoption of bullying-related roles among adolescents over a period of six months.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec2">Bullying-Related Roles</h3><p>Bullying has been identified as a complex group process that unfolds from social interactions in the classroom where individuals adopt distinct bullying-related roles (Pouwels et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Pouwels, J. L., van Noorden, T. H. J., Lansu, T. A. M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2018). The participant roles of bullying in different grades: Prevalence and social status profiles. Social Development, 27(4), 732–747. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12294
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e597">2018</a>), including bullies, victims, but also bully-victims, non-participants, and defenders. Students who bully others are more often male than female (Smith et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Smith, P. K., López-Castro, L., Robinson, S., & Görzig, A. (2019). Consistency of gender differences in bullying in cross-cultural surveys. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 33–40. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.04.006
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e600">2019</a>), they are more powerful than their targets (Menesini & Salmivalli, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(sup1), 240–253. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1279740
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e603">2017</a>) and tend to use aggression to maintain and enhance their social status (Košir, et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Košir, K., Zorjan, S., Mikl, A., & Horvat, M. (2021). Social goals and bullying: Examining the moderating role of self‐perceived popularity, social status insecurity and classroom variability in popularity. Social Development, 31(2), 438–454. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12547
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e606">2021</a>). Victims tend to have no or very few friends (Stefanek et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Stefanek, E., Strohmeier, D., & Yanagida, T. (2017). Depression in groups of bullies and victims: Evidence for the differential importance of peer status, reciprocal friends, school liking, academic self-efficacy, school motivation and academic achievement. International Journal of Developmental Science, 11(1–2), 31–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.3233/dev-160214
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e609">2017</a>) and usually withdraw without fighting back, making them attractive targets for long-time victimization (Brendgen & Poulin, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Brendgen, M., & Poulin, F. (2018). Continued bullying victimization from childhood to young adulthood: a longitudinal study of mediating and protective factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(1), 27–39. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0314-5
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e613">2018</a>). A growing body of research has identified a group of students who are both bullies and victims. These bully-victims have been classified as a particularly high-risk group because they suffer from the negative effects associated with both roles (Sung et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Sung, Y.-H., Chen, L.-M., Yen, C.-F., & Valcke, M. (2018). Double trouble: The developmental process of school bully-victims. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 279–288. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.025
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e616">2018</a>) and exhibit even higher levels of psychological maladjustment than bullies or victims (Yang et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Yang, A., Li, X., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). Maladjustment of bully-victims: validation with three identification methods. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1390–1407. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1015492
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e619">2016</a>). The vast majority of students are neither bullies nor victims, but bystanders (Callaghan et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Callaghan, M., Kelly, C., & Molcho, M. (2019). Bullying and bystander behaviour and health outcomes among adolescents in Ireland. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 73(5), 416–421. 
 https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-211350
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e622">2019</a>). These students are usually present as witnesses in bullying episodes, but instead of helping the victims they passively watch the bullying unfold or empower the bullies through explicit social rewards like laughing (Troop-Gordon et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Troop-Gordon, W., Frosch, C. A., Wienke Totura, C. M., Bailey, A. N., Jackson, J. D., & Dvorak, R. D. (2019). Predicting the development of pro-bullying bystander behavior: A short-term longitudinal analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 77–89. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e625">2019</a>). Some students (most likely girls) defend victims by attempting to stop the bullies or comfort the victimized students (Yun, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Yun, H. (2019). New approaches to defender and outsider roles in school bullying. Child Development, 91(4), Article e814–e832. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13312
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e628">2019</a>). Even when defenders are not able to stop the bullying, victims who are defended by their peers show lower levels of anxiety and depression (Salmivalli, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Salmivalli, C. (2014). Participant roles in bullying: How can peer bystanders be utilized in interventions. Theory into Practice, 53(4), 286–292. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2014.947222
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e632">2014</a>) and higher feelings of school belonging (Laninga-Wijnen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Laninga-Wijnen, L., van den Berg, Y. H. M., Garandeau, C. F., Mulder, S., & de Castro, B. O. (2022). Does being defended relate to decreases in victimization and improved psychosocial adjustment among victims? Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. 
 https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000712
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e635">2022</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">Teacher Interventions</h3><p>Teachers function not only as educators, but also as socialization agents and classroom managers (De Luca et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="De Luca, L., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2019). The teacher’s role in preventing bullying. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 01830 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01830
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e646">2019</a>), and they have a legal obligation to protect their students from harm. While teachers report being highly likely to intervene when bullying happens, student surveys indicate the opposite (Bradshaw et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2007" title="Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O’Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36, 361–382. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087929
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e649">2007</a>). A lack of teacher interventions is problematic on many levels. Bullies might interpret it as a tacit approval of the bullying (Saarento et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Saarento, S., Boulton, A. J., & Salmivalli, C. (2015). Reducing bullying and victimization: Student- and classroom-level mechanisms of change. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 61–76. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9841-x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e652">2015</a>) and learn that bullying does not result in disciplinary consequences. Bystanders might refrain from reporting bullying or from defending victims in the future, and victims might receive the message that they are not safe at school (Mucherah et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mucherah, W., Finch, H., White, T., & Thomas, K. (2018). The relationship of school climate, teacher defending and friends on students’ perceptions of bullying in high school. Journal of Adolescence, 62, 128–139. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.11.012
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e655">2018</a>).</p><p>Teachers’ active responses to bullying typically include a variety of interventions (Kollerová et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Kollerová, L., Soukup, P., Strohmeier, D., & Caravita, S. C. S. (2021). Teachers’ active responses to bullying: does the school collegial climate make a difference? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 912–927. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2020.1865145
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e661">2021</a>). Teachers typically prefer authority-based disciplinary interventions against bullying (Burger et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Burger, C., Strohmeier, D., Spröber, N., Bauman, S., & Rigby, K. (2015). How teachers respond to school bullying: An examination of self-reported intervention strategy use, moderator effects, and concurrent use of multiple strategies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 51, 191–202. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.07.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e664">2015</a>). Disciplinary interventions of moderate severity that are delivered in a non-hostile, warm atmosphere (i.e., authoritative intervention style; Gee et al. <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Gee, K. A., Haghighat, M. D., Vang, T. M., & Cooc, N. (2021). In the aftermath of school victimization: Links between authoritative school climate and adolescents’ perceptions of the negative effects of bullying victimization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51, 1273–1286. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01516-x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e667">2021</a>) have been associated with lower school bullying (Cornell & Huang, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Cornell, D., & Huang, F. (2016). Authoritative school climate and high school student risk behavior: a cross-sectional multi-level analysis of student self-reports. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(11), 2246–2259. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0424-3
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e670">2016</a>). Teachers can employ such authority-based interventions to send a clear message of disapproval (Saarento et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Saarento, S., Kärnä, A., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Student-, classroom-, and school-level risk factors for victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 51(3), 421–434. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.02.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e673">2013</a>), which might reduce bullying by increasing moral engagement in peers (Campaert et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Campaert, K., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2017). The efficacy of teachers’ responses to incidents of bullying and victimization: the mediational role of moral disengagement for bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 43(5), 483–492. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21706
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e677">2017</a>). Disciplinary sanctions are not only an integral part of many anti-bullying programs, such as the KiVa anti-bullying program (Garandeau et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Garandeau, C. F., Laninga-Wijnen, L., & Salmivalli, C. (2021). Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on affective and cognitive empathy in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1846541
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e680">2021</a>), the Olweus bullying prevention program (Limber et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Limber, S. P., Olweus, D., Wang, W., Masiello, M., & Breivik, K. (2018). Evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: A large scale study of U.S. students in grades 3-11. Journal of School Psychology, 69, 56–72. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.04.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e683">2018</a>) and the ViSC social competence program (Strohmeier et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Strohmeier, D., Solomontos-Kountouri, O., Burger, C., & Doğan, A. (2021). Cross-national evaluation of the ViSC social competence programme: Effects on teachers. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 948–964. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1880386
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e686">2021</a>), but their effectiveness is corroborated by a recent meta-analysis on the effectiveness of intervention components in anti-bullying programs (Gaffney et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37–56. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.12.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e689">2021</a>).</p><p>Considering that bullying is a social process (Farmer et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Farmer, T. W., Hamm, J. V., Dawes, M., Barko-Alva, K., & Cross, J. R. (2019). Promoting inclusive communities in diverse classrooms: Teacher attunement and social dynamics management. Educational Psychologist, 54(4), 286–305. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1635020
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e695">2019</a>), teacher-facilitated discussions might be an effective way for the whole class to work on bullying prevention collaboratively. Such discussions could raise awareness on the serious consequences of bullying and the crucial role of bystanders. They might lead to higher moral responsibility in the class and lower social acceptability of bullying behavior and, in turn, increase the likelihood of being a defender (Jungert et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Jungert, T., Piroddi, B., & Thornberg, R. (2016). Early adolescents’ motivations to defend victims in school bullying and their perceptions of student–teacher relationships: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Adolescence, 53, 75–90. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.09.001
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e698">2016</a>). A recent meta-analysis showed that discussions about bullying were associated with lower bullying rates when insights and opinions were gained naturally by the students but not when they were unilaterally imposed on the students by the teachers (Gaffney et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37–56. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.12.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e701">2021</a>).</p><p>Another teacher response sometimes advocated for resolving bullying cases is mediation, which is understood as a non-punitive conflict resolution technique where both parties are given the opportunity to express their opinions (Morese et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Morese, R., Defedele, M., & Nervo, J. (2018). I teach you to quarrel - empathy and mediation: Tools for preventing bullying. In Morese, R., Defedele, M., & Nervo, J. (Eds.), Socialization: A multidimensional perspective (pp. 99–116). InTech. 
 https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76882
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e707">2018</a>). Typically, two students voluntarily attempt to resolve their conflicts with the help of a teacher as a neutral third party. Applying mediation to bullying cases is problematic because it is based on the erroneous assumption that victims and bullies can have the same weight in representing their interests (Rigby, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rigby, K. (2012). Bullying in schools: Six basic approaches. Wiley-Blackwell." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e710">2012</a>). Because bullies might have good social knowledge and theory of mind skills, they might be able to talk their way out (Rawlings, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Rawlings, V. (2019). ‘It’s not bullying’, ‘It’s just a joke’: Teacher and student discursive manoeuvres around gendered violence. British Educational Research Journal, 45(4), 698–716. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3521
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e713">2019</a>). In line with these concerns, studies that addressed effectiveness of mediation on changing bullying-related behaviors found no effects (Campaert et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Campaert, K., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2017). The efficacy of teachers’ responses to incidents of bullying and victimization: the mediational role of moral disengagement for bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 43(5), 483–492. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21706
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e716">2017</a>).</p><p>Teachers may decide to intervene by supporting victims (Berkowitz & Benbenishty, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Berkowitz, R., & Benbenishty, R. (2012). Perceptions of teachers’ support, safety, and absence from school because of fear among victims, bullies, and bully‐victims. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(1), 67–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01132.x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e723">2012</a>), such as by providing emotional support, increasing the victims’ assertiveness in dealing with aggressive peers, or connecting them with pro-social students (Rigby, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rigby, K. (2012). Bullying in schools: Six basic approaches. Wiley-Blackwell." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e726">2012</a>). Although a recent meta-analysis revealed that victim support reduced bullying (Gaffney et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37–56. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.12.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e729">2021</a>), teachers tend to focus on bullies and neglect victims (Burger et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Burger, C., Strohmeier, D., Spröber, N., Bauman, S., & Rigby, K. (2015). How teachers respond to school bullying: An examination of self-reported intervention strategy use, moderator effects, and concurrent use of multiple strategies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 51, 191–202. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.07.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e732">2015</a>).</p><p>While the existing research provided key insights into the role of teachers in bullying interventions, it largely relied on cross-sectional and variable-centered approaches (Bayram Özdemir et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Bayram Özdemir, S., Özdemir, M., & Elzinga, A. E. (2021). Psychological adjustment of ethnically victimized adolescents: Do teachers’ responses to ethnic victimization incidents matter? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 848–864. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1877131
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e738">2021</a>; Campaert et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Campaert, K., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2017). The efficacy of teachers’ responses to incidents of bullying and victimization: the mediational role of moral disengagement for bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 43(5), 483–492. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21706
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e741">2017</a>; van Aalst et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="van Aalst, D. A. E., Huitsing, G., Mainhard, T., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Veenstra, R. (2021). Testing how teachers’ self-efficacy and student-teacher relationships moderate the association between bullying, victimization, and student self-esteem. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 928–947. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1912728
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e744">2021</a>), so it is not clear whether teacher interventions were followed by changes in student bullying behaviors and whether the effects differed for students with distinct bullying-related roles, including the most vulnerable group of bully-victims (Yang et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Yang, A., Li, X., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). Maladjustment of bully-victims: validation with three identification methods. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1390–1407. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1015492
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e747">2016</a>). The research has typically used teacher self-report to assess teacher interventions and student self-reports to measure bullying-related student behaviors, which are both susceptible to social desirability bias (Wachs et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Wachs, S., Bilz, L., Niproschke, S., & Schubarth, W. (2019). Bullying intervention in schools: a multilevel analysis of teachers’ success in handling bullying from the students’ perspective. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 39(5), 642–668. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431618780423
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e750">2019</a>). To date, no study has used a dynamic approach to address the impact of teacher behavior change across the school year (Morgan et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2014" title="Morgan, G. B., Hodge, K. J., Trepinksi, T. M., & Anderson, L. W. (2014). The stability of teacher performance and effectiveness: Implications for policies concerning teacher evaluation. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22, 95 
 https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22n95.2014
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e754">2014</a>) on bullying-related student outcomes, although the conventional static approach and the dynamic approach have been found to provide complementary information (Nguyen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Nguyen, P. L. L., Kim, H. L., Romain, A.-M. N., Tabani, S., & Chaplin, W. F. (2020). Personality change and personality as predictor of change in psychotherapy: A longitudinal study in a community mental health clinic. Journal of Research in Personality, 87, 103980. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103980
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e757">2020</a>). To markedly advance the current knowledge and better inform teacher education, a longitudinal person-centered approach with highly valid measures (e.g., peer ratings for bullying-related behavior, student reports for teacher interventions) and analytical methods (longitudinal; Troop-Gordon et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Troop-Gordon, W., Frosch, C. A., Wienke Totura, C. M., Bailey, A. N., Jackson, J. D., & Dvorak, R. D. (2019). Predicting the development of pro-bullying bystander behavior: A short-term longitudinal analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 77–89. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e760">2019</a>; person-oriented; Burger & Bachmann, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Burger, C., & Bachmann, L. (2021). Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: a variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, Article 10429 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910429
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e763">2021</a>) is warranted.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Current Study"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec4-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec4">Current Study</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec4-content"><p>Although teachers play an important role in bullying prevention, it is unclear which teacher interventions are effective in changing bullying-related roles in early adolescent students across time. A longitudinal person-oriented framework (see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Fig1">1</a>) with two time points six months apart (the last wave being at the end of the school year) was utilized, adjusting for relevant control variables (demographic and bullying-related student characteristics at wave 1) on the student- and classroom-level. In addition to a static longitudinal analytical approach, which relates teacher interventions at wave 1 to future bullying-related role adoption, a dynamic approach was adopted which relates changes in teacher interventions across the school year to future bullying-related role adoption. Importantly, teacher interventions were empirically determined based on students’ reports, while bullying roles were assessed via peer nominations. It was hypothesized that different teacher interventions have differential effects on the likelihood of students adopting bullying-related roles. Regarding non-intervention, it was hypothesized that higher levels of non-intervention early in the school year and/or an increase in non-intervention through the school year would increase the chances of adopting the roles of bully, victim, or bully-victim, but decrease the chances of becoming a defender, because students might model the teacher’s behavior of not intervening. Higher scores early in the school year or an increase throughout the school year in disciplinary sanctions were expected to reduce the likelihood of being a bully, a victim, and a bully-victim. Regarding group discussion, higher scores early in the school year or an increase throughout the school year were expected to be associated with a higher probability of being a defender and a lower probability of being a bully at the end of the school year. Although mediation/victim support is positively associated with the well-being of victims, it is unclear whether this strategy is able to reduce the likelihood of being a bully, a victim, a bully-victim, or a defender. No specific hypotheses were formulated for this intervention strategy.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10964-022-01674-6/MediaObjects/10964_2022_1674_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="799"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Multi-level framework of teacher interventions influencing bullying-related role adoption while controlling for individual background and class composition</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec5">Methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6">Participants</h3><p>In two data collection waves, this study surveyed 750 (50.5% female) early adolescent students (7th grade) from a random sample of 20 elementary schools in Prague, Czech Republic. Students were clustered in 39 classes, with the number of classes per school ranging from 1 to 4 and the number of students per class ranging from 11 to 30. To be included in the sample, students had to provide written parental consent and voluntary informed consent. Students were not compensated for their participation. At wave 1, almost all students reported having reached the age of 12 (52.8%) or 13 (44.3%) years (<i>M</i><sub>age</sub> = 12.9, <i>SD</i> = 0.40; range: 11–15; 1.7% did not state their age). Regarding ethnicity, 88.1% described themselves as Czech, 10.4% as non-Czech (1.5% as Vietnamese, 0.5% as Roma, 8.5% as not specified), and 1.5% did not provide their ethnicity.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Procedure</h3><p>In order to obtain a representative sample of Prague elementary schools, 28 schools were randomly selected and invited to participate in the study. Overall, 20 out of these schools agreed to cooperate. There were no differences in school size between the schools that accepted the invitation and those that declined it. Data were collected in all seventh-grade classrooms in two waves approximately six months apart during the same school year, with the final wave occurring at the end of the school year. This interval is optimal because it does not confound results, as teacher-induced changes in bullying-related role adoption need time to evolve and summer breaks per se have been found to have similar effects as anti-bullying interventions (e.g., Strohmeier et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Strohmeier, D., Wagner, P., Spiel, C., & Von Eye, A. (2010). Stability and constancy of bully-victim behaviour - Looking at variables and persons. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 218(3), 185–193. 
 https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000028
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e822">2010</a>).</p><p>Students completed the paper-pencil questionnaires during school hours. To ensure privacy and reduce social desirability, teachers were absent throughout the process; this was considered particularly important because students were asked about their teachers’ behavior. Students were guided and overseen by a trained research team following a standardized protocol. To match student data across the two waves and store their data anonymously, each student was assigned a unique ID number. At the end, students were thanked and provided with a leaflet with phone numbers of anti-bullying helplines and general information on how to cope effectively with bullying. The present research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the third author’s institution, the Czech Academy of Sciences.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">Participation Rates and Missing Data</h3><p>Student attendance rate relative to all registered 910 seventh-graders was 76.8% (699) in wave 1, and 72.7% (662) in wave 2; 67% (610) of students attended in both waves. Students who provided parental and personal consent, but participated only in one wave could be fully included in the study; this was possible because the present study used only predictors that are either stable across time (gender, ethnicity), rated by peers, or aggregated at the class level. Data from students not providing parental or personal consent were not available (159 students, 17.5%). Across both waves, a total of 751 (82.5%) students were included.</p><p>The percentage range of missing values for gender was 0.0%, for ethnicity 1.5%, across the 18 variables measuring teacher interventions 8.0–10.1% for wave 1 and 12.7–13.9% for wave 2, and across the nine variables measuring bullying-related behavior (bullying, victimization, defending) 0.0% for wave 1 and 0.5% for wave 2. The maximum percentage of missing values within school classes across all variables was 22.7%.</p><p>When calculating individual peer rating scores (e.g., aggregate of ratings of classmates regarding one person) and aggregate class scores (e.g., class aggregate measuring class-specific teacher interventions), only available ratings were used. To account for missing values for both predictor and outcome variables in the multilevel generalized linear models, full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation was used.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Student-Level Measures</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec10">Demographic information of students</h4><p>Students were asked to provide their gender and ethnicity. Gender was effect-coded (−1 = <i>male</i>, 1 = <i>female</i>) as to produce non-weighted grand mean intercepts in later analyses. Ethnicity was dichotomized and dummy-coded into <i>Czech</i> (0) and <i>non-Czech</i> (1) ethnicity.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec11">Bullying-related student behavior</h4><p>Three types of behavior were measured using an adaptation of Pozzoli and Gini’s (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Pozzoli, T., & Gini, G. (2010). Active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying: the role of personal characteristics and perceived peer pressure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(6), 815–827. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9399-9
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e874">2010</a>) peer-rating scale: (1) bullying others, (2) being victimized, and (3) defending others. The items were translated into the Czech language and culturally adapted. Students were asked to rate all other classmates on how often they had behaved in a certain way in the past two to three months. Each scale consisted of three items representing physical, verbal, and relational aspects with the answer options <i>Never</i> (1), <i>Sometimes</i> (2) and <i>Often</i> (3). For the bullying scale, the items were “Hits or pushes some classmates”, “Offends or gives nasty nicknames to some classmates”, and “Excludes some classmates from the group or spreads rumors when they do not hear him/her”. For the victimization scale, the items were “Some classmates attack, hit or push him/her”, “Some classmates give him/her nasty nicknames or offend him/her”, and “Some classmates spread nasty rumors about him/her”. For the defending scale, the items were “Defends classmates who are hit or pushed by others”, “Attempts to stop a classmate, who teases or threatens somebody from the classroom”, and “Attempts to help or comfort classmates who are at the margin of the group or excluded from it”.</p><p>Students were asked to provide a rating for all of their classmates (Mehari et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Mehari, K. R., Waasdorp, T. E., & Leff, S. S. (2019). Measuring relational and overt aggression by peer report: a comparison of peer nominations and peer ratings. Journal of School Violence, 18(3), 362–374. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1504684
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e889">2019</a>). Peer-rating scores for each student were computed by calculating the mean of all available ratings regarding the respective student by their classmates. Internal consistencies were excellent (all αs > 0.85; see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab1">1</a> for descriptive statistics). Peer-ratings were used to identify bullying-related roles (see Result section).</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the continuous student-level scales at both waves</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec12">Class-Level Measures</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec13">Demographic classroom composition</h4><p>Gender and ethnicity composition of the classroom were measured by the percentage of female and non-Czech students, respectively.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec14">Bullying-role related classroom composition</h4><p>Bullying roles were aggregated for each class, yielding five variables: percentage of bullies, victims, bully-victims, defenders, and non-participants. In order to avoid multicollinearity, percentage of non-participants were not included into regression-based analyses.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec15">Teacher bullying-related interventions</h4><p>Teacher interventions were measured using an adapted 26-item scale by Campaert et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Campaert, K., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2017). The efficacy of teachers’ responses to incidents of bullying and victimization: the mediational role of moral disengagement for bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 43(5), 483–492. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21706
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1318">2017</a>). Students were asked to indicate on a scale ranging from <i>Never</i> (1) to <i>Always</i> (5) how often their teachers responded with particular intervention strategies “when a classmate is bullying someone” (bullying scale; 11 items) and “when a classmate is being bullied” (victimization scale; 11 items). Both scales are divided into four subscales, with the first three subscales being the same for both scales: <i>Non-intervention</i> (3 items), <i>Group discussion</i> (2 items), and <i>Mediation</i> (3 items). The bullying scale also included the subscale <i>Disciplinary sanctions</i> (3 items), and the victimization scale the subscale <i>Victim support</i> (3 items). Two of the three items in both scales’ <i>Non-intervention</i> subscales were reverse worded (i.e., “The teacher intervenes.” and “The teacher is aware of the problem.”) and led to substantial cross-loadings in a factor analysis. These two items were excluded in subsequent analyses. Internal consistencies of all scales were good (all αs ≥ 0.74). Descriptive statistics at the student level are presented in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab1">1</a> (for item wording see Supplemental Table S1). In order to obtain a class-level measure of teacher interventions, ratings were averaged across all students of each class.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec16">Plan of Analysis</h3><p>Factor analyses with principal component extraction (eigenvalue > 1) and Oblimin (δ = 0) rotation with Kaiser normalization were performed for teacher interventions separately for both waves (see Supplemental Table S1).</p><p>In line with previous studies (e.g., Lee et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Lee, K., Guy, A., Dale, J., & Wolke, D. (2017). Adolescent desire for cosmetic surgery. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 139(5), 1109–1118. 
 https://doi.org/10.1097/prs.0000000000003252
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1361">2017</a>) students were assigned to bullying-related roles by standardizing their peer-ratings for bullying, victimization and defending. The overall mean and SD across both wave 1 and wave 2 were used to ensure that students with the same value at both wave 1 and wave 2 were assigned to the same student group. Students with a <i>z</i>-score larger than one on the bullying peer ratings (and <i>z</i> < 1 on the victimization peer ratings) were identified as (pure) bullies, and those with a <i>z</i>-score larger than one on the victimization peer ratings (and <i>z</i> < 1 on the bullying peer ratings) were identified as (pure) victims. Those with a <i>z</i>-score larger than one on both the bullying and victimization peer ratings were identified as bully-victims. The remaining students were either categorized as defenders (<i>z</i> < 1 on both victimization and bullying peer ratings, but <i>z</i> > 1 on defender ratings) or being non-participants (all three: <i>z</i> < 1). Categorization was exhaustive and exclusive; every student was assigned to exactly one role.</p><p>To answer the main research questions, multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses (Heck & Thomas, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Heck, R. H., & Thomas, S. L. (2015). An introduction to multilevel modeling techniques: MLM and SEM approaches using Mplus (3rd ed.). Routledge." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1392">2015</a>) were modelled to account for the nested data structure using Mplus Version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide. 8th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Authors." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1395">2017</a>). Missing information on both dependent and independent variables were handled with full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation by including the intercepts of all predictors in the model. All three models used a robust maximum likelihood estimator (referred to as MLR in Mplus). Before estimating the models, zero-level correlations of all model variables were inspected.</p><p>Firstly, Model 0 with the cluster variable school class and the (unordered) nominal outcome variable bullying-related role at wave 2 (values: bully, victim, bully-victim, defender, non-participant; the latter being the reference category) was specified to determine the relative proportion of the variance of the dependent variable at student and class level. Secondly, two more elaborate models were calculated (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Fig1">1</a>). In order to investigate the static longitudinal effect of teacher interventions at wave 1 on the likelihood to adopt bullying-related roles at wave 2, Model 1 was estimated by including predictors (teacher interventions) at class level and control variables (gender, ethnicity, and student roles at wave 1) at the student and class level (Saarento et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Saarento, S., Boulton, A. J., & Salmivalli, C. (2015). Reducing bullying and victimization: Student- and classroom-level mechanisms of change. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 61–76. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9841-x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1404">2015</a>). Age was not controlled for because of its homogeneity (students were in seventh grade). To investigate the longitudinal dynamic effect of change in teacher interventions on the likelihood of adopting bullying-related roles, Model 2 was estimated. The only difference between Model 1 and Model 2 is that Model 2 used change in teacher interventions (change scores: wave 2 – wave 1) as predictors instead of teacher interventions at wave 1. This model did not adjust for teacher interventions at wave 1, because methodological studies warned that this might lead to erroneous (Sorjonen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2019" title="Sorjonen, K., Falkstedt, D., Melin, B., & Ingre, M. (2019). The peril of adjusting for baseline when using change as a predictor. 
 https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/6p5hj
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1407">2019</a>) and inflated (Edwards, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2002" title="Edwards, J. R. (2002). Alternatives to difference scores: Polynomial regression analysis and response surface methodology. In Drasgow, F., & Schmitt, N. W. (Eds.), Advances in measurement and data analysis (pp. 350–400). Jossey-Bass." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1410">2002</a>) results.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Results"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec17-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec17">Results</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec17-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec18">Teacher Interventions Against Bullying</h3><p>In order to test whether a more efficient and parsimonious measure across bullying and victimization scales is possible, all 26 items of the adapted and translated scale by Campaert et al. (<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Campaert, K., Nocentini, A., & Menesini, E. (2017). The efficacy of teachers’ responses to incidents of bullying and victimization: the mediational role of moral disengagement for bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 43(5), 483–492. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21706
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e1426">2017</a>) were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis using Oblimin rotation. This was done separately for wave 1 and wave 2. After excluding two items because of cross-loadings, factor analysis for wave 1 yielded 4 factors (explaining 66.7% of total variance), collapsing <i>mediation</i> and <i>victim support</i> into one scale. A factor analysis at wave 2 yielded the same four-factor solution (explaining 70.9% of the variance). Factor loadings for both waves can be found in Supplemental Table S1. Descriptive statistics at the student level (including reliabilities) are presented in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab1">1</a>.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec19">Prevalence Rates of Bullying-Related Roles Separated by Gender and Wave</h3><p>For both waves, the majority of students were categorized as <i>non-participants</i>, being followed by <i>defenders, bully-victims, bullies</i>, and <i>victims</i> (see Supplemental Table S2 for bullying-related role frequencies and percentages separated by gender, and Supplemental Table S3 for a cross-tabulation of both waves).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec20">Differential Effects of Teacher Interventions on Bullying-Related Role Adoption</h3><p>Before being included in the multilevel multinomial logistic regression analyses, the study variables were correlated at the student and class levels. At the class level, a higher proportion of bullies in the class was associated with more group discussion at wave 1; a higher class proportion of bully-victims with a decline in mediation/victim support from wave 1 to wave 2; and a higher proportion of defenders in the class with more mediation/victim support at wave 1. All these correlations were of moderate size (i.e. between 0.25 and 0.35; for more correlations, see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab2">2</a>).</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Correlation coefficient (below the diagonal) and variance (diagonal) matrices for all study variables for student and class level separately</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The empty model (Model 0; see Supplemental Table S4) showed that all intraclass correlation coefficients differed significantly from zero, indicating heterogeneity of bullying-related roles between school classes, with between-classes variance accounting for 16–64% of overall variance in the likelihood of adopting a specific role (see Supplemental Table S4). These results indicate that multilevel modelling is needed to avoid bias due to failure to account for classroom clusters.</p><p>Both the static model (Model 1) and the dynamic model (Model 2) showed multiple significant effects of teacher interventions and teacher intervention change on bullying-related role adoption at wave 2 while controlling for student- and class-level background variables. The estimates are log odds, interpreted relative to the reference category (non-participants).</p><p>Regarding the static model (see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab3">3</a>), higher levels of disciplinary sanctions at wave 1 were associated with lower odds of being a bully or a victim at wave 2. Higher levels of teacher mediation/victim support were associated with higher odds of being a bully. Higher levels of group discussion were associated with higher odds of being a defender.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Model 1 (static): Results of a multilevel multinomial logistic regression analysis predicting student roles at wave 2 by teacher interventions while controlling for several demographic and bullying-related factors on the student- and class level</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Regarding the dynamic model (see Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#Tab4">4</a>), a decrease of general intervention across time (i.e., increasing non-intervention) was associated with higher odds of being a victim and lower odds of being a defender at wave 2. An increase in group discussion across time was associated with higher odds of being a defender.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-4"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab4" data-test="table-caption">Table 4 Model 2 (dynamic): Results of a multilevel multinomial logistic regression analysis predicting student roles at wave 2 by change in teacher interventions while controlling for several demographic and bullying-related factors on the student- and class level</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6/tables/4" aria-label="Full size table 4"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec21-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec21">Discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec21-content"><p>Bullying in schools is a widespread phenomenon that hinders the healthy development of students. Teacher interventions play an important role in keeping schools healthy and safe, but to date it is unclear which teacher interventions are actually effective in achieving lasting changes in bullying-related student behavior. This study extends the literature by establishing that different teacher interventions have distinct effects on the adoption of specific bullying-related roles in early adolescent students within one school year, over a period of six month. The most important finding of this study is that disciplinary sanctions and group discussions showed beneficial effects on students’ role adoption over time, while non-intervention and mediation/victim support had a higher risk of being followed by non-beneficial changes in role adoption. The study underscored that it is necessary to devote more attention to the highly vulnerable group of bully-victims (Yang et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Yang, A., Li, X., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). Maladjustment of bully-victims: validation with three identification methods. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1390–1407. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1015492
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7059">2016</a>), as no effective teacher interventions were found for this group.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec22">Beneficial Effects of Disciplinary Sanctions and Group Discussion</h3><p>Imposing disciplinary sanctions by clearly communicating to the bully that the behavior was unacceptable and reporting the event to other adults (e.g., school principal or parents) turned out to be the most effective intervention strategy in directly tackling bullying and victimization. In the static longitudinal model, higher levels of disciplinary sanctions were shown to decrease the likelihood of being a victim or being a bully over time. This result is in line with previous studies showing that disciplining the bully might be an effective measure to reduce bullying (Gaffney et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37–56. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.12.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7069">2021</a>). The found associations support the notion that disciplinary sanctions should be considered an essential component of anti-bullying interventions (Garandeau et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Garandeau, C. F., Laninga-Wijnen, L., & Salmivalli, C. (2021). Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on affective and cognitive empathy in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1846541
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7072">2021</a>; Limber et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Limber, S. P., Olweus, D., Wang, W., Masiello, M., & Breivik, K. (2018). Evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: A large scale study of U.S. students in grades 3-11. Journal of School Psychology, 69, 56–72. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.04.004
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7075">2018</a>; Strohmeier et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Strohmeier, D., Solomontos-Kountouri, O., Burger, C., & Doğan, A. (2021). Cross-national evaluation of the ViSC social competence programme: Effects on teachers. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 948–964. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1880386
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7078">2021</a>). It must be pointed out that in the present study disciplinary measures were operationalized of low to moderate severity and more severe measures (e.g., detention, suspension, and expulsion) were not included.</p><p>The second most effective teacher intervention was teacher-facilitated group discussion. This was the only intervention that showed beneficial effects in both the static and the dynamic longitudinal model: Higher levels of group discussion early in the school year or an increase in discussions through the school year raised the likelihood of being a defender. Although group discussion did not directly reduce the likelihood of being a bully or a victim, it mobilized bystanders (the silent majority) to be more likely to defend, which might indirectly lead to a cascade of self-reinforcing positive developments (Saarento et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2013" title="Saarento, S., Kärnä, A., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Student-, classroom-, and school-level risk factors for victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 51(3), 421–434. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.02.002
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7084">2013</a>). Regardless of whether defending stops bullying or not, it may reduce some of the negative consequences of victimization by helping victimized students maintain a certain level of self-worth and social acceptance by peers (Sainio et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Sainio, M., Veenstra, R., Huitsing, G., & Salmivalli, C. (2010). Victims and their defenders: A dyadic approach. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(2), 144–151. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025410378068
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7087">2010</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec23">Adverse Effects of Non-Intervention and Mediation/Victim Support</h3><p>An increase in non-intervention showed unfavorable effects by increasing the likelihood of being a victim and decreasing the likelihood of being a defender. The fact that non-intervention promotes the victim role and discourages the defender role is consistent with previous research that shows that teachers influence student behavior through social modeling (Saarento et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Saarento, S., Boulton, A. J., & Salmivalli, C. (2015). Reducing bullying and victimization: Student- and classroom-level mechanisms of change. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 61–76. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9841-x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7098">2015</a>). Non-intervention by teachers might reinforce bullies by conveying the message that victimizing other students has no negative consequences (Mucherah et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Mucherah, W., Finch, H., White, T., & Thomas, K. (2018). The relationship of school climate, teacher defending and friends on students’ perceptions of bullying in high school. Journal of Adolescence, 62, 128–139. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.11.012
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7101">2018</a>) and bullies might perceive their behavior as acceptable. When teachers do not respond to bullying, students seem to be less likely to defend victims. These findings are alarming and must be taken seriously. Teacher education should raise awareness among teachers that not intervening is harmful.</p><p>It is important to note that not all teacher interventions are appropriate for bringing about positive changes in bullying-related group adoption. Mediation/victim support had no beneficial effects on bullying-related role adoption. Paradoxically, it even had an iatrogenic effect of promoting being a bully. This could be due to the fact that teachers who use mediation and/or victim support may fail to communicate clear boundaries of acceptable behavior to the bullies, who subsequently are not required to take responsibility and may continue with their problematic behavior unhindered and with impunity. This is consistent with the rationale of many effective anti-bullying programs (e.g., KiVa, OBPP and ViSC), which is that targeting the behaviors of bullies is key to reducing bullying, while talking to victims is key to increasing their well-being and reassuring them that the teacher is there to help them. Although being largely used in tandem in the present sample, mediation and victim support might have different outcomes when used independently from each other. While mediation may be an appropriate strategy for resolving normal conflicts, it is not appropriate for bullying cases due to the pronounced power imbalance between bullies and victims (Rigby, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rigby, K. (2012). Bullying in schools: Six basic approaches. Wiley-Blackwell." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7107">2012</a>). The teachers’ impartial position could create the impression that both bullies and victims contributed equally to the problem and that bullies do not need to fear consequences for their behavior (Limber, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Limber, S. P. (2017). Misdirections in prevention. Stopbullying.gov. 
 https://www.stopbullying.gov/sites/default/files/2017-10/misdirections-in-prevention.pdf
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7110">2017</a>). Victim support, on the other hand, might help the victims feel less isolated, better endure the bullying, and might even mitigate some negative effects on the victims’ health (Yeung & Leadbeater, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Yeung, R., & Leadbeater, B. (2010). Adults make a difference: the protective effects of parent and teacher emotional support on emotional and behavioral problems of peer-victimized adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(1), 80–98. 
 https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20353
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7113">2010</a>). In the present study, the combination of the two strategies was not sufficient to stop the bullying and to help the victim escape the bullying situation (Rigby, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rigby, K. (2012). Bullying in schools: Six basic approaches. Wiley-Blackwell." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7116">2012</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec24">No Effects on Bully-Victims</h3><p>In both the static and the dynamic model, neither teacher interventions nor teacher intervention change had an effect on the likelihood of being a bully-victim. This is concerning because bully-victims, as a high-risk group, have been shown to be particularly likely to experience negative effects on their psychological well-being and health (Yang et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Yang, A., Li, X., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). Maladjustment of bully-victims: validation with three identification methods. Educational Psychology, 36(8), 1390–1407. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1015492
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7127">2016</a>). Findings from previous studies indicate that this group of students is difficult to address through interventions (Sung et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Sung, Y.-H., Lu, C.-Y., Chen, L.-M., & Valcke, M. (2020). Teachers’ cognitions and handling strategies regarding bully-victims. Research Papers in Education, 35(3), 249–265. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2018.1547919
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7130">2020</a>). One reason for this might be that bully-victims use bullying other more vulnerable students as a maladaptive coping strategy that might seem particularly functional to them and is maintained by them (Fischer et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Fischer, S. M., Woods, H. A., & Bilz, L. (2022). Class teachers’ bullying-related self-efficacy and their students’ bullying victimization, bullying perpetration, and combined victimization and perpetration. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 31(2), 184–203. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2021.1933290
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7133">2022</a>). Other reasons might be that this group of students includes individuals with different developmental processes (Ettekal & Ladd, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Ettekal, I., & Ladd, G. W. (2020). Development of aggressive-victims from childhood through adolescence: Associations with emotion dysregulation, withdrawn behaviors, moral disengagement, peer rejection, and friendships. Development and Psychopathology, 32(1), 271–291. 
 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000063
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7136">2020</a>) and bullying-related role trajectories (e.g., Sung et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Sung, Y.-H., Chen, L.-M., Yen, C.-F., & Valcke, M. (2018). Double trouble: The developmental process of school bully-victims. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 279–288. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.025
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7139">2018</a>) and is rather heterogeneous (Kennedy, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Kennedy, R. S. (2021). Bully-victims: An analysis of subtypes and risk characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11–12), 5401–5421. 
 https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517741213
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7143">2021</a>).</p><p>It has been shown that bully-victims need the help of teachers because of their serious situation, but teachers have great difficulty in supporting them (Berkowitz & Benbenishty, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Berkowitz, R., & Benbenishty, R. (2012). Perceptions of teachers’ support, safety, and absence from school because of fear among victims, bullies, and bully‐victims. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(1), 67–74. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01132.x
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7149">2012</a>) because teachers might perceive them as only perpetrators. Bully-victims need a complex approach that includes both setting clear boundaries regarding their bully role and providing teacher support regarding their victim role (Sung et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Sung, Y.-H., Lu, C.-Y., Chen, L.-M., & Valcke, M. (2020). Teachers’ cognitions and handling strategies regarding bully-victims. Research Papers in Education, 35(3), 249–265. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2018.1547919
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7152">2020</a>). The present findings call for future intervention research and point to the need to foster teacher readiness to work with bully-victims and, when needed, to implement interventions going beyond teacher interventions (e.g., involving peers, parents, psychologists). Multimodal intervention programs targeting this vulnerable group could focus on managing anger, eliminating hostile attribution bias, and promoting prosocial behavior strategies (e.g., Strohmeier et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Strohmeier, D., Solomontos-Kountouri, O., Burger, C., & Doğan, A. (2021). Cross-national evaluation of the ViSC social competence programme: Effects on teachers. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 948–964. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1880386
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7155">2021</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec25">Methodological Considerations</h3><p>The methodology used is a strength of this study. Importantly, the static and the dynamic analytical approach provided complementary information (Nguyen et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2020" title="Nguyen, P. L. L., Kim, H. L., Romain, A.-M. N., Tabani, S., & Chaplin, W. F. (2020). Personality change and personality as predictor of change in psychotherapy: A longitudinal study in a community mental health clinic. Journal of Research in Personality, 87, 103980. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103980
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7167">2020</a>). The static model revealed beneficial effects of disciplinary sanctions and group discussion as well as the unfavorable effects of mediation/victim support. The dynamic model showed the beneficial effects of an increase of group discussion and the unfavorable effects of an increase in non-intervention throughout the school year. The only teacher strategy that had an effect in both models was group discussion. Future research should use both static and dynamic models, as they complement each other. It is important to know not only whether teachers take action early in the school year, but also whether they maintain their actions over time, and what impact is associated with each of these patterns.</p><p>The present study demonstrated that a person-centered approach (Burger & Bachmann, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Burger, C., & Bachmann, L. (2021). Perpetration and victimization in offline and cyber contexts: a variable- and person-oriented examination of associations and differences regarding domain-specific self-esteem and school adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, Article 10429 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910429
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7173">2021</a>) is ideally suited to investigate differential effects of teacher interventions on the adoption of functionally distinct bullying-related roles. The study took advantage of differences in teacher and student behavior that occurred during one school year, over a six-month period under real-world conditions. This real-world approach avoids artificial results that do not align with the realities of everyday school life, ensuring robust external validity (Leatherdale, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2018" title="Leatherdale, S. T. (2018). Natural experiment methodology for research: A review of how different methods can support real-world research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 22, 19–35. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2018.1488449
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7176">2018</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec26">Practical Implications</h3><p>This study yielded promising results that help identify intervention strategies that work for youth in early adolescence, a developmental period when bullying-related behavior peaks and students are particularly vulnerable due to biological, mental, and social changes (Troop-Gordon, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2017" title="Troop-Gordon, W. (2017). Peer victimization in adolescence: The nature, progression, and consequences of being bullied within a developmental context. Journal of Adolescence, 55(1), 116–128. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.012
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7187">2017</a>). The findings demonstrate that specific intervention strategies are especially effective for specific bullying-related roles, and in turn, help improve both pre-service teacher training, professional development programs, and antibullying programs. Based on the findings, intervention programs should include both group discussion and (moderate) disciplinary action, as these two strategies turned out to be the intervention strategies with the most beneficial effects on role adoption over time. In the present study, mediation/victim support was not followed by a lower likelihood of being a victim. It is important to emphasize that these findings should not be taken to suggest that teachers should refrain from supporting victims. Although this strategy might not help victims escape their role, previous research has shown that victim support mitigates some of the negative effects of bullying on victims. It should not be viewed as a stand-alone strategy to stop bullying but as a complementary strategy aimed at improving the adjustment of victimized students (Rigby, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2012" title="Rigby, K. (2012). Bullying in schools: Six basic approaches. Wiley-Blackwell." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7190">2012</a>).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec27">Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research</h3><p>Despite important strengths, such as the longitudinal multi-level design, the multi-informant measurement of relevant study variables, the person-oriented methods, and the combination of the static and the dynamic analytical approach, this study has some limitations. Firstly, the Czech Republic, where this study was conducted, is one of the EU countries that do not yet have a fully developed network of nationwide evidence-based anti-bullying programs (Miovsky, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Miovsky, M. (2015). The Development of the National System of School-based Prevention of Risk Behaviour in the Czech Republic: Reflections on the outcomes of a 15-year process. Adiktologie, 15(1), 62–87. 
 https://adiktologie-journal.eu/journal-archive/2015-2/1-2015/
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7201">2015</a>) and lacks systematic anti-bullying teacher education (Janošová et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2016" title="Janošová, P., Kollerová, L., Zábrodská, K., Kressa, J., & Dědová, M. (2016). Psychologie školní šikany [Psychology of school bullying]. Grada." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7204">2016</a>). It is possible that the present results differ from findings examined in countries where national programs and teacher education on bullying have been developing for decades (e.g., Finland; Garandeau et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2021" title="Garandeau, C. F., Laninga-Wijnen, L., & Salmivalli, C. (2021). Effects of the KiVa anti-bullying program on affective and cognitive empathy in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1846541
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7207">2021</a>). Secondly, effectiveness of teacher interventions might depend on student age (e.g. bullying behavior might become less directly observable with older students; Yeager et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2015" title="Yeager, D. S., Fong, C. J., Lee, H. Y., & Espelage, D. L. (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 37, 36–51. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7210">2015</a>). Future research should replicate and experimentally validate these findings in other contexts and with different age groups. Thirdly, the measures used may capture mainly the publicly visible parts of teacher and student behavior (Cornell & Bandyopadhyay, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2010" title="Cornell, D. G., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (2010). The assessment of bullying. In Jimerson, S. R., Swearer, S. M., & Espelage, D. L. (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 265–276). Routledge." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7213">2010</a>), as less conspicuous behaviors may not be noticed by classmates. But it is plausible that classmates know that bullying occurs and teachers intervene even if they are not present, because bullying happens only rarely in secret (Smith et al., <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2022" title="Smith, T. E., Bauerband, L. A., Aguayo, D., McCall, C. S., Huang, F. L., Reinke, W. M., & Herman, K. C. (2022). School bullying and gender minority youth: Victimization experiences and perceived prevalence. School Psychology Review. Advance online publication. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966x.2021.2002123
 
 ." href="/article/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d25570942e7217">2022</a>) and is likely to be passed on immediately to other students. Future research could focus on differentiating and measuring different forms and types of bullying (e.g. direct forms such as physical bullying, and indirect forms such as relational bullying). Fourthly, in the present sample, victim support and mediation were largely used in tandem and were combined into one factor, which may limit the generalizability of the results. Finally, although the sample was large on the student level, the sample size of 39 classrooms—combined with the fact that bullying-related role groups are relatively small—limited statistical power and made it impossible to account for cross-level interaction effects. With larger sample sizes on the class level, future research should examine more complex models including moderating, mediating or bidirectional processes and should take into account within and between time effects.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec28-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec28">Conclusion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec28-content"><p>Early adolescence is a developmental period when students are particularly vulnerable to school bullying, which in turn is often accompanied by serious long-term consequences on students’ psychological, social, academic and overall functioning. Teachers play an important role in stopping bullying and preventing these harmful consequences. The extant literature is very limited on the impact of teacher interventions on students’ adoption of bullying-related roles in early adolescence. The present study addressed this research gap by jointly exploring the effects of four teacher intervention strategies (disciplinary sanctions, group discussions, mediation/victim support, non-intervention) on the adoption of four bullying-related roles (bully, victim, bully-victim, defender). Analyses identified two teacher interventions that had beneficial effects on bullying-related role adoption. Disciplinary sanctions reduced the likelihood of being a bully or a victim, and teacher-facilitated group discussions increased the likelihood of being a defender. Adverse effects were found for non-intervention, which increased the likelihood of being a victim and decreased the likelihood of being a defender, and for mediation/victim support, which increased the likelihood of being a bully. The findings evidence the fact that teachers can make a difference in the fight against bullying in early adolescence. The results carry important practical implications for the professional training of prospective and current teachers working with this age group. Teachers are in a unique position and have several routes to shape the social dynamics in a class, and can influence students’ involvement in prosocial or problematic bullying-related roles.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item"><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR2">Bauman, S., Menesini, E., & Colpin, H. (2021). 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New approaches to defender and outsider roles in school bullying. <i>Child Development</i>, <i>91</i>(4), Article e814–e832. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13312" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1111/cdev.13312">https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13312</a>.</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="pubmed reference" data-track-action="pubmed reference" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=31580498" aria-label="PubMed reference 68">PubMed</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 68" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=New%20approaches%20to%20defender%20and%20outsider%20roles%20in%20school%20bullying&journal=Child%20Development&doi=10.1111%2Fcdev.13312&volume=91&issue=4&pages=Article%20e814-e832&publication_year=2019&author=Yun%2CH"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li></ul><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgements"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Ack1">Acknowledgements</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content"><p>We thank all parents and students for their trust and their participation in the present study.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Funding"><div class="c-article-section" id="Fun-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Fun">Funding</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Fun-content"><p>This study was funded by the joint mobility program of the Czech Republic and Austria. The grant was funded in Austria by the OEAD (under grant number CZ17/2017) within the Scientific & Technological Cooperation Program Austria / Czech Republic (WTZ) and in the Czech Republic by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (under grant number 7AMB17AT034). This research was also supported by research grant from the Czech Science Foundation (under grant number GA15-00682S). Open access funding provided by University of Vienna.</p>Data Sharing and Declaration<p>The dataset generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Faculty of Psychology, Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christoph Burger</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christoph Burger</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Division of Psychological Methodology, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems, Austria</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Christoph Burger</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">School of Medical Engineering and Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Linz, Austria</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Dagmar Strohmeier</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Center for Learning Environment and Behavioral Research, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Dagmar Strohmeier</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Psychology, Prague, Czech Republic</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Lenka Kollerová</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Christoph-Burger-Aff1-Aff2-Aff3"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Christoph Burger</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Christoph%20Burger" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - 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publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Lenka%20Kollerov%C3%A1" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Lenka%20Kollerov%C3%A1%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>CB conceptualized the study, wrote the manuscript, contributed to implementation of the analytical approach, performed the analyses, and revised the manuscript through the peer review process; LK designed the study, collected the data, contributed to the conception of the study, the literature review and interpretation of the results, and revised the manuscript for important content; DS coordinated the study, prepared the analytical approach, contributed to the conception of the study, to the literature review and interpretation of the results, and revised the manuscript for important content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:christoph.burger@univie.ac.at">Christoph Burger</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar5">Conflict of Interest</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar6">Ethical Approval</h3> <p>The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Burger, C., Strohmeier, D. & Kollerová, L. Teachers Can Make a Difference in Bullying: Effects of Teacher Interventions on Students’ Adoption of Bully, Victim, Bully-Victim or Defender Roles across Time. <i>J Youth Adolescence</i> <b>51</b>, 2312–2327 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-05-26">26 May 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-08-17">17 August 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-09-02">02 September 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Issue Date<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2022-12">December 2022</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01674-6</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p class="c-article-share-box__description">Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:</p><button class="js-get-share-url c-article-share-box__button" type="button" id="get-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-external="" data-track-action="get shareable link">Get shareable link</button><div class="js-no-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info">Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.</p></div><div class="js-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-share-url c-article-share-box__only-read-input" id="share-url" data-track="click" 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