CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Kelp forest - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a36e9a59-6b0b-40a6-a3e6-89822ee12195","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Kelp_forest","wgTitle":"Kelp forest","wgCurRevisionId":1259035952,"wgRevisionId":1259035952,"wgArticleId":1188676,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1: long volume value","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Aquatic ecology","Fishing industry","Brown algae"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Kelp_forest","wgRelevantArticleId":1188676,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[], "wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q575913","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1565"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1043"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="835"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Kelp forest - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_forest"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_forest"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Kelp_forest rootpage-Kelp_forest skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Kelp+forest" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Kelp+forest" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Kelp+forest" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Kelp+forest" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Kelp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Kelp </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Ecosystem architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trophic_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Trophic ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patch_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patch_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Patch dynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patch_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Human use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-As_carbon_sequesters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_carbon_sequesters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 As carbon sequesters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_carbon_sequesters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Threats and management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Threats_and_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Threats and management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Threats_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Kelp forest restoration in California </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_conservation_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_conservation_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Global conservation efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_conservation_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Kelp forest</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="غابة أعشاب البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غابة أعشاب البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Лес водарасцей – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лес водарасцей" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ume_algi" title="Šume algi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Šume algi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosc_de_varec" title="Bosc de varec – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bosc de varec" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaluhov%C3%BD_les" title="Chaluhový les – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chaluhový les" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangskov" title="Tangskov – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tangskov" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwald" title="Kelpwald – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kelpwald" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosque_de_algas" title="Bosque de algas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bosque de algas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaro" title="Algaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Algaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DA%A9" title="جنگل کتانجک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگل کتانجک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%C3%AAt_de_varech" title="Forêt de varech – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forêt de varech" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosques_de_algas" title="Bosques de algas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bosques de algas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%8B%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%88%B2" title="다시마숲 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="다시마숲" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0uma_kelpa" title="Šuma kelpa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Šuma kelpa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutan_ganggang" title="Hutan ganggang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hutan ganggang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresta_di_kelp" title="Foresta di kelp – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Foresta di kelp" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A4" title="יערות קלפ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יערות קלפ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Балдырлы орман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Балдырлы орман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="കെൽപ്പ് വനങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കെൽപ്പ് വനങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwoud" title="Kelpwoud – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kelpwoud" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E5%A0%B4" title="藻場 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="藻場" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tareskog" title="Tareskog – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tareskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tareskog" title="Tareskog – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tareskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwoold" title="Kelpwoold – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kelpwoold" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_wodorost%C3%B3w" title="Las wodorostów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Las wodorostów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floresta_de_algas" title="Floresta de algas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Floresta de algas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Лес водорослей – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лес водорослей" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_forest" title="Tang forest – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Tang forest" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kelp forest" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpov_gozd" title="Kelpov gozd – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kelpov gozd" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0uma_kelpa" title="Šuma kelpa – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Šuma kelpa" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_skog" title="Marin skog – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Marin skog" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="கெல்ப் காடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கெல்ப் காடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%8C" title="ป่าเคลป์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ป่าเคลป์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_yosunu_orman%C4%B1" title="Deniz yosunu ormanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz yosunu ormanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Ліс водоростей – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ліс водоростей" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BB%ABng_t%E1%BA%A3o_b%E1%BA%B9" title="Rừng tảo bẹ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rừng tảo bẹ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E8%97%BB%E6%9E%97" title="海藻林 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="海藻林" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E8%97%BB%E6%9E%97" title="海藻林 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海藻林" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q575913#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Kelp_forest" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Kelp_forest" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Kelp_forest" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&oldid=1259035952" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Kelp_forest&id=1259035952&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKelp_forest">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKelp_forest">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Kelp_forest&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kelp_forests" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q575913" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Underwater areas highly dense with kelp</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>Kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a>, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Although algal kelp forest combined with <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary productivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar</a> coastal oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">[1]</a> In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> waters near <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-4">[4]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/244px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png" decoding="async" width="244" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/366px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/488px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Global distribution of kelp forests</div></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:252px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "I can only compare these great aquatic forests ... with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian[s] ... would ... decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist. </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></cite> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/350px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/525px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/700px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="967" /></a><figcaption>A kelp forest at Cojo Anchorage near <a href="/wiki/Point_Conception" title="Point Conception">Point Conception</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.</figcaption></figure> Physically formed by brown <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a>, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Trophic_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic dynamics">trophic</a> ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanographic</a> patterns<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and provide many <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">forest degradation</a>. Of particular concern are the effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> nearshore ecosystems, which can release <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> from their normal population regulation and result in the <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> of kelp and other algae.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a> This can rapidly result in transitions to <a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">barren landscapes</a> where relatively few species persist.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Already due to the combined effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>'s east coast and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The implementation of <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protected areas">marine protected areas</a> is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kelp">Kelp</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Kelp">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">Kelp</a></div> The term <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Marine_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine algae">marine algae</a> belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> Laminariales (phylum: <a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a>). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps (<a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a> spp.), although numerous other genera such as <a href="/wiki/Laminaria" title="Laminaria">Laminaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecklonia" title="Ecklonia">Ecklonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lessonia_(alga)" title="Lessonia (alga)">Lessonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nereocystis" title="Nereocystis">Nereocystis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaria_(alga)" title="Alaria (alga)">Alaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eisenia_(alga)" title="Eisenia (alga)">Eisenia</a> are described. A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly <a href="/wiki/Sebastidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastidae">rockfish</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Amphipod" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipod">amphipods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_snail" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine snail">marine snails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bristle_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristle worm">bristle worms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a>. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>, gulls, terns, <a href="/wiki/Snowy_egret" title="Snowy egret">snowy egrets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_blue_heron" title="Great blue heron">great blue herons</a>, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Frequently considered an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineer</a>, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In algae (kingdom <a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a>), the body of an individual organism is known as a <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thallus</a> rather than as a plant (kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a>). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfast</a> is a root-like mass that anchors the thallus to the sea floor, though unlike true roots it is not responsible for absorbing and delivering nutrients to the rest of the thallus.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Stipe_(botany)" title="Stipe (botany)">stipe</a> is analogous to a plant stalk, extending vertically from the holdfast and providing a support framework for other morphological features.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Fronds" class="mw-redirect" title="Fronds">fronds</a> are leaf- or blade-like attachments extending from the stipe, sometimes along its full length, and are the sites of nutrient uptake and photosynthetic activity.</li></ul> In addition, many kelp species have <a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">pneumatocysts</a>, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> dose > 50 E m−2<a href="#cite_note-Druehl_1981-17">[17]</a>). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>, a process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixed surface layer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Druehl_1981-17">[17]</a> Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (Macrocystis spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as Nereocystis, are <a href="/wiki/Annual_plant" title="Annual plant">annuals</a>, while others such as Eisenia are <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennials</a>, living for more than 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> Kelps are primarily associated with <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">arctic</a> waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera, Laminaria is mainly associated with both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and the coasts of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>; Ecklonia is found in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>; and Macrocystis occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, Alaska. Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of Laminaria have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm, <a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a> waters.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m (660 ft). For a hotspot in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model, thus validating their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-4">[4]</a> The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecosystem_architecture">Ecosystem architecture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ecosystem architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/220px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/330px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/440px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sebastidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastidae">Rockfish</a> swimming around <a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">giant kelp</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/330px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/440px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>A diver in a <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> forest off the coast of California</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/220px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/330px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/440px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3089" /></a><figcaption>A kelp forest off of the coast of Anacapa Island, California</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giantkelp2_300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/220px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/330px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/440px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1271" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giant_kelp" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant kelp">Giant kelp</a> uses gas-filled floats to keep the thallus suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.</figcaption></figure> The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> <ul><li>Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g., Macrocystis and Alaria).</li> <li>Stipitate kelps generally extend a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g., Eisenia and Ecklonia).</li> <li>Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g., Laminaria).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> assemblage is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.</li> <li>Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover geologic substrate.</li></ul> Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a Macrocystis canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps Eisenia and Pterygophora reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graham2004-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> For example, in California, Macrocystis pyrifera forests, the <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">nudibranch</a> <a href="/wiki/Melibe_leonina" title="Melibe leonina">Melibe leonina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Skeleton_shrimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeleton shrimp">skeleton shrimp</a> Caprella californica are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch Brachyistius frenatus, rockfish <a href="/wiki/Sebastes" title="Sebastes">Sebastes</a> spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; <a href="/wiki/Brittle_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle stars">brittle stars</a> and turban snails <a href="/wiki/Tegula_(gastropod)" title="Tegula (gastropod)">Tegula</a> spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various <a href="/wiki/Gastropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropods">gastropods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoderms">echinoderms</a> live over the encrusting coralline algae.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">pelagic fishes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine mammals">marine mammals</a> are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trophic_ecology">Trophic ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trophic ecology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaurchin_300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/220px-Seaurchin_300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/330px-Seaurchin_300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/440px-Seaurchin_300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1273" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Sea urchins like this <a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">purple sea urchin</a> can damage kelp forests by chewing through kelp <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfasts</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_(9137174915).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/220px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/330px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/440px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2122" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otter</a> is an important predator of <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/220px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/330px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/440px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>The jeweled top snail <a href="/wiki/Calliostoma_annulatum" title="Calliostoma annulatum">Calliostoma annulatum</a> grazing on a blade of giant kelp</figcaption></figure> Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their <a href="/wiki/Food_webs" class="mw-redirect" title="Food webs">food webs</a>), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dayton1999-27">[27]</a> This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-28">[28]</a> By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests,<a href="#cite_note-Estes1995-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_otters" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea otters">sea otters</a> (Enhydra lutris) control populations of herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea urchins">sea urchins</a> through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> that mediates this <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascade</a>. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the <a href="/wiki/California_sheephead" title="California sheephead">California sheephead</a>. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins.<a href="#cite_note-Graham2004-24">[24]</a> However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation.<a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a> Similar examples exist in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> South Africa,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Australia,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and Chile.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.<a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2006-37">[37]</a> The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘<a href="/wiki/Urchin_barrens" class="mw-redirect" title="Urchin barrens">urchin barrens</a>’) is a widespread phenomenon,<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vasquez-46">[46]</a> Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case. Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">seastars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopods">isopods</a>, kelp <a href="/wiki/Crabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabs">crabs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous">herbivorous</a> fishes.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a> In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached thalli; when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ebeling-48">[48]</a> Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1984-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patch_dynamics">Patch dynamics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Patch dynamics">edit</a>]</div> Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-28">[28]</a> Large-scale environmental disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">resilience</a>. Examples of environmental disturbances include: <ul><li>Acute and chronic <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Pollution can include sediment deposition and <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> from sewage, industrial byproducts and contaminants like <a href="/wiki/PCBs" class="mw-redirect" title="PCBs">PCBs</a> and heavy metals (for example, copper, zinc), runoff of <a href="/wiki/Organophosphates" class="mw-redirect" title="Organophosphates">organophosphates</a> from agricultural areas, anti-fouling chemicals used in harbors and marinas (for example, <a href="/wiki/Tributyltin" title="Tributyltin">TBT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a>) and land-based pathogens like <a href="/wiki/Fecal_coliform_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal coliform bacteria">fecal coliform bacteria</a>.</li> <li>Catastrophic storms can remove surface kelp canopies through wave activity, but usually leave understory kelps intact; they can also remove urchins when little spatial refuge is available.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ebeling-48">[48]</a> Interspersed canopy clearings create a seascape mosaic where sunlight penetrates deeper into the kelp forest and species that are normally light-limited in the understory can flourish. Similarly, substrate cleared of kelp holdfasts can provide space for other sessile species to establish themselves and occupy the seafloor, sometimes directly competing with juvenile kelp and even inhibiting their settlement.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) events involve the depression of oceanographic thermoclines, severe reductions of nutrient input, and changes in storm patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Stress due to warm water and <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_depletion" title="Nutrient depletion">nutrient depletion</a> can increase the susceptibility of kelp to storm damage and herbivorous grazing, sometimes even prompting phase shifts to urchin-dominated landscapes.<a href="#cite_note-Vasquez-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1984-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In general, oceanographic conditions (that is, water temperature, currents) influence the recruitment success of kelp and its competitors, which clearly affect subsequent species interactions and kelp forest dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Overfishing higher trophic levels that naturally regulate herbivore populations is also recognized as an important stressor in kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2006-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2001-63">[63]</a> As described in the previous section, the drivers and outcomes of trophic cascades are important for understanding spatial-temporal patterns of kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-Estes1995-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a></li></ul> In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart the intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of Ecklonia radiata in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently, the proportion of E. radiata can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_use">Human use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Human use">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_diver_records_kelp_growth_(9296).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/220px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/330px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/440px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A diver measures kelp growth</figcaption></figure> Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have stretched from northeast Asia to the American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters <a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Modern economies are based on <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a> of kelp-associated species such as <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobster</a> and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as <a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">abalone</a> and to extract the compound <a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">alginic acid</a>, which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as <a href="/wiki/SCUBA_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="SCUBA diving">SCUBA diving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kayaking" title="Kayaking">kayaking</a>; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> to exhibit an alive kelp forest. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_carbon_sequesters">As carbon sequesters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: As carbon sequesters">edit</a>]</div> Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to the deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Western_Australia" title="University of Western Australia">University of Western Australia</a> estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a> sequestered in the Australian continent by <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass beds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threats_and_management">Threats and management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Threats and management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melibe.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/220px-Melibe.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/330px-Melibe.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/440px-Melibe.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption>The nudibranch <a href="/wiki/Melibe_leonina" title="Melibe leonina">Melibe leonina</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a> frond (California): Marine protected areas are one way to guard kelp forests as an ecosystem. </figcaption></figure> Given the complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Major issues of concern include marine pollution and <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, kelp harvesting and fisheries, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a> The maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with the rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1999-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2001-63">[63]</a> While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem. <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protected areas">Marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California">Kelp forest restoration in California</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kelp forest restoration in California">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/330px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/440px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Fish <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">swarming</a> through a kelp forest</figcaption></figure> In the 2010s, Northern California lost 95% of its kelp ecosystems due to marine heatwaves.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a> removal,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> both by scuba divers,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>, which are natural predators.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> A brown alga, <a href="/wiki/Sargassum_horneri" title="Sargassum horneri">Sargassum horneri</a>, an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been a concern.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_sea_star" title="Sunflower sea star">Sunflower sea star</a> is an important keystone species which helps control sea urchin abundance, but an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Sea_star_wasting_disease" title="Sea star wasting disease">Sea star wasting disease</a> and a vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has led to its critical endangerment.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Research efforts at the state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a> for kelp forest restoration.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Ocean Rainforest, a <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>-based company, secured $4.5 million in U.S. government funding to grow giant kelp on an 86-acre farm off the coast of Santa Barbara, California.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_conservation_efforts">Global conservation efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Global conservation efforts">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> Norwegian Blue Forests Network 2023 report titled 'Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests' documents a global decline in kelp forests, with an annual reduction rate of 1.8%. Over the past 50 years, 40–60% of these ecosystems have degraded due to factors such as climate change, poor water quality, and <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>. The report underscores the urgency of implementing global conservation efforts and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to adopt area-based management strategies. These strategies aim to mitigate the aforementioned impacts and enhance the resilience and sustainability of kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a> Kelp forest restoration, practiced in 16 countries over 300 years, has gained momentum, particularly from 2009 to 2019, involving diverse societal sectors such as academia, governments, and businesses. Large-scale restoration successes demonstrate its feasibility, with the best outcomes often near existing kelp forests, emphasizing the importance of preventing their decline. However, challenges persist, including the need for cost-effective methods, funding mechanisms, and adaptations to climate change. This restoration work not only supports <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> recovery but also offers significant social and economic benefits, aligning with the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">United Nations Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs), and underscores the importance of multi-sector collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a>: 135  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_giant_kelp" title="Aquaculture of giant kelp">Aquaculture of giant kelp</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_(1973)_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_(1973)_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMann1973" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, K. H. (1973-12-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.182.4116.975">"Seaweeds: Their Productivity and Strategy for Growth: The role of large marine algae in coastal productivity is far more important than has been suspected"</a>. Science. 182 (4116): 975–981. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.182.4116.975">10.1126/science.182.4116.975</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17833778">17833778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Seaweeds%3A+Their+Productivity+and+Strategy+for+Growth%3A+The+role+of+large+marine+algae+in+coastal+productivity+is+far+more+important+than+has+been+suspected.&rft.volume=182&rft.issue=4116&rft.pages=975-981&rft.date=1973-12-07&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17833778&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.182.4116.975&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=K.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.182.4116.975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPessarrodonaAssisFilbee-DexterBurrows2020" class="citation journal cs1">Pessarrodona, A; Assis, J; Filbee-Dexter, K; Burrows, M T; Gattuso, J-P; Duarte, C.M.; Krause-Jensen, D; Moore, P.J.; Smale, D.A.; Wernberg, T (23 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9473579">"Global Seaweed Productivity"</a>. Science Advances. 8 (37): eabn2465. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abn2465">10.1126/sciadv.abn2465</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10754%2F681467">10754/681467</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9473579">9473579</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36103524">36103524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=Global+Seaweed+Productivity&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=eabn2465&rft.date=2020-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9473579%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36103524&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10754%2F681467&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abn2465&rft.aulast=Pessarrodona&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Assis%2C+J&rft.au=Filbee-Dexter%2C+K&rft.au=Burrows%2C+M+T&rft.au=Gattuso%2C+J-P&rft.au=Duarte%2C+C.M.&rft.au=Krause-Jensen%2C+D&rft.au=Moore%2C+P.J.&rft.au=Smale%2C+D.A.&rft.au=Wernberg%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9473579&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> See Fig. 3 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakemore2018" class="citation journal cs1">Blakemore, Robert (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsoilsystems2040064">"Non-Flat Earth Recalibrated for Terrain and Topsoil"</a>. Soil Systems. 2 (4): 64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsoilsystems2040064">10.3390/soilsystems2040064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Systems&rft.atitle=Non-Flat+Earth+Recalibrated+for+Terrain+and+Topsoil&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsoilsystems2040064&rft.aulast=Blakemore&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsoilsystems2040064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graham_et_al._2007_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham_et_al._2007_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrahamKinlanDruehlGarske2007" class="citation journal cs1">Graham, Michael H.; Kinlan, Brian P.; Druehl, Louis D.; Garske, Lauren E.; Banks, Stuart (2007-10-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2034254">"Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (42): 16576–16580. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..10416576G">2007PNAS..10416576G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0704778104">10.1073/pnas.0704778104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2034254">2034254</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17913882">17913882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Deep-water+kelp+refugia+as+potential+hotspots+of+tropical+marine+diversity+and+productivity&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=16576-16580&rft.date=2007-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2034254%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..10416576G&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17913882&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0704778104&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft.au=Kinlan%2C+Brian+P.&rft.au=Druehl%2C+Louis+D.&rft.au=Garske%2C+Lauren+E.&rft.au=Banks%2C+Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2034254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harvardclassicsv0029unse">the harvard classics: voyage of the beagle</a>. P.F. Collier & Son Company. 1909.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+harvard+classics%3A+voyage+of+the+beagle&rft.pub=P.F.+Collier+%26+Son+Company&rft.date=1909&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fharvardclassicsv0029unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristieJørgensenNorderhaugWaage-Nielsen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Christie, Hartvig; Jørgensen, Nina Mari; Norderhaug, Kjell Magnus; Waage-Nielsen, Elisabeth (August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025315403007653/type/journal_article">"Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp ( Laminaria Hyperborea ) along the Norwegian Coast"</a>. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 83 (4): 687–699. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JMBUK..83..687C">2003JMBUK..83..687C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025315403007653h">10.1017/S0025315403007653h</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3154">0025-3154</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151310/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/abs/species-distribution-and-habitat-exploitation-of-fauna-associated-with-kelp-laminaria-hyperborea-along-the-norwegian-coast/16ECBF25C1F4CCD89680498809A09F95">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Marine+Biological+Association+of+the+United+Kingdom&rft.atitle=Species+distribution+and+habitat+exploitation+of+fauna+associated+with+kelp+%28+Laminaria+Hyperborea+%29+along+the+Norwegian+Coast&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=687-699&rft.date=2003-08&rft.issn=0025-3154&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025315403007653h&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JMBUK..83..687C&rft.aulast=Christie&rft.aufirst=Hartvig&rft.au=J%C3%B8rgensen%2C+Nina+Mari&rft.au=Norderhaug%2C+Kjell+Magnus&rft.au=Waage-Nielsen%2C+Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0025315403007653%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonWinant1983" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, George A.; Winant, Clinton D. (May 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0278434383900237">"Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents"</a>. Continental Shelf Research. 2 (1): 75–80. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983CSR.....2...75J">1983CSR.....2...75J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0278-4343%2883%2990023-7">10.1016/0278-4343(83)90023-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151306/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0278434383900237">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Continental+Shelf+Research&rft.atitle=Effect+of+a+kelp+forest+on+coastal+currents&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-80&rft.date=1983-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0278-4343%2883%2990023-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983CSR.....2...75J&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft.au=Winant%2C+Clinton+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2F0278434383900237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steneck_2002_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steneck_2002_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steneck_2002_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steneck_2002_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steneck_2002_8-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteneckGrahamBourqueCorbett2002" class="citation journal cs1">Steneck, Robert S.; Graham, Michael H.; Bourque, Bruce J.; Corbett, Debbie; Erlandson, Jon M.; Estes, James A.; Tegner, Mia J. (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0376892902000322/type/journal_article">"Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future"</a>. Environmental Conservation. 29 (4): 436–459. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002EnvCo..29..436S">2002EnvCo..29..436S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0376892902000322">10.1017/S0376892902000322</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0376-8929">0376-8929</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145525/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/abs/kelp-forest-ecosystems-biodiversity-stability-resilience-and-future/105EB05670376912F180E116D64135D6">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Conservation&rft.atitle=Kelp+forest+ecosystems%3A+biodiversity%2C+stability%2C+resilience+and+future&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=436-459&rft.date=2002-12&rft.issn=0376-8929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0376892902000322&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002EnvCo..29..436S&rft.aulast=Steneck&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Bourque%2C+Bruce+J.&rft.au=Corbett%2C+Debbie&rft.au=Erlandson%2C+Jon+M.&rft.au=Estes%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Tegner%2C+Mia+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0376892902000322%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sala1998-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1998_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1998_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1998_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala1998_9-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalaBoudouresqueHarmelin-Vivien1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sala, E.; Boudouresque, C. F.; Harmelin-Vivien, M. (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3546364">"Fishing, Trophic Cascades, and the Structure of Algal Assemblages: Evaluation of an Old but Untested Paradigm"</a>. Oikos. 82 (3): 425. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Oikos..82..425S">1998Oikos..82..425S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3546364">10.2307/3546364</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3546364">3546364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=Fishing%2C+Trophic+Cascades%2C+and+the+Structure+of+Algal+Assemblages%3A+Evaluation+of+an+Old+but+Untested+Paradigm&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=425&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3546364%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3546364&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998Oikos..82..425S&rft.aulast=Sala&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Boudouresque%2C+C.+F.&rft.au=Harmelin-Vivien%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3546364&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_10-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayton1985" class="citation journal cs1">Dayton, Paul K. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2097048">"Ecology of Kelp Communities"</a>. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 16 (1): 215–245. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985AnRES..16..215D">1985AnRES..16..215D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.16.110185.001243">10.1146/annurev.es.16.110185.001243</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-4162">0066-4162</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2097048">2097048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=Ecology+of+Kelp+Communities&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=215-245&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.es.16.110185.001243&rft.issn=0066-4162&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2097048%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985AnRES..16..215D&rft.aulast=Dayton&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2097048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorderhaugChristie2009" class="citation journal cs1">Norderhaug, Kjell Magnus; Christie, Hartvig C. (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17451000902932985">"Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic"</a>. Marine Biology Research. 5 (6): 515–528. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MBioR...5..515N">2009MBioR...5..515N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17451000902932985">10.1080/17451000902932985</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-1000">1745-1000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology+Research&rft.atitle=Sea+urchin+grazing+and+kelp+re-vegetation+in+the+NE+Atlantic&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=515-528&rft.date=2009-11&rft.issn=1745-1000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17451000902932985&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009MBioR...5..515N&rft.aulast=Norderhaug&rft.aufirst=Kjell+Magnus&rft.au=Christie%2C+Hartvig+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F17451000902932985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilbee-DexterFeehanScheibling2016" class="citation journal cs1">Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Feehan, Colette J.; Scheibling, Robert E. (2016-02-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v543/p141-152/">"Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 543: 141–152. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016MEPS..543..141F">2016MEPS..543..141F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps11554">10.3354/meps11554</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240331202203/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v543/p141-152/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-03-31. Retrieved 2024-03-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Large-scale+degradation+of+a+kelp+ecosystem+in+an+ocean+warming+hotspot&rft.volume=543&rft.pages=141-152&rft.date=2016-02-03&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps11554&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016MEPS..543..141F&rft.aulast=Filbee-Dexter&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Feehan%2C+Colette+J.&rft.au=Scheibling%2C+Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Fabstracts%2Fmeps%2Fv543%2Fp141-152%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortonCordellFannerBall" class="citation web cs1">Morton, Adam; Cordell, Marni; Fanner, David; Ball, Andy; Evershed, Nick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2020/feb/24/the-dead-sea-tasmanias-underwater-forests-disappearing-in-our-lifetime">"The dead sea: Tasmania's underwater forests disappearing in our lifetime"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022054245/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2020/feb/24/the-dead-sea-tasmanias-underwater-forests-disappearing-in-our-lifetime">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-22. Retrieved 2020-10-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+dead+sea%3A+Tasmania%27s+underwater+forests+disappearing+in+our+lifetime&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft.au=Cordell%2C+Marni&rft.au=Fanner%2C+David&rft.au=Ball%2C+Andy&rft.au=Evershed%2C+Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fng-interactive%2F2020%2Ffeb%2F24%2Fthe-dead-sea-tasmanias-underwater-forests-disappearing-in-our-lifetime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinbauer" class="citation web cs1">Steinbauer, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://baynature.org/article/bringing-back-kelp/">"What Will It Take to Bring Back the Kelp Forest? - Bay Nature Magazine"</a>. Bay Nature. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201020123222/https://baynature.org/article/bringing-back-kelp/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-20. Retrieved 2020-10-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bay+Nature&rft.atitle=What+Will+It+Take+to+Bring+Back+the+Kelp+Forest%3F+-+Bay+Nature+Magazine&rft.aulast=Steinbauer&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbaynature.org%2Farticle%2Fbringing-back-kelp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/kelplives.html">Kelp forests provide habitat for a variety of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170909185527/http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/kelplives.html">Archived</a> 2017-09-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> NOAA. Updated 11 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesLawtonShachak1997" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078%5B1946:PANEOO%5D2.0.CO;2">"Positive and Negative Effects of Organisms as Physical Ecosystem Engineers"</a>. Ecology. 78 (7): 1946–1957. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F0012-9658%281997%29078%5B1946%3APANEOO%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1946:PANEOO]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145523/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%281997%29078%5B1946%3APANEOO%5D2.0.CO%3B2">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Positive+and+Negative+Effects+of+Organisms+as+Physical+Ecosystem+Engineers&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1946-1957&rft.date=1997-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F0012-9658%281997%29078%5B1946%3APANEOO%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Clive+G.&rft.au=Lawton%2C+John+H.&rft.au=Shachak%2C+Moshe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F0012-9658%281997%29078%26%2391%3B1946%3APANEOO%26%2393%3B2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Druehl_1981-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Druehl_1981_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Druehl_1981_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLüningtom_Dieck1990" class="citation conference cs1">Lüning, Klaus; tom Dieck, Inka (1990). Garbary, David J.; South, G. Robin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-75115-8_10">The Distribution and Evolution of the Laminariales: North Pacific — Atlantic Relationships</a>. Evolutionary Biogeography of the Marine Algae of the North Atlantic. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 187–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-75115-8_10">10.1007/978-3-642-75115-8_10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-75117-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-75117-2"><bdi>978-3-642-75117-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145524/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-75115-8_10">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Distribution+and+Evolution+of+the+Laminariales%3A+North+Pacific+%E2%80%94+Atlantic+Relationships&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.pages=187-204&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-75115-8_10&rft.isbn=978-3-642-75117-2&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCning&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft.au=tom+Dieck%2C+Inka&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-75115-8_10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler1980" class="citation journal cs1">Wheeler, W. N. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00397128">"Effect of boundary layer transport on the fixation of carbon by the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera"</a>. Marine Biology. 56 (2): 103–110. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980MarBi..56..103W">1980MarBi..56..103W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00397128">10.1007/BF00397128</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3162">0025-3162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145638/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00397128">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&rft.atitle=Effect+of+boundary+layer+transport+on+the+fixation+of+carbon+by+the+giant+kelp+Macrocystis+pyrifera&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-110&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0025-3162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00397128&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980MarBi..56..103W&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=W.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF00397128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteneckDethier1994" class="citation journal cs1">Steneck, Robert S.; Dethier, Megan N. (April 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545860">"A Functional Group Approach to the Structure of Algal-Dominated Communities"</a>. Oikos. 69 (3): 476. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Oikos..69..476S">1994Oikos..69..476S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3545860">10.2307/3545860</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545860">3545860</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200214173943/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545860">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-02-14. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oikos&rft.atitle=A+Functional+Group+Approach+to+the+Structure+of+Algal-Dominated+Communities&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=476&rft.date=1994-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3545860%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3545860&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Oikos..69..476S&rft.aulast=Steneck&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft.au=Dethier%2C+Megan+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3545860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoly1967" class="citation book cs1">Joly, Aylthon Brandão (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4960200M/Two_Brazilian_Laminarias">Two Brazilian Laminarias</a>. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto de Pesquisas da Marinha. pp. 1–7. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4960200M">4960200M</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145533/https://openlibrary.org/books/OL4960200M/Two_Brazilian_Laminarias">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Brazilian+Laminarias&rft.place=Rio+de+Janeiro&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=Instituto+de+Pesquisas+da+Marinha&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4960200M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Joly&rft.aufirst=Aylthon+Brand%C3%A3o&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL4960200M%2FTwo_Brazilian_Laminarias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Petrov, J.E., M.V. Suchovejeva and G.V. Avdejev. 1973. New species of the genus Laminaria from the Philippine Sea. Nov Sistem. Nizch. Rast. 10: 59–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantelices2007" class="citation journal cs1">Santelices, Bernabé (2007-12-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2148260">"The discovery of kelp forests in deep-water habitats of tropical regions"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (49): 19163–19164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..10419163S">2007PNAS..10419163S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0708963104">10.1073/pnas.0708963104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2148260">2148260</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18042707">18042707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+kelp+forests+in+deep-water+habitats+of+tropical+regions&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=49&rft.pages=19163-19164&rft.date=2007-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2148260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..10419163S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18042707&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0708963104&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Santelices&rft.aufirst=Bernab%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2148260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foster_1985-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foster_1985_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foster_1985_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foster_1985_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterSchiel1985" class="citation report cs1">Foster, M.S.; Schiel, D.R. (1985-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doi-report_i-4989-285-72">The Ecology of Giant Kelp Forests in California: A Community Profile... Biological Report 85(7.2)</a> (Report). Department of the Interior.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Giant+Kelp+Forests+in+California%3A+A+Community+Profile...+Biological+Report+85%287.2%29&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Interior&rft.date=1985-05-01&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=M.S.&rft.au=Schiel%2C+D.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdoi-report_i-4989-285-72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graham2004-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graham2004_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graham2004_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2004" class="citation journal cs1">Graham, Michael H. (June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10021-003-0245-6">"Effects of Local Deforestation on the Diversity and Structure of Southern California Giant Kelp Forest Food Webs"</a>. Ecosystems. 7 (4): 341. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Ecosy...7..341G">2004Ecosy...7..341G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10021-003-0245-6">10.1007/s10021-003-0245-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1432-9840">1432-9840</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145525/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-003-0245-6">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecosystems&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Local+Deforestation+on+the+Diversity+and+Structure+of+Southern+California+Giant+Kelp+Forest+Food+Webs&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=341&rft.date=2004-06&rft.issn=1432-9840&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10021-003-0245-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Ecosy...7..341G&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10021-003-0245-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler-WalkerGillandersConnellIrving2005" class="citation journal cs1">Fowler-Walker, Meegan J.; Gillanders, Bronwyn M.; Connell, Sean D.; Irving, Andrew D. (April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272771404002999">"Patterns of association between canopy-morphology and understorey assemblages across temperate Australia"</a>. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 63 (1–2): 133–141. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ECSS...63..133F">2005ECSS...63..133F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecss.2004.10.016">10.1016/j.ecss.2004.10.016</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240716083845/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272771404002999">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-16. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estuarine%2C+Coastal+and+Shelf+Science&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+association+between+canopy-morphology+and+understorey+assemblages+across+temperate+Australia&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=133-141&rft.date=2005-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecss.2004.10.016&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005ECSS...63..133F&rft.aulast=Fowler-Walker&rft.aufirst=Meegan+J.&rft.au=Gillanders%2C+Bronwyn+M.&rft.au=Connell%2C+Sean+D.&rft.au=Irving%2C+Andrew+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0272771404002999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1977" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, George A. (November 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4319/lo.1977.22.6.0979">"Nutrients and production of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera , off southern California1"</a>. Limnology and Oceanography. 22 (6): 979–995. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977LimOc..22..979J">1977LimOc..22..979J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1977.22.6.0979">10.4319/lo.1977.22.6.0979</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0024-3590">0024-3590</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007145632/https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4319/lo.1977.22.6.0979">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Limnology+and+Oceanography&rft.atitle=Nutrients+and+production+of+giant+kelp%2C+Macrocystis+pyrifera+%2C+off+southern+California1&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=979-995&rft.date=1977-11&rft.issn=0024-3590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4319%2Flo.1977.22.6.0979&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977LimOc..22..979J&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.4319%2Flo.1977.22.6.0979&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dayton1999-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1999_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1999_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaytonTegnerEdwardsRiser1999" class="citation journal cs1">Dayton, Paul K.; Tegner, Mia J.; Edwards, Peter B.; Riser, Kristin L. (May 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657238">"Temporal and Spatial Scales of Kelp Demography: The Role of Oceanographic Climate"</a>. Ecological Monographs. 69 (2): 219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2657238">10.2307/2657238</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2657238">2657238</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=Temporal+and+Spatial+Scales+of+Kelp+Demography%3A+The+Role+of+Oceanographic+Climate&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219&rft.date=1999-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2657238&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2657238%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dayton&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft.au=Tegner%2C+Mia+J.&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Peter+B.&rft.au=Riser%2C+Kristin+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2657238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carr-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carr_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr1994" class="citation journal cs1">Carr, Mark H. (July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1937457">"Effects of Macroalgal Dynamics on Recruitment of a Temperate Reef Fish"</a>. Ecology. 75 (5): 1320–1333. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Ecol...75.1320C">1994Ecol...75.1320C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1937457">10.2307/1937457</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1937457">1937457</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151821/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1937457">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Macroalgal+Dynamics+on+Recruitment+of+a+Temperate+Reef+Fish&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1320-1333&rft.date=1994-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1937457&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1937457%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Ecol...75.1320C&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=Mark+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F1937457&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Estes1995-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Estes1995_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Estes1995_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEstesDuggins1995" class="citation journal cs1">Estes, James A.; Duggins, David O. (February 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937159">"Sea Otters and Kelp Forests in Alaska: Generality and Variation in a Community Ecological Paradigm"</a>. Ecological Monographs. 65 (1): 75–100. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995EcoM...65...75E">1995EcoM...65...75E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2937159">10.2307/2937159</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9615">0012-9615</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2937159">2937159</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151822/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937159">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=Sea+Otters+and+Kelp+Forests+in+Alaska%3A+Generality+and+Variation+in+a+Community+Ecological+Paradigm&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-100&rft.date=1995-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2937159&rft.issn=0012-9615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2937159%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995EcoM...65...75E&rft.aulast=Estes&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Duggins%2C+David+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F2937159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearse&Hines_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearse&Hines_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearse&Hines_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearseHines1979" class="citation journal cs1">Pearse, J. S.; Hines, A. H. (March 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00389034">"Expansion of a central California kelp forest following the mass mortality of sea urchins"</a>. Marine Biology. 51 (1): 83–91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979MarBi..51...83P">1979MarBi..51...83P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00389034">10.1007/BF00389034</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3162">0025-3162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151827/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00389034">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&rft.atitle=Expansion+of+a+central+California+kelp+forest+following+the+mass+mortality+of+sea+urchins&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-91&rft.date=1979-03&rft.issn=0025-3162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00389034&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979MarBi..51...83P&rft.aulast=Pearse&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft.au=Hines%2C+A.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF00389034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheiblingHennigar1997" class="citation journal cs1">Scheibling, Re; Hennigar, Aw (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v152/p155-165/">"Recurrent outbreaks of disease in sea urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis in Nova Scotia:evidence for a link with large-scale meteorologic and oceanographic events"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 152: 155–165. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997MEPS..152..155S">1997MEPS..152..155S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps152155">10.3354/meps152155</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151829/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v152/p155-165/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Recurrent+outbreaks+of+disease+in+sea+urchins+Strongylocentrotus+droebachiensis+in+Nova+Scotia%3Aevidence+for+a+link+with+large-scale+meteorologic+and+oceanographic+events&rft.volume=152&rft.pages=155-165&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps152155&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997MEPS..152..155S&rft.aulast=Scheibling&rft.aufirst=Re&rft.au=Hennigar%2C+Aw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Fabstracts%2Fmeps%2Fv152%2Fp155-165%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelimirovFieldGriffithsZoutendyk1977" class="citation journal cs1">Velimirov, B.; Field, J. G.; Griffiths, C. L.; Zoutendyk, P. (August 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02207857">"The ecology of kelp bed communities in the Benguela upwelling system: Analysis of biomass and spatial distribution"</a>. Helgoländer Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen. 30 (1–4): 495–518. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02207857">10.1007/BF02207857</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-9957">0017-9957</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151830/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02207857">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Helgol%C3%A4nder+Wissenschaftliche+Meeresuntersuchungen&rft.atitle=The+ecology+of+kelp+bed+communities+in+the+Benguela+upwelling+system%3A+Analysis+of+biomass+and+spatial+distribution&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=495-518&rft.date=1977-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02207857&rft.issn=0017-9957&rft.aulast=Velimirov&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Field%2C+J.+G.&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Zoutendyk%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF02207857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew1993" class="citation journal cs1">Andrew, N. L. (March 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1939293">"Spatial Heterogeneity, Sea Urchin Grazing, and Habitat Structure on Reefs in Temperate Australia"</a>. Ecology. 74 (2): 292–302. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Ecol...74..292A">1993Ecol...74..292A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1939293">10.2307/1939293</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1939293">1939293</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007151959/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1939293">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Spatial+Heterogeneity%2C+Sea+Urchin+Grazing%2C+and+Habitat+Structure+on+Reefs+in+Temperate+Australia&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=292-302&rft.date=1993-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1939293&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1939293%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Ecol...74..292A&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=N.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F1939293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayton1985" class="citation journal cs1">Dayton, Paul K. (December 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937131">"The Structure and Regulation of Some South American Kelp Communities"</a>. Ecological Monographs. 55 (4): 447–468. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985EcoM...55..447D">1985EcoM...55..447D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2937131">10.2307/2937131</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9615">0012-9615</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2937131">2937131</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152504/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937131">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=The+Structure+and+Regulation+of+Some+South+American+Kelp+Communities&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-468&rft.date=1985-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2937131&rft.issn=0012-9615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2937131%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985EcoM...55..447D&rft.aulast=Dayton&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F2937131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sala&Graham_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala&Graham_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sala&Graham_35-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEMh2002" class="citation journal cs1">E, Sala; Mh, Graham (2002-03-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122583">"Community-wide distribution of predator-prey interaction strength in kelp forests"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (6): 3678–3683. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...99.3678S">2002PNAS...99.3678S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.052028499">10.1073/pnas.052028499</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122583">122583</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11891292">11891292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Community-wide+distribution+of+predator-prey+interaction+strength+in+kelp+forests&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=3678-3683&rft.date=2002-03-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122583%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...99.3678S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11891292&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.052028499&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=E&rft.aufirst=Sala&rft.au=Mh%2C+Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrnesStachowiczHultgrenRandall_Hughes2006" class="citation journal cs1">Byrnes, Jarrett; Stachowicz, John J.; Hultgren, Kristin M.; Randall Hughes, A.; Olyarnik, Suzanne V.; Thornber, Carol S. (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00842.x">"Predator diversity strengthens trophic cascades in kelp forests by modifying herbivore behaviour"</a>. Ecology Letters. 9 (1): 61–71. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EcolL...9...61B">2006EcolL...9...61B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2005.00842.x">10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00842.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-023X">1461-023X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16958869">16958869</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220729082928/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00842.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-29. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Predator+diversity+strengthens+trophic+cascades+in+kelp+forests+by+modifying+herbivore+behaviour&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-71&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2005.00842.x&rft.issn=1461-023X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16958869&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006EcolL...9...61B&rft.aulast=Byrnes&rft.aufirst=Jarrett&rft.au=Stachowicz%2C+John+J.&rft.au=Hultgren%2C+Kristin+M.&rft.au=Randall+Hughes%2C+A.&rft.au=Olyarnik%2C+Suzanne+V.&rft.au=Thornber%2C+Carol+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2005.00842.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halpern2006-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halpern2006_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halpern2006_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpernCottenieBroitman2006" class="citation journal cs1">Halpern, Benjamin S.; Cottenie, Karl; Broitman, Bernardo R. (2006-05-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16728644/">"Strong top-down control in southern California kelp forest ecosystems"</a>. Science. 312 (5777): 1230–1232. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...312.1230H">2006Sci...312.1230H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1128613">10.1126/science.1128613</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-9203">1095-9203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16728644">16728644</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240630184439/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16728644/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-30. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Strong+top-down+control+in+southern+California+kelp+forest+ecosystems&rft.volume=312&rft.issue=5777&rft.pages=1230-1232&rft.date=2006-05-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1128613&rft.issn=1095-9203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16728644&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...312.1230H&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+S.&rft.au=Cottenie%2C+Karl&rft.au=Broitman%2C+Bernardo+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F16728644%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Lawrence, J.M. 1975. On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanography and Marine Biology, An Annual Review. 13: 213–286. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1994" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, T. P. (1994-09-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801530/">"Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef"</a>. Science. 265 (5178): 1547–1551. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Sci...265.1547H">1994Sci...265.1547H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.265.5178.1547">10.1126/science.265.5178.1547</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801530">17801530</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152338/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801530/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Catastrophes%2C+phase+shifts%2C+and+large-scale+degradation+of+a+Caribbean+coral+reef&rft.volume=265&rft.issue=5178&rft.pages=1547-1551&rft.date=1994-09-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.265.5178.1547&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17801530&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Sci...265.1547H&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=T.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F17801530%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSivertsen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Sivertsen, Knut (2006-11-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10811-006-9064-4">"Overgrazing of Kelp Beds Along the Coast of Norway"</a>. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3–5): 599–610. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JAPco..18..599S">2006JAPco..18..599S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9064-4">10.1007/s10811-006-9064-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-8971">0921-8971</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152341/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-006-9064-4">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Phycology&rft.atitle=Overgrazing+of+Kelp+Beds+Along+the+Coast+of+Norway&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3%E2%80%935&rft.pages=599-610&rft.date=2006-11-27&rft.issn=0921-8971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9064-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JAPco..18..599S&rft.aulast=Sivertsen&rft.aufirst=Knut&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9064-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilbee-DexterScheibling2017" class="citation journal cs1">Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.1638">"The present is the key to the past: linking regime shifts in kelp beds to the distribution of deep-living sea urchins"</a>. Ecology. 98 (1): 253–264. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Ecol...98..253F">2017Ecol...98..253F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fecy.1638">10.1002/ecy.1638</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28052391">28052391</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152336/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.1638">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-03-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=The+present+is+the+key+to+the+past%3A+linking+regime+shifts+in+kelp+beds+to+the+distribution+of+deep-living+sea+urchins&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=253-264&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fecy.1638&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28052391&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Ecol...98..253F&rft.aulast=Filbee-Dexter&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Scheibling%2C+Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fecy.1638&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dayton1992-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1992_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1992_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1992_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1992_42-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton1992_42-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaytonTegnerParnellEdwards1992" class="citation journal cs1">Dayton, Paul K.; Tegner, Mia J.; Parnell, Paul E.; Edwards, Peter B. (September 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937118">"Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Disturbance and Recovery in a Kelp Forest Community"</a>. Ecological Monographs. 62 (3): 421–445. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992EcoM...62..421D">1992EcoM...62..421D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2937118">10.2307/2937118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9615">0012-9615</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2937118">2937118</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152337/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937118">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Monographs&rft.atitle=Temporal+and+Spatial+Patterns+of+Disturbance+and+Recovery+in+a+Kelp+Forest+Community&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=421-445&rft.date=1992-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2937118&rft.issn=0012-9615&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2937118%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992EcoM...62..421D&rft.aulast=Dayton&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft.au=Tegner%2C+Mia+J.&rft.au=Parnell%2C+Paul+E.&rft.au=Edwards%2C+Peter+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F2937118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearse2006" class="citation journal cs1">Pearse, John S. (2006-11-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17095690/">"Ecological role of purple sea urchins"</a>. Science. 314 (5801): 940–941. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314..940P">2006Sci...314..940P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1131888">10.1126/science.1131888</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-9203">1095-9203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17095690">17095690</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152410/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17095690/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ecological+role+of+purple+sea+urchins&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=5801&rft.pages=940-941&rft.date=2006-11-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1131888&rft.issn=1095-9203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17095690&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...314..940P&rft.aulast=Pearse&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F17095690%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilbee-DexterScheibling2014" class="citation journal cs1">Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (2014-01-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v495/p1-25/">"Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 495: 1–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MEPS..495....1F">2014MEPS..495....1F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps10573">10.3354/meps10573</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152342/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v495/p1-25/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-03-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Sea+urchin+barrens+as+alternative+stable+states+of+collapsed+kelp+ecosystems&rft.volume=495&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=2014-01-09&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps10573&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MEPS..495....1F&rft.aulast=Filbee-Dexter&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Scheibling%2C+Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Fabstracts%2Fmeps%2Fv495%2Fp1-25%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLafferty2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lafferty, Kevin D. (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/03-5088">"Fishing for lobsters indirectly increases epidemics in sea urchins"</a>. Ecological Applications. 14 (5): 1566–1573. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004EcoAp..14.1566L">2004EcoAp..14.1566L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F03-5088">10.1890/03-5088</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152421/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/03-5088">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Fishing+for+lobsters+indirectly+increases+epidemics+in+sea+urchins&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1566-1573&rft.date=2004-10&rft.issn=1051-0761&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F03-5088&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004EcoAp..14.1566L&rft.aulast=Lafferty&rft.aufirst=Kevin+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1890%2F03-5088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vasquez-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vasquez_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vasquez_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVásquezVegaBuschmann2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vásquez, Julio A.; Vega, J. M. Alonso; Buschmann, Alejandro H. (2006-11-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10811-006-9056-4">"Long Term Variability in the Structure of Kelp Communities in Northern Chile and the 1997–98 ENSO"</a>. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3–5): 505–519. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JAPco..18..505V">2006JAPco..18..505V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9056-4">10.1007/s10811-006-9056-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-8971">0921-8971</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152610/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-006-9056-4">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Phycology&rft.atitle=Long+Term+Variability+in+the+Structure+of+Kelp+Communities+in+Northern+Chile+and+the+1997%E2%80%9398+ENSO&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3%E2%80%935&rft.pages=505-519&rft.date=2006-11-27&rft.issn=0921-8971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9056-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JAPco..18..505V&rft.aulast=V%C3%A1squez&rft.aufirst=Julio+A.&rft.au=Vega%2C+J.+M.+Alonso&rft.au=Buschmann%2C+Alejandro+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9056-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowen1983" class="citation journal cs1">Cowen, Robert K. (May 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00399225">"The effects of sheephead (Semicossyphus pulcher) predation on red sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus) populations: an experimental analysis"</a>. Oecologia. 58 (2): 249–255. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Oecol..58..249C">1983Oecol..58..249C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00399225">10.1007/BF00399225</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-8549">0029-8549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28310586">28310586</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152611/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00399225">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+sheephead+%28Semicossyphus+pulcher%29+predation+on+red+sea+urchin+%28Strongylocentrotus+franciscanus%29+populations%3A+an+experimental+analysis&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-255&rft.date=1983-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00399225&rft.issn=0029-8549&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28310586&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Oecol..58..249C&rft.aulast=Cowen&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF00399225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebeling-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ebeling_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebeling_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbelingLaurRowley1985" class="citation journal cs1">Ebeling, A. W.; Laur, D. R.; Rowley, R. J. (January 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00392498">"Severe storm disturbances and reversal of community structure in a southern California kelp forest"</a>. Marine Biology. 84 (3): 287–294. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985MarBi..84..287E">1985MarBi..84..287E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00392498">10.1007/BF00392498</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3162">0025-3162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152905/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00392498">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&rft.atitle=Severe+storm+disturbances+and+reversal+of+community+structure+in+a+southern+California+kelp+forest&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=287-294&rft.date=1985-01&rft.issn=0025-3162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00392498&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985MarBi..84..287E&rft.aulast=Ebeling&rft.aufirst=A.+W.&rft.au=Laur%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Rowley%2C+R.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF00392498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dayton_1984-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1984_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dayton_1984_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaytonTegner1984" class="citation journal cs1">Dayton, Paul K.; Tegner, Mia J. (1984-04-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.224.4646.283">"Catastrophic Storms, El Niño, and Patch Stability in a Southern California Kelp Community"</a>. Science. 224 (4646): 283–285. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984Sci...224..283D">1984Sci...224..283D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.224.4646.283">10.1126/science.224.4646.283</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17734914">17734914</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230228164738/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.224.4646.283">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-28. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Catastrophic+Storms%2C+El+Ni%C3%B1o%2C+and+Patch+Stability+in+a+Southern+California+Kelp+Community&rft.volume=224&rft.issue=4646&rft.pages=283-285&rft.date=1984-04-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.224.4646.283&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17734914&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984Sci...224..283D&rft.aulast=Dayton&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft.au=Tegner%2C+Mia+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.224.4646.283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarroldReed1985" class="citation journal cs1">Harrold, Christopher; Reed, Daniel C. (August 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1939168">"Food Availability, Sea Urchin Grazing, and Kelp Forest Community Structure"</a>. Ecology. 66 (4): 1160–1169. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Ecol...66.1160H">1985Ecol...66.1160H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1939168">10.2307/1939168</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1939168">1939168</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152907/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1939168">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Food+Availability%2C+Sea+Urchin+Grazing%2C+and+Kelp+Forest+Community+Structure&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1160-1169&rft.date=1985-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1939168&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1939168%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985Ecol...66.1160H&rft.aulast=Harrold&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Reed%2C+Daniel+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F1939168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoopNewellLucas1982" class="citation journal cs1">Koop, K; Newell, Rc; Lucas, Mi (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/7/m007p315.pdf">"Biodegradation and Carbon Flow Based on Kelp (Ecklonia maxima) Debris in a Sandy Beach Microcosm"</a> (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 7: 315–326. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982MEPS....7..315K">1982MEPS....7..315K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps007315">10.3354/meps007315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152850/http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/7/m007p315.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Biodegradation+and+Carbon+Flow+Based+on+Kelp+%28Ecklonia+maxima%29+Debris+in+a+Sandy+Beach+Microcosm&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=315-326&rft.date=1982&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps007315&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982MEPS....7..315K&rft.aulast=Koop&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Newell%2C+Rc&rft.au=Lucas%2C+Mi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Farticles%2Fmeps%2F7%2Fm007p315.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBustamanteBranchEekhout1995" class="citation journal cs1">Bustamante, R. H.; Branch, G. M.; Eekhout, S. (October 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1941704">"Maintenance of an Exceptional Intertidal Grazer Biomass in South Africa: Subsidy by Subtidal Kelps"</a>. Ecology. 76 (7): 2314–2329. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Ecol...76.2314B">1995Ecol...76.2314B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1941704">10.2307/1941704</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9658">0012-9658</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1941704">1941704</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152908/https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1941704">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology&rft.atitle=Maintenance+of+an+Exceptional+Intertidal+Grazer+Biomass+in+South+Africa%3A+Subsidy+by+Subtidal+Kelps&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2314-2329&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1941704&rft.issn=0012-9658&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1941704%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Ecol...76.2314B&rft.aulast=Bustamante&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rft.au=Branch%2C+G.+M.&rft.au=Eekhout%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fesajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F1941704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaehlerPakhomovKalinDavis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kaehler, S; Pakhomov, Ea; Kalin, Rm; Davis, S (2006-07-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v316/p17-22/">"Trophic importance of kelp-derived suspended particulate matter in a through-flow sub-Antarctic system"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 316: 17–22. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MEPS..316...17K">2006MEPS..316...17K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps316017">10.3354/meps316017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152912/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v316/p17-22/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Trophic+importance+of+kelp-derived+suspended+particulate+matter+in+a+through-flow+sub-Antarctic+system&rft.volume=316&rft.pages=17-22&rft.date=2006-07-03&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps316017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006MEPS..316...17K&rft.aulast=Kaehler&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Pakhomov%2C+Ea&rft.au=Kalin%2C+Rm&rft.au=Davis%2C+S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Fabstracts%2Fmeps%2Fv316%2Fp17-22%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Grigg, R.W. and R.S. Kiwala. 1970. Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game 56: 145–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStull1989" class="citation report cs1">Stull, J.K. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/586780">"Contaminants In Sediments Near A Major Marine Outfall: History, Effects, And Future"</a>. Proceedings OCEANS (Report). Vol. 2. IEEE. pp. 481–484. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FOCEANS.1989.586780">10.1109/OCEANS.1989.586780</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240710080759/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/586780/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-10. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Proceedings+OCEANS&rft.pages=481-484&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FOCEANS.1989.586780&rft.aulast=Stull&rft.aufirst=J.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F586780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthJamesJones1993" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">North, W. J.; James, D. E.; Jones, L. G. (June 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00049029">"History of kelp beds (Macrocystis) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California"</a>. Hydrobiologia. 260–261 (1): 277–283. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993HyBio.260..277N">1993HyBio.260..277N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00049029">10.1007/BF00049029</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-8158">0018-8158</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152854/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00049029">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=History+of+kelp+beds+%28Macrocystis%29+in+Orange+and+San+Diego+Counties%2C+California&rft.volume=260-261&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=277-283&rft.date=1993-06&rft.issn=0018-8158&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00049029&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993HyBio.260..277N&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=W.+J.&rft.au=James%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Jones%2C+L.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF00049029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTegnerDaytonEdwardsRiser1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tegner, M.J.; Dayton, P.K.; Edwards, P.B.; Riser, K.L.; Chadwick, D.B.; Dean, T.A.; Deysher, L. (January 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/014111369400008D">"Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: Catastrophe or disturbance?"</a>. Marine Environmental Research. 40 (2): 181–224. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995MarER..40..181T">1995MarER..40..181T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0141-1136%2894%2900008-D">10.1016/0141-1136(94)00008-D</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240711050052/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/014111369400008D">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-11. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Environmental+Research&rft.atitle=Effects+of+a+large+sewage+spill+on+a+kelp+forest+community%3A+Catastrophe+or+disturbance%3F&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=181-224&rft.date=1995-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0141-1136%2894%2900008-D&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995MarER..40..181T&rft.aulast=Tegner&rft.aufirst=M.J.&rft.au=Dayton%2C+P.K.&rft.au=Edwards%2C+P.B.&rft.au=Riser%2C+K.L.&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+D.B.&rft.au=Dean%2C+T.A.&rft.au=Deysher%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2F014111369400008D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenterCaracoCorrellHowarth1998" class="citation journal cs1">Carpenter, S. R.; Caraco, N. F.; Correll, D. L.; Howarth, R. W.; Sharpley, A. N.; Smith, V. H. (August 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008%5b0559:NPOSWW%5d2.0.CO;2">"Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen"</a>. Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%29008%5B0559%3ANPOSWW%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F16724">1808/16724</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Nonpoint+Pollution+of+Surface+Waters+with+Phosphorus+and+Nitrogen&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=559-568&rft.date=1998-08&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1808%2F16724&rft.issn=1051-0761&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%29008%5B0559%3ANPOSWW%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Carpenter&rft.aufirst=S.+R.&rft.au=Caraco%2C+N.+F.&rft.au=Correll%2C+D.+L.&rft.au=Howarth%2C+R.+W.&rft.au=Sharpley%2C+A.+N.&rft.au=Smith%2C+V.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%29008%5B0559%3ANPOSWW%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennelly1987" class="citation journal cs1">Kennelly, Steven J. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24825709">"Physical disturbances in an Australian kelp community. I. Temporal effects"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 40 (1/2): 145–153. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987MEPS...40..145K">1987MEPS...40..145K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps040145">10.3354/meps040145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24825709">24825709</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Physical+disturbances+in+an+Australian+kelp+community.+I.+Temporal+effects&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=145-153&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps040145&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24825709%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987MEPS...40..145K&rft.aulast=Kennelly&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24825709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPhaden1999" class="citation journal cs1">McPhaden, M. J. (1999-02-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9974381/">"Genesis and evolution of the 1997-98 El Nino"</a>. Science. 283 (5404): 950–954. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.283.5404.950">10.1126/science.283.5404.950</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-9203">1095-9203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9974381">9974381</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240625075738/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9974381/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-25. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Genesis+and+evolution+of+the+1997-98+El+Nino&rft.volume=283&rft.issue=5404&rft.pages=950-954&rft.date=1999-02-12&rft.issn=1095-9203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9974381&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.283.5404.950&rft.aulast=McPhaden&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F9974381%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsHernández-Carmona2005" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, M. S.; Hernández-Carmona, G. (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00227-004-1548-7">"Delayed recovery of giant kelp near its southern range limit in the North Pacific following El Niño"</a>. Marine Biology. 147 (1): 273–279. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MarBi.147..273E">2005MarBi.147..273E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00227-004-1548-7">10.1007/s00227-004-1548-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-3162">0025-3162</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007175425/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00227-004-1548-7">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&rft.atitle=Delayed+recovery+of+giant+kelp+near+its+southern+range+limit+in+the+North+Pacific+following+El+Ni%C3%B1o&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=273-279&rft.date=2005-05&rft.issn=0025-3162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00227-004-1548-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MarBi.147..273E&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez-Carmona%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs00227-004-1548-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDugginsEckmanSewell1990" class="citation journal cs1">Duggins, David O.; Eckman, James E.; Sewell, Amy T. (October 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/002209819090109P">"Ecology of understory kelp environments. II. Effects of kelps on recruitment of benthic invertebrates"</a>. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 143 (1–2): 27–45. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990JEMBE.143...27D">1990JEMBE.143...27D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0981%2890%2990109-P">10.1016/0022-0981(90)90109-P</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153235/https://www.sciencedirect.com/unsupported_browser">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Marine+Biology+and+Ecology&rft.atitle=Ecology+of+understory+kelp+environments.+II.+Effects+of+kelps+on+recruitment+of+benthic+invertebrates&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=27-45&rft.date=1990-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-0981%2890%2990109-P&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990JEMBE.143...27D&rft.aulast=Duggins&rft.aufirst=David+O.&rft.au=Eckman%2C+James+E.&rft.au=Sewell%2C+Amy+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2F002209819090109P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson2001-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson2001_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson2001_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonKirbyBergerBjorndal2001" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Jeremy B. C.; Kirby, Michael X.; Berger, Wolfgang H.; Bjorndal, Karen A.; Botsford, Louis W.; Bourque, Bruce J.; Bradbury, Roger H.; Cooke, Richard; Erlandson, Jon; Estes, James A.; Hughes, Terence P.; Kidwell, Susan; Lange, Carina B.; Lenihan, Hunter S.; Pandolfi, John M. (2001-07-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059199">"Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems"</a>. Science. 293 (5530): 629–637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1059199">10.1126/science.1059199</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11474098">11474098</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007152403/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059199">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Historical+Overfishing+and+the+Recent+Collapse+of+Coastal+Ecosystems&rft.volume=293&rft.issue=5530&rft.pages=629-637&rft.date=2001-07-27&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11474098&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1059199&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+B.+C.&rft.au=Kirby%2C+Michael+X.&rft.au=Berger%2C+Wolfgang+H.&rft.au=Bjorndal%2C+Karen+A.&rft.au=Botsford%2C+Louis+W.&rft.au=Bourque%2C+Bruce+J.&rft.au=Bradbury%2C+Roger+H.&rft.au=Cooke%2C+Richard&rft.au=Erlandson%2C+Jon&rft.au=Estes%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Terence+P.&rft.au=Kidwell%2C+Susan&rft.au=Lange%2C+Carina+B.&rft.au=Lenihan%2C+Hunter+S.&rft.au=Pandolfi%2C+John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1059199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvingConnell2006" class="citation journal cs1">Irving, Andrew D.; Connell, Sean D. (June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00442-006-0389-0">"Predicting understorey structure from the presence and composition of canopies: an assembly rule for marine algae"</a>. Oecologia. 148 (3): 491–502. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Oecol.148..491I">2006Oecol.148..491I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-006-0389-0">10.1007/s00442-006-0389-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-8549">0029-8549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16502000">16502000</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120064715/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00442-006-0389-0">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Predicting+understorey+structure+from+the+presence+and+composition+of+canopies%3A+an+assembly+rule+for+marine+algae&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=491-502&rft.date=2006-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-006-0389-0&rft.issn=0029-8549&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16502000&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Oecol.148..491I&rft.aulast=Irving&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.&rft.au=Connell%2C+Sean+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-006-0389-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimenstadEstesKenyon1978" class="citation journal cs1">Simenstad, Charles A.; Estes, James A.; Kenyon, Karl W. (1978-04-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.200.4340.403">"Aleuts, Sea Otters, and Alternate Stable-State Communities"</a>. Science. 200 (4340): 403–411. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978Sci...200..403S">1978Sci...200..403S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.200.4340.403">10.1126/science.200.4340.403</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17757287">17757287</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154030/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.200.4340.403">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Aleuts%2C+Sea+Otters%2C+and+Alternate+Stable-State+Communities&rft.volume=200&rft.issue=4340&rft.pages=403-411&rft.date=1978-04-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.200.4340.403&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17757287&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978Sci...200..403S&rft.aulast=Simenstad&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rft.au=Estes%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Kenyon%2C+Karl+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.200.4340.403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErlandsonGrahamBourqueCorbett2007" class="citation journal cs1">Erlandson, Jon M.; Graham, Michael H.; Bourque, Bruce J.; Corbett, Debra; Estes, James A.; Steneck, Robert S. (2007-10-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15564890701628612">"The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, the Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas"</a>. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 2 (2): 161–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15564890701628612">10.1080/15564890701628612</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-4894">1556-4894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Island+and+Coastal+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Kelp+Highway+Hypothesis%3A+Marine+Ecology%2C+the+Coastal+Migration+Theory%2C+and+the+Peopling+of+the+Americas&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-174&rft.date=2007-10-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15564890701628612&rft.issn=1556-4894&rft.aulast=Erlandson&rft.aufirst=Jon+M.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Bourque%2C+Bruce+J.&rft.au=Corbett%2C+Debra&rft.au=Estes%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Steneck%2C+Robert+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F15564890701628612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErlandsonBrajeGillGraham2015" class="citation journal cs1">Erlandson, Jon M.; Braje, Todd J.; Gill, Kristina M.; Graham, Michael H. (2015-09-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564894.2014.1001923">"Ecology of the Kelp Highway: Did Marine Resources Facilitate Human Dispersal From Northeast Asia to the Americas?"</a>. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 10 (3): 392–411. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15564894.2014.1001923">10.1080/15564894.2014.1001923</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-4894">1556-4894</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154040/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15564894.2014.1001923">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Island+and+Coastal+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Ecology+of+the+Kelp+Highway%3A+Did+Marine+Resources+Facilitate+Human+Dispersal+From+Northeast+Asia+to+the+Americas%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=392-411&rft.date=2015-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15564894.2014.1001923&rft.issn=1556-4894&rft.aulast=Erlandson&rft.aufirst=Jon+M.&rft.au=Braje%2C+Todd+J.&rft.au=Gill%2C+Kristina+M.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Michael+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F15564894.2014.1001923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutierrezCorreaMuñozSantibañez2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gutierrez, Alfonso; Correa, Tomás; Muñoz, Verónica; Santibañez, Alejandro; Marcos, Roberto; Cáceres, Carlos; Buschmann, Alejandro H. (2006-11-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10811-006-9025-y">"Farming of the Giant Kelp Macrocystis Pyrifera in Southern Chile for Development of Novel Food Products"</a>. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3–5): 259–267. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JAPco..18..259G">2006JAPco..18..259G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9025-y">10.1007/s10811-006-9025-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-8971">0921-8971</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153940/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-006-9025-y">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Phycology&rft.atitle=Farming+of+the+Giant+Kelp+Macrocystis+Pyrifera+in+Southern+Chile+for+Development+of+Novel+Food+Products&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3%E2%80%935&rft.pages=259-267&rft.date=2006-11-27&rft.issn=0921-8971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9025-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JAPco..18..259G&rft.aulast=Gutierrez&rft.aufirst=Alfonso&rft.au=Correa%2C+Tom%C3%A1s&rft.au=Mu%C3%B1oz%2C+Ver%C3%B3nica&rft.au=Santiba%C3%B1ez%2C+Alejandro&rft.au=Marcos%2C+Roberto&rft.au=C%C3%A1ceres%2C+Carlos&rft.au=Buschmann%2C+Alejandro+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9025-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrtizStotz2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ortiz, Marco; Stotz, Wolfgang (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.791">"Ecological and eco-social models for the introduction of the abalone Haliotis discus hannai into benthic systems of north-central Chile: sustainability assessment"</a>. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 17 (1): 89–105. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ACMFE..17...89O">2007ACMFE..17...89O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Faqc.791">10.1002/aqc.791</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1052-7613">1052-7613</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153204/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aqc.791">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aquatic+Conservation%3A+Marine+and+Freshwater+Ecosystems&rft.atitle=Ecological+and+eco-social+models+for+the+introduction+of+the+abalone+Haliotis+discus+hannai+into+benthic+systems+of+north-central+Chile%3A+sustainability+assessment&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=89-105&rft.date=2007-01&rft.issn=1052-7613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Faqc.791&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ACMFE..17...89O&rft.aulast=Ortiz&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=Stotz%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Faqc.791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2021" class="citation news cs1">Nielsen, Brittany (2021-10-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ksbw.com/article/monterey-bay-aquarium-celebrates-its-37th-birthday/38016805">"Monterey Bay Aquarium celebrates its 37th birthday"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221202190211/https://www.ksbw.com/article/monterey-bay-aquarium-celebrates-its-37th-birthday/38016805">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-02. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+celebrates+its+37th+birthday&rft.date=2021-10-21&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Brittany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ksbw.com%2Farticle%2Fmonterey-bay-aquarium-celebrates-its-37th-birthday%2F38016805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurlimann2019" class="citation web cs1">Hurlimann, Sylvia (4 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/how-kelp-naturally-combats-global-climate-change/">"How Kelp Naturally Combats Global Climate Change"</a>. Science in the News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153255/https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/how-kelp-naturally-combats-global-climate-change/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+in+the+News&rft.atitle=How+Kelp+Naturally+Combats+Global+Climate+Change&rft.date=2019-07-04&rft.aulast=Hurlimann&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsitn.hms.harvard.edu%2Fflash%2F2019%2Fhow-kelp-naturally-combats-global-climate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFilbee-DexterWernberg2020" class="citation journal cs1">Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Wernberg, Thomas (23 July 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7378163">"Substantial blue carbon in overlooked Australian kelp forests"</a>. Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 12341. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..1012341F">2020NatSR..1012341F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-69258-7">10.1038/s41598-020-69258-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7378163">7378163</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32703990">32703990</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Substantial+blue+carbon+in+overlooked+Australian+kelp+forests&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12341&rft.date=2020-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7378163%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32703990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-69258-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSR..1012341F&rft.aulast=Filbee-Dexter&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Wernberg%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7378163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrause-JensenM._Duarte2016" class="citation journal cs1">Krause-Jensen, Dorte; M. Duarte, Carlos (12 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2790">"Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration"</a>. Nature Geoscience. 9 (10): 737–742. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatGe...9..737K">2016NatGe...9..737K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fngeo2790">10.1038/ngeo2790</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220620135631/https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2790">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Substantial+role+of+macroalgae+in+marine+carbon+sequestration&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=737-742&rft.date=2016-09-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fngeo2790&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatGe...9..737K&rft.aulast=Krause-Jensen&rft.aufirst=Dorte&rft.au=M.+Duarte%2C+Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fngeo2790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchefferCarpenterFoleyFolke2001" class="citation journal cs1">Scheffer, Marten; Carpenter, Steve; Foley, Jonathan A.; Folke, Carl; Walker, Brian (October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35098000">"Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems"</a>. Nature. 413 (6856): 591–596. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.413..591S">2001Natur.413..591S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35098000">10.1038/35098000</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11595939">11595939</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240925135619/https://www.nature.com/articles/35098000">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-25. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Catastrophic+shifts+in+ecosystems&rft.volume=413&rft.issue=6856&rft.pages=591-596&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35098000&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11595939&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Natur.413..591S&rft.aulast=Scheffer&rft.aufirst=Marten&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Steve&rft.au=Foley%2C+Jonathan+A.&rft.au=Folke%2C+Carl&rft.au=Walker%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F35098000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2019" class="citation web cs1">MacDonald, Lucy (2019-02-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-06/scientists-in-race-to-save-giant-kelp-off-tasmanian-coast/10782410">"95pc of Tasmania's giant kelp is gone, scientists are in a race to save what's left"</a>. ABC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153211/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-06/scientists-in-race-to-save-giant-kelp-off-tasmanian-coast/10782410">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2020-02-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=95pc+of+Tasmania%27s+giant+kelp+is+gone%2C+scientists+are+in+a+race+to+save+what%27s+left&rft.date=2019-02-06&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2019-02-06%2Fscientists-in-race-to-save-giant-kelp-off-tasmanian-coast%2F10782410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrostCarpenterIvesKratz1995" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Thomas M.; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Ives, Anthony R.; Kratz, Timothy K. (1995). Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_22">Species Compensation and Complementarity in Ecosystem Function</a>. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 224–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-1773-3_22">10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-5714-8"><bdi>978-1-4613-5714-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154104/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_22">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Compensation+and+Complementarity+in+Ecosystem+Function&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=224-239&rft.pub=Springer+US&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-1773-3_22&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-5714-8&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Stephen+R.&rft.au=Ives%2C+Anthony+R.&rft.au=Kratz%2C+Timothy+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-1773-3_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDClCe1998" class="citation journal cs1">D, Tilman; Cl, Lehman; Ce, Bristow (Mar 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18811358/">"Diversity-stability relationships: statistical inevitability or ecological consequence?"</a>. The American Naturalist. 151 (3): 277–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F286118">10.1086/286118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147">0003-0147</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18811358">18811358</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230222170707/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18811358/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-22. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Diversity-stability+relationships%3A+statistical+inevitability+or+ecological+consequence%3F&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-282&rft.date=1998-03&rft.issn=0003-0147&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18811358&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F286118&rft.aulast=D&rft.aufirst=Tilman&rft.au=Cl%2C+Lehman&rft.au=Ce%2C+Bristow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F18811358%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStachowiczWhitlatchOsman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Stachowicz, John J.; Whitlatch, Robert B.; Osman, Richard W. (1999-11-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.286.5444.1577">"Species Diversity and Invasion Resistance in a Marine Ecosystem"</a>. Science. 286 (5444): 1577–1579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.286.5444.1577">10.1126/science.286.5444.1577</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10567267">10567267</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153257/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.286.5444.1577">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Species+Diversity+and+Invasion+Resistance+in+a+Marine+Ecosystem&rft.volume=286&rft.issue=5444&rft.pages=1577-1579&rft.date=1999-11-19&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10567267&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.286.5444.1577&rft.aulast=Stachowicz&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Whitlatch%2C+Robert+B.&rft.au=Osman%2C+Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.286.5444.1577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmqvistFolkeNyströmPeterson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Elmqvist, Thomas; Folke, Carl; Nyström, Magnus; Peterson, Garry; Bengtsson, Jan; Walker, Brian; Norberg, Jon (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001%5b0488:RDECAR%5d2.0.CO;2">"Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience"</a>. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 1 (9): 488–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1540-9295%282003%29001%5B0488%3ARDECAR%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0488:RDECAR]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9295">1540-9295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Response+diversity%2C+ecosystem+change%2C+and+resilience&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=488-494&rft.date=2003-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1540-9295%282003%29001%5B0488%3ARDECAR%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.issn=1540-9295&rft.aulast=Elmqvist&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Folke%2C+Carl&rft.au=Nystr%C3%B6m%2C+Magnus&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Garry&rft.au=Bengtsson%2C+Jan&rft.au=Walker%2C+Brian&rft.au=Norberg%2C+Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F1540-9295%282003%29001%5B0488%3ARDECAR%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">"Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability"</a>. www.ipcc.ch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220228114918/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-28. Retrieved 2022-02-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ipcc.ch&rft.atitle=Climate+Change+2022%3A+Impacts%2C+Adaptation+and+Vulnerability&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStekollDeysherHess2006" class="citation journal cs1">Stekoll, M. S.; Deysher, L. E.; Hess, M. (2006-11-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10811-006-9029-7">"A remote sensing approach to estimating harvestable kelp biomass"</a>. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3–5): 323–334. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JAPco..18..323S">2006JAPco..18..323S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9029-7">10.1007/s10811-006-9029-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-8971">0921-8971</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154608/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10811-006-9029-7">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Phycology&rft.atitle=A+remote+sensing+approach+to+estimating+harvestable+kelp+biomass&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3%E2%80%935&rft.pages=323-334&rft.date=2006-11-27&rft.issn=0921-8971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9029-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JAPco..18..323S&rft.aulast=Stekoll&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft.au=Deysher%2C+L.+E.&rft.au=Hess%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10811-006-9029-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllisonLubchencoCarr1998" class="citation journal cs1">Allison, Gary W.; Lubchenco, Jane; Carr, Mark H. (February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1051-0761(1998)8%5bS79:MRANBN%5d2.0.CO;2">"Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation"</a>. Ecological Applications. 8 (sp1): S79–S92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%298%5BS79%3AMRANBN%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1051-0761(1998)8[S79:MRANBN]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Marine+reserves+are+necessary+but+not+sufficient+for+marine+conservation&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=sp1&rft.pages=S79-S92&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%298%5BS79%3AMRANBN%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.issn=1051-0761&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Gary+W.&rft.au=Lubchenco%2C+Jane&rft.au=Carr%2C+Mark+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%298%5BS79%3AMRANBN%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAiraméDuganLaffertyLeslie2003" class="citation journal cs1">Airamé, Satie; Dugan, Jenifer E.; Lafferty, Kevin D.; Leslie, Heather; McArdle, Deborah A.; Warner, Robert R. (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013%5b0170:AECTMR%5d2.0.CO;2">"Applying Ecological Criteria to Marine Reserve Design: A Case Study from the California Channel Islands"</a>. Ecological Applications. 13 (sp1): 170–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1051-0761%282003%29013%5B0170%3AAECTMR%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0170:AECTMR]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Applying+Ecological+Criteria+to+Marine+Reserve+Design%3A+A+Case+Study+from+the+California+Channel+Islands&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=sp1&rft.pages=170-184&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%282003%29013%5B0170%3AAECTMR%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.issn=1051-0761&rft.aulast=Airam%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Satie&rft.au=Dugan%2C+Jenifer+E.&rft.au=Lafferty%2C+Kevin+D.&rft.au=Leslie%2C+Heather&rft.au=McArdle%2C+Deborah+A.&rft.au=Warner%2C+Robert+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%282003%29013%5B0170%3AAECTMR%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohnsack1998" class="citation journal cs1">Bohnsack, James A. (June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x">"Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management"</a>. Australian Journal of Ecology. 23 (3): 298–304. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AusEc..23..298B">1998AusEc..23..298B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x">10.1111/j.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0307-692X">0307-692X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154525/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Application+of+marine+reserves+to+reef+fisheries+management&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=298-304&rft.date=1998-06&rft.issn=0307-692X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AusEc..23..298B&rft.aulast=Bohnsack&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1442-9993.1998.tb00734.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellRoberts2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gell, Fiona R.; Roberts, Callum M. (September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534703001897">"Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves"</a>. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (9): 448–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2803%2900189-7">10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00189-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154458/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534703001897">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Benefits+beyond+boundaries%3A+the+fishery+effects+of+marine+reserves&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=448-455&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2803%2900189-7&rft.aulast=Gell&rft.aufirst=Fiona+R.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Callum+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0169534703001897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillisMillarBabcock2003" class="citation journal cs1">Willis, Trevor J.; Millar, Russell B.; Babcock, Russ C. (April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00775.x">"Protection of exploited fish in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper Pagrus auratus (Sparidae) in northern New Zealand marine reserves"</a>. Journal of Applied Ecology. 40 (2): 214–227. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JApEc..40..214W">2003JApEc..40..214W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2664.2003.00775.x">10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00775.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8901">0021-8901</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154611/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00775.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Ecology&rft.atitle=Protection+of+exploited+fish+in+temperate+regions%3A+high+density+and+biomass+of+snapper+Pagrus+auratus+%28Sparidae%29+in+northern+New+Zealand+marine+reserves&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=214-227&rft.date=2003-04&rft.issn=0021-8901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2664.2003.00775.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JApEc..40..214W&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Trevor+J.&rft.au=Millar%2C+Russell+B.&rft.au=Babcock%2C+Russ+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbesjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2664.2003.00775.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaddackEstes2000" class="citation journal cs1">Paddack, Michelle J; Estes, James A (2000-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europepmc.org/article/AGR/IND605874945">"Kelp forest fish populations in marine reserves and adjacent exploited areas of central californi"</a>. Ecological Applications. 10 (3): 855–870. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1051-0761%282000%29010%5B0855%3Akffpim%5D2.0.co%3B2">10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0855:kffpim]2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1051-0761">1051-0761</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007154459/https://europepmc.org/article/AGR/IND605874945">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=Kelp+forest+fish+populations+in+marine+reserves+and+adjacent+exploited+areas+of+central+californi&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=855-870&rft.date=2000-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1051-0761%282000%29010%5B0855%3Akffpim%5D2.0.co%3B2&rft.issn=1051-0761&rft.aulast=Paddack&rft.aufirst=Michelle+J&rft.au=Estes%2C+James+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuropepmc.org%2Farticle%2FAGR%2FIND605874945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers-BennettPearse2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rogers-Bennett, Laura; Pearse, John S. (2001-06-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x">"Indirect Benefits of Marine Protected Areas for Juvenile Abalone"</a>. Conservation Biology. 15 (3): 642–647. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ConBi..15..642R">2001ConBi..15..642R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0888-8892">0888-8892</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155253/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=Indirect+Benefits+of+Marine+Protected+Areas+for+Juvenile+Abalone&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=642-647&rft.date=2001-06-07&rft.issn=0888-8892&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ConBi..15..642R&rft.aulast=Rogers-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Pearse%2C+John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.2001.015003642.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabcockKellyShearsWalker1999" class="citation journal cs1">Babcock, Russell C.; Kelly, Shane; Shears, Nick T.; Walker, Jarrod W.; Willis, Trevor J. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24854571">"Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 189: 125–134. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999MEPS..189..125B">1999MEPS..189..125B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps189125">10.3354/meps189125</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24854571">24854571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Changes+in+community+structure+in+temperate+marine+reserves&rft.volume=189&rft.pages=125-134&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps189125&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24854571%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999MEPS..189..125B&rft.aulast=Babcock&rft.aufirst=Russell+C.&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Shane&rft.au=Shears%2C+Nick+T.&rft.au=Walker%2C+Jarrod+W.&rft.au=Willis%2C+Trevor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24854571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpernWarner2002" class="citation journal cs1">Halpern, Benjamin S.; Warner, Robert R. (May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00326.x">"Marine reserves have rapid and lasting effects"</a>. Ecology Letters. 5 (3): 361–366. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002EcolL...5..361H">2002EcolL...5..361H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1461-0248.2002.00326.x">10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00326.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1461-023X">1461-023X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201185332/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00326.x">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-02-01. Retrieved 2024-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Marine+reserves+have+rapid+and+lasting+effects&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=361-366&rft.date=2002-05&rft.issn=1461-023X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1461-0248.2002.00326.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002EcolL...5..361H&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+S.&rft.au=Warner%2C+Robert+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1461-0248.2002.00326.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://andthewest.stanford.edu/2021/hitting-rock-bottom-the-disappearance-of-californias-underwater-forests/">"Hitting Rock Bottom: The Disappearance of California's Underwater Forests"</a>. The Bill Lane Center for the American West, Stanford University. 2021-03-18. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155212/https://andthewest.stanford.edu/2021/hitting-rock-bottom-the-disappearance-of-californias-underwater-forests/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Bill+Lane+Center+for+the+American+West%2C+Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Hitting+Rock+Bottom%3A+The+Disappearance+of+California%27s+Underwater+Forests&rft.date=2021-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fandthewest.stanford.edu%2F2021%2Fhitting-rock-bottom-the-disappearance-of-californias-underwater-forests%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerlin2019" class="citation web cs1">Kerlin, Kat (2019-10-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://climatechange.ucdavis.edu/news/californias-crashing-kelp-forest/">"California's Crashing Kelp Forest"</a>. Science and Climate. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811174620/https://climatechange.ucdavis.edu/news/californias-crashing-kelp-forest/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Climate&rft.atitle=California%27s+Crashing+Kelp+Forest&rft.date=2019-10-21&rft.aulast=Kerlin&rft.aufirst=Kat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclimatechange.ucdavis.edu%2Fnews%2Fcalifornias-crashing-kelp-forest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_California_Santa_Cruz2021" class="citation web cs1">University of California Santa Cruz (2021-03-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2021-03-collapse-northern-california-kelp-forests.html">"The collapse of Northern California kelp forests will be hard to reverse"</a>. phys.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305100025/https://phys.org/news/2021-03-collapse-northern-california-kelp-forests.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-05. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=phys.org&rft.atitle=The+collapse+of+Northern+California+kelp+forests+will+be+hard+to+reverse&rft.date=2021-03-05&rft.au=University+of+California+Santa+Cruz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2021-03-collapse-northern-california-kelp-forests.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pew.org/2LXdtHi">"5 Reasons to Protect Kelp, the West Coast's Powerhouse Marine Algae"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. 2020-05-27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155257/https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2020/05/27/5-reasons-to-protect-kelp-the-west-coasts-powerhouse-marine-algae">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=5+Reasons+to+Protect+Kelp%2C+the+West+Coast%27s+Powerhouse+Marine+Algae&rft.date=2020-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpew.org%2F2LXdtHi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2013" class="citation web cs1">Foster, Michael S (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811175704/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/21627/SCMS39_Lang_10.pdf?sequence=1">"Kelp Forests in California"</a> (PDF). Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/21627/SCMS39_Lang_10.pdf?sequence=1">the original</a> (PDF) on 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Contributions+to+the+Marine+Sciences&rft.atitle=Kelp+Forests+in+California&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Michael+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.si.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10088%2F21627%2FSCMS39_Lang_10.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsClaisseIiWilliams2021" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Jonathan P.; Claisse, Jeremy T.; Ii, Daniel J. Pondella; Williams, Chelsea M.; Robart, Matthew J.; Scholz, Zoe; Jaco, Erin M.; Ford, Tom; Burdick, Heather; Witting, David (2021-04-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v664/p117-131/">"Sea urchin mass mortality rapidly restores kelp forest communities"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 664: 117–131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MEPS..664..117W">2021MEPS..664..117W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps13680">10.3354/meps13680</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234106934">234106934</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211124143527/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v664/p117-131/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-24. Retrieved 2021-11-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Sea+urchin+mass+mortality+rapidly+restores+kelp+forest+communities&rft.volume=664&rft.pages=117-131&rft.date=2021-04-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps13680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234106934%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021MEPS..664..117W&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+P.&rft.au=Claisse%2C+Jeremy+T.&rft.au=Ii%2C+Daniel+J.+Pondella&rft.au=Williams%2C+Chelsea+M.&rft.au=Robart%2C+Matthew+J.&rft.au=Scholz%2C+Zoe&rft.au=Jaco%2C+Erin+M.&rft.au=Ford%2C+Tom&rft.au=Burdick%2C+Heather&rft.au=Witting%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Fabstracts%2Fmeps%2Fv664%2Fp117-131%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dornsifelive.usc.edu/uscseagrant/new-findings-on-kelp-forest-restoration/">"New Findings on Kelp Forest Restoration"</a>. USC Sea Grant - USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811164117/http://dornsifelive.usc.edu/uscseagrant/new-findings-on-kelp-forest-restoration/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+Sea+Grant+-+USC+Dana+and+David+Dornsife+College+of+Letters%2C+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=New+Findings+on+Kelp+Forest+Restoration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdornsifelive.usc.edu%2Fuscseagrant%2Fnew-findings-on-kelp-forest-restoration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2021/07/saving-californias-kelp-forests-cte-spc/">"Saving California's kelp forests"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210730163427/https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2021/07/saving-californias-kelp-forests-cte-spc/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-30. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Saving+California%27s+kelp+forests&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2Finteractive%2F2021%2F07%2Fsaving-californias-kelp-forests-cte-spc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://polycentric.cpp.edu/2021/06/new-study-finds-hope-for-restoration-of-kelp-beds-and-commercial-fisheries/">"New Study Finds Hope for Restoration of Kelp Beds and Commercial Fisheries"</a>. PolyCentric. 2021-06-21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602185116/https://polycentric.cpp.edu/2021/06/new-study-finds-hope-for-restoration-of-kelp-beds-and-commercial-fisheries/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-06-02. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PolyCentric&rft.atitle=New+Study+Finds+Hope+for+Restoration+of+Kelp+Beds+and+Commercial+Fisheries&rft.date=2021-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpolycentric.cpp.edu%2F2021%2F06%2Fnew-study-finds-hope-for-restoration-of-kelp-beds-and-commercial-fisheries%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sea-trees.org/pages/palos-verdes-kelp">"Project: Palos Verdes"</a>. SeaTrees, by Sustainable Surf. 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200702083316/https://sea-trees.org/pages/palos-verdes-kelp">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-07-02. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SeaTrees%2C+by+Sustainable+Surf&rft.atitle=Project%3A+Palos+Verdes&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsea-trees.org%2Fpages%2Fpalos-verdes-kelp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHohman2019" class="citation web cs1">Hohman, R (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://farallones.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Bull-Kelp-Recovery-Plan-2019.pdf">"Sonoma-Mendocino Bull Kelp Recovery Plan, for Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and California Department of Fish & Wildlife"</a> (PDF). Greater Farallones Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200501172103/https://farallones.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Bull-Kelp-Recovery-Plan-2019.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-01. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Greater+Farallones+Association&rft.atitle=Sonoma-Mendocino+Bull+Kelp+Recovery+Plan%2C+for+Greater+Farallones+National+Marine+Sanctuary+and+California+Department+of+Fish+%26+Wildlife&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Hohman&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffarallones.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F06%2FBull-Kelp-Recovery-Plan-2019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/marine-invasive-species.htm">"Marine Invasive Species - Channel Islands National Park"</a>. U.S. National Park Service. 2017-04-17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170602174204/https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/marine-invasive-species.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-02. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+National+Park+Service&rft.atitle=Marine+Invasive+Species+-+Channel+Islands+National+Park&rft.date=2017-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fchis%2Flearn%2Fnature%2Fmarine-invasive-species.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitchie2020" class="citation web cs1">Ritchie, Erika I (2020-09-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ocregister.com/2020/09/08/an-orange-county-marine-biologist-wants-to-weed-the-ocean-to-help-kelp-grow">"An Orange County marine biologist wants to weed the ocean to help kelp grow"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Orange_County_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange County Register">Orange County Register</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200911055042/https://www.ocregister.com/2020/09/08/an-orange-county-marine-biologist-wants-to-weed-the-ocean-to-help-kelp-grow/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-11. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Orange+County+Register&rft.atitle=An+Orange+County+marine+biologist+wants+to+weed+the+ocean+to+help+kelp+grow&rft.date=2020-09-08&rft.aulast=Ritchie&rft.aufirst=Erika+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ocregister.com%2F2020%2F09%2F08%2Fan-orange-county-marine-biologist-wants-to-weed-the-ocean-to-help-kelp-grow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/sunflower-sea-star-proposed-for-endangered-species-act-protection-2023-03-15/">"Sunflower Sea Star Proposed for Endangered Species Act Protection"</a>. Center for Biological Diversity. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155258/https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/sunflower-sea-star-proposed-for-endangered-species-act-protection-2023-03-15/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2023-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Biological+Diversity&rft.atitle=Sunflower+Sea+Star+Proposed+for+Endangered+Species+Act+Protection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiologicaldiversity.org%2Fw%2Fnews%2Fpress-releases%2Fsunflower-sea-star-proposed-for-endangered-species-act-protection-2023-03-15%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marinescience.ucdavis.edu/blog/kelp-californias-coastal-forests">"Kelp: California's Coastal Forests"</a>. Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, UC Davis. 2021-01-12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210112225121/https://marinescience.ucdavis.edu/blog/kelp-californias-coastal-forests">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-12. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Coastal+and+Marine+Sciences+Institute%2C+UC+Davis&rft.atitle=Kelp%3A+California%27s+Coastal+Forests&rft.date=2021-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmarinescience.ucdavis.edu%2Fblog%2Fkelp-californias-coastal-forests&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coastkeeper.org/restoration/kelp-reforestation-program/">"Kelp Reforestation Program"</a>. Orange County Coastkeeper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007175326/https://www.coastkeeper.org/restoration/kelp-reforestation-program/">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Orange+County+Coastkeeper&rft.atitle=Kelp+Reforestation+Program&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coastkeeper.org%2Frestoration%2Fkelp-reforestation-program%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://now.humboldt.edu/news/kelp-is-on-the-way/">"Kelp is on the Way"</a>. Humboldt State Now. 2021-07-12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210712223424/http://now.humboldt.edu/news/kelp-is-on-the-way/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-12. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Humboldt+State+Now&rft.atitle=Kelp+is+on+the+Way&rft.date=2021-07-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnow.humboldt.edu%2Fnews%2Fkelp-is-on-the-way%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeitzell2020" class="citation web cs1">Leitzell, Katherine (2020-07-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200708070545/https://caseagrant.ucsd.edu/news/new-research-to-address-kelp-forest-crisis-in-california">"New research to address kelp forest crisis in California"</a>. California Sea Grant. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caseagrant.ucsd.edu/news/new-research-to-address-kelp-forest-crisis-in-california">the original</a> on 2020-07-08. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+Sea+Grant&rft.atitle=New+research+to+address+kelp+forest+crisis+in+California&rft.date=2020-07-06&rft.aulast=Leitzell&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcaseagrant.ucsd.edu%2Fnews%2Fnew-research-to-address-kelp-forest-crisis-in-california&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittenbender2021" class="citation web cs1">Bittenbender, Steve (2021-08-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/environment-sustainability/huffman-sponsored-bill-seeks-grant-funding-to-restore-kelp-forests">"Huffman-sponsored bill seeks grant funding to restore kelp forests"</a>. SeafoodSource. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811174621/https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/environment-sustainability/huffman-sponsored-bill-seeks-grant-funding-to-restore-kelp-forests">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-11. Retrieved 2021-08-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SeafoodSource&rft.atitle=Huffman-sponsored+bill+seeks+grant+funding+to+restore+kelp+forests&rft.date=2021-08-10&rft.aulast=Bittenbender&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.seafoodsource.com%2Fnews%2Fenvironment-sustainability%2Fhuffman-sponsored-bill-seeks-grant-funding-to-restore-kelp-forests&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thefishsite.com/articles/ocean-rainforest-secures-4-5-m-to-ramp-up-californian-kelp-production">"Ocean rainforest secures $4.5 m to ramp up Californian kelp production"</a>. The Fish Site. 2023-10-12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007175326/https://thefishsite.com/articles/ocean-rainforest-secures-4-5-m-to-ramp-up-californian-kelp-production">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Fish+Site&rft.atitle=Ocean+rainforest+secures+%244.5+m+to+ramp+up+Californian+kelp+production&rft.date=2023-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthefishsite.com%2Farticles%2Focean-rainforest-secures-4-5-m-to-ramp-up-californian-kelp-production&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDjampou2023" class="citation book cs1">Djampou, Angeline (April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/42255">Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests</a>. United Nations Environment Programme. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.59117%2F20.500.11822%2F42255">10.59117/20.500.11822/42255</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-807-4007-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-807-4007-3"><bdi>978-92-807-4007-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155044/https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/42255;jsessionid=DA45F46EC5BDA1A7B7C841013EB3538F">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-04-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Into+the+Blue%3A+Securing+a+Sustainable+Future+for+Kelp+Forests&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Programme&rft.date=2023-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.59117%2F20.500.11822%2F42255&rft.isbn=978-92-807-4007-3&rft.aulast=Djampou&rft.aufirst=Angeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwedocs.unep.org%2F20.500.11822%2F42255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kelp_forests" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kelp forests">Kelp forests</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070322210905/http://bonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/sitechar/kelp.html">"Kelp Forest & Rocky Subtidal Habitats"</a>. noaa.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/sitechar/kelp.html">the original</a> on 2007-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Kelp+Forest+%26+Rocky+Subtidal+Habitats&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov%2Fsitechar%2Fkelp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041204200449/http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/">"Kelp Watch"</a>. tas.gov.au. <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>: Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/">the original</a> on 2004-12-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tas.gov.au&rft.atitle=Kelp+Watch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> Excellent general information on kelp forests, as well as specific information on Tasmanian kelp forests.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991128010927/http://www.mbayaq.org/efc/efc_hp/hp_kelp_cam.asp">"Monterey Bay Aquarium Kelp Cam"</a>. mbayaq.org. <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbayaq.org/efc/efc_hp/hp_kelp_cam.asp">the original</a> on 1999-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mbayaq.org&rft.atitle=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+Kelp+Cam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbayaq.org%2Fefc%2Fefc_hp%2Fhp_kelp_cam.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> Watch a live feed from the kelp forest exhibit.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q575913#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01202737">Japan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&oldid=1259035952">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&oldid=1259035952</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Aquatic ecology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fishing_industry" title="Category:Fishing industry">Fishing industry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brown_algae" title="Category:Brown algae">Brown algae</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 01:00 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-5pr2z","wgBackendResponseTime":147,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.609","walltime":"1.804","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8313,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":395285,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2093,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":4,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":495960,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1547.096 1 -total"," 62.48% 966.581 1 Template:Reflist"," 42.23% 653.341 75 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.29% 128.314 27 Template:Cite_web"," 6.98% 107.968 1 Template:Ocean_habitat_topics"," 6.85% 105.944 1 Template:Sidebar"," 6.50% 100.537 1 Template:Aquatic_ecosystem_topics"," 6.19% 95.760 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 5.79% 89.608 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.78% 58.433 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.037","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8679874,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","240","23.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","19.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","11.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","9.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","5.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","3.9"],["setmetatable","40","3.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:706\u003E","20","2.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","20","2.0"],["[others]","120","11.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-6mjkr","timestamp":"20241123010034","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Kelp forest","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kelp_forest","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q575913","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q575913","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-11-19T22:14:46Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T01:00:32Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/67\/Kelp_forest.jpg","headline":"underwater areas with a high density of kelp"}</script> </body> </html>