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influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_British_influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins of British influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_British_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slave_trade_and_abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_trade_and_abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Slave trade and abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_trade_and_abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Missionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_colonial_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_colonial_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>First colonial claims</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_colonial_claims-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First colonial claims subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_colonial_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lagos_Colony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lagos_Colony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Lagos Colony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lagos_Colony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oil_Rivers_Protectorate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oil_Rivers_Protectorate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Oil Rivers Protectorate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oil_Rivers_Protectorate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_Niger_Company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Niger_Company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Royal Niger Company</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Niger_Company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_administration_under_the_Crown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_administration_under_the_Crown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Political administration under the Crown</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_administration_under_the_Crown-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political administration under the Crown subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_administration_under_the_Crown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transition_to_Crown_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_Crown_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Transition to Crown rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_Crown_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Colonial administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frederick_Lugard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frederick_Lugard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Frederick Lugard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frederick_Lugard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amalgamation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amalgamation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Amalgamation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amalgamation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirect_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Indirect rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_colonial_policy_under_Clifford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_colonial_policy_under_Clifford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Developments in colonial policy under Clifford</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_colonial_policy_under_Clifford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influenza_Pandemic_of_1918" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influenza_Pandemic_of_1918"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Influenza Pandemic of 1918</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influenza_Pandemic_of_1918-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_and_finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_and_finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economics and finance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_and_finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_Southern_Nigerian_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_Southern_Nigerian_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_Southern_Nigerian_nationalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_Southern_Nigerian_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-governing_regions_(1957)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-governing_regions_(1957)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Self-governing regions (1957)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-governing_regions_(1957)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_conferences_in_the_UK_(1957–58)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_conferences_in_the_UK_(1957–58)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_conferences_in_the_UK_(1957–58)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_Nigeria_(1960)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_Nigeria_(1960)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Independent Nigeria (1960)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_Nigeria_(1960)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Colonial Nigeria</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="مستعمرة نيجيريا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستعمرة نيجيريا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C3%B2nia_i_Protectorat_de_Nig%C3%A8ria" title="Colònia i Protectorat de Nigèria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Colònia i Protectorat de Nigèria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_de_Nigeria" title="Colonia de Nigeria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Colonia de Nigeria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonio_kaj_Protektorato_Ni%C4%9Derio" title="Kolonio kaj Protektorato Niĝerio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kolonio kaj Protektorato Niĝerio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonie_et_protectorat_du_Nigeria" title="Colonie et protectorat du Nigeria – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Colonie et protectorat du Nigeria" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallakar_Najeriya" title="Mallakar Najeriya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Mallakar Najeriya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%AB%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Նիգերիայի պրոտեկտորատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նիգերիայի պրոտեկտորատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria_Kolonial" title="Nigeria Kolonial – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nigeria Kolonial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerijos_protektoratas" title="Nigerijos protektoratas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nigerijos protektoratas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonie_en_Protectoraat_Nigeria" title="Kolonie en Protectoraat Nigeria – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kolonie en Protectoraat Nigeria" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E4%BF%9D%E8%AD%B7%E9%A0%98%E3%83%8A%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="イギリス保護領ナイジェリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イギリス保護領ナイジェリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonien_og_protektoratet_Nigeria" title="Kolonien og protektoratet Nigeria – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kolonien og protektoratet Nigeria" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nig%C3%A9ria_colonial" title="Nigéria colonial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nigéria colonial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Колониальная Нигерия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Колониальная Нигерия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_siirtomaa_ja_protektoraatti" title="Nigerian siirtomaa ja protektoraatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nigerian siirtomaa ja protektoraatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonin_och_protektoratet_Nigeria" title="Kolonin och protektoratet Nigeria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kolonin och protektoratet Nigeria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="อาณานิคมไนจีเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาณานิคมไนจีเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nijerya_Kolonisi_ve_Protektoras%C4%B1" title="Nijerya Kolonisi ve Protektorası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nijerya Kolonisi ve Protektorası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">British colony and protectorate (1914-1960)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria<br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(1914–1954)</span></span><hr />Federation of Nigeria<sup id="cite_ref-constitution1954_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-constitution1954-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(1954–1960)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1914–1960</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Nigeria_(1952%E2%80%931960).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960)"><img alt="Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Nigeria_(1914%E2%80%931960)" title="Flag of Nigeria (1914–1960)">Flag<br />(1952–1960)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Badge_of_Nigeria_(1952%E2%80%931960).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Badge (1952–1960) of Nigeria (1914–1960)"><img alt="Badge (1952–1960) of Nigeria (1914–1960)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/85px-Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/128px-Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg/170px-Badge_of_Nigeria_%281952%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="501" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria" title="Coat of arms of Nigeria"> Badge<br />(1952–1960)</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <a href="/wiki/God_Save_the_King" title="God Save the King">God Save the King/Queen</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="64" data-mwtitle="United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/03/United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga/United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=ar&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ar" label="العربية ‪(ar)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=fa&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fa" label="فارسی ‪(fa)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=it&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=ja&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ja" label="日本語 ‪(ja)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=ko&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ko" label="한국어 ‪(ko)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track 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label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=zh-hk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-HK" label="中文（香港） ‪(zh-hk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnited_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.oga&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nigeria (red) British possessions in Africa (pink) 1914"><img alt="Nigeria (red) British possessions in Africa (pink) 1914" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg/250px-Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg/375px-Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg/500px-Colonial_Africa_Nigeria_1913_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1295" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Nigeria (red)<br /><a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a> in Africa (pink)<br /> 1914</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_British_Empire" title="Territorial evolution of the British Empire">British colony</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Ibo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibo language">Igbo</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nigeria" title="Languages of Nigeria">regional languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Traditional beliefs</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">Colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1914–1954)<hr /><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federation</a><sup id="cite_ref-constitution1954_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-constitution1954-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1954–1960)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">British monarch</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1914–1936 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1936 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edward_VIII" title="Edward VIII">Edward VIII</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1936–1952 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1952–1960 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors-General_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors-General of Nigeria">Governor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1914–1919 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1919–1925 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Clifford_(colonial_administrator)" title="Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)">Hugh Clifford</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1948–1954 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Macpherson" title="John Stuart Macpherson">John Stuart Macpherson</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1954–1960 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_Robertson" title="James Wilson Robertson">James Wilson Robertson</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data">Legislative Council<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1946–1951)<hr />House of Representatives<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1951–1960)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> • <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a> • <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 January 1914</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Autonomous federation </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 October 1954</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Independence </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 October 1960</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1924<sup id="cite_ref-TheEmpirein1924_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheEmpirein1924-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">872,050 km<sup>2</sup> (336,700 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1952<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">876,953 km<sup>2</sup> (338,593 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1924<sup id="cite_ref-TheEmpirein1924_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheEmpirein1924-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18,500,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1952<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">31,156,027</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/British_West_African_pound" title="British West African pound">British West African pound</a><br />(1914–1958)<hr /><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_pound" title="Nigerian pound">Nigerian pound</a><br />(1958–1960)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+1</span> (<a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Time" title="West Africa Time">WAT</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">left</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria Protectorate</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Nigeria" title="Federation of Nigeria">Federation of Nigeria</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/20px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/30px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/40px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_a"><a href="#endnote_a">a</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_a"><b><a href="#ref_a">^a</a></b></span> <a href="/wiki/Bakassi_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakassi peninsula">Bakassi peninsula</a>; governed by Nigeria until 2008</div></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-width:2px;border-style:ridge;border-color:black;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nigeria" title="Category:History of Nigeria">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:145%;font-weight:heavy;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History of Nigeria</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;border-bottom:1px solid #008B45;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="History of Nigeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg/160px-Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg/240px-Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg/320px-Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1276" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #8FBC8F;padding:0.1em 0;font-size:95%;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Nigerian_history" title="Timeline of Nigerian history">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_before_1500" title="History of Nigeria before 1500">Early history</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> pre-1500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500-1 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Nigeria (1500–1800)">Pre-colonial period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–1800</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="British Nigeria">British period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1800–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Nigerian_Republic" title="First Nigerian Republic">First Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1960–1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1967–1970</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Nigerian_Republic" title="Second Nigerian Republic">Second Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1979–1983</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Third_Nigerian_Republic" title="Third Nigerian Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993–1999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Nigerian_Republic" title="Fourth Nigerian Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1999–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #8FBC8F;padding:0.1em 0;font-size:95%;"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Nigeria" title="Economic history of Nigeria">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igboland" title="Igboland">Igbo people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Yoruba_people" title="History of the Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_people" title="Hausa people">Hausa people</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #8FBC8F;padding:0.1em 0;font-size:95%;"> By state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abia_State#History" title="Abia State">Abia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_State#History" title="Adamawa State">Adamawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akwa_Ibom_State#History" title="Akwa Ibom State">Akwa Ibom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anambra_State#History" title="Anambra State">Anambra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauchi_State#History" title="Bauchi State">Bauchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayelsa_State#History" title="Bayelsa State">Bayelsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benue_State#History" title="Benue State">Benue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borno_State#History" title="Borno State">Borno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_River_State#History" title="Cross River State">Cross River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_State#History" title="Delta State">Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebonyi_State#History" title="Ebonyi State">Ebonyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_State#History" title="Edo State">Edo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekiti_State#History" title="Ekiti State">Ekiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enugu_State#History" title="Enugu State">Enugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gombe_State#History" title="Gombe State">Gombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imo_State#History" title="Imo State">Imo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jigawa_State#History" title="Jigawa State">Jigawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaduna_State#History" title="Kaduna State">Kaduna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kano_State#History" title="Kano State">Kano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katsina_State#History" title="Katsina State">Katsina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebbi_State#History" title="Kebbi State">Kebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kogi_State#History" title="Kogi State">Kogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwara_State#History" title="Kwara State">Kwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_State#History" title="Lagos State">Lagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasarawa_State#History" title="Nasarawa State">Nasarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_State#History" title="Niger State">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogun_State#History" title="Ogun State">Ogun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ondo_State#History" title="Ondo State">Ondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osun_State#History" title="Osun State">Osun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_State#History" title="Oyo State">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_State#History" title="Plateau State">Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_State#History" title="Rivers State">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_State#History" title="Sokoto State">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taraba_State#History" title="Taraba State">Taraba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yobe_State#History" title="Yobe State">Yobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamfara_State#History" title="Zamfara State">Zamfara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #8FBC8F;padding:0.1em 0;font-size:95%;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.6em;font-size:95%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Nigeria" title="List of years in Nigeria">List of years in Nigeria</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #008B45; border-bottom:1px solid #008B45;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/16px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/24px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/32px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nigeria" title="Portal:Nigeria">Nigeria portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Nigeria" title="Template:History of Nigeria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Nigeria" title="Template talk:History of Nigeria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Nigeria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Nigeria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Cameroon" title="Category:History of Cameroon">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cameroon" title="History of Cameroon">History of <span class="fn org label">Cameroon</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;padding:0.5em 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Cameroon"><img alt="Coat of arms of Cameroon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg/50px-Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg/75px-Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg/100px-Insigne_Cammaruniae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="306" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> Pre-colonial</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sao_civilisation" title="Sao civilisation">Sao civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotoko_kingdom" title="Kotoko kingdom">Kotoko kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandara_Kingdom" title="Mandara Kingdom">Mandara Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bamum" title="Kingdom of Bamum">Kingdom of Bamum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> Colonial</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamerun" title="Kamerun">Kamerun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1884–1919</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bafut_Wars" title="Bafut Wars">Bafut Wars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1889–1907</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Neukamerun" title="Neukamerun">Neukamerun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1911–1916</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_Cameroons" class="mw-redirect" title="French Cameroons">French Cameroons</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/British_Cameroons" title="British Cameroons">British Cameroons</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cameroons" title="Southern Cameroons">Southern Cameroons</a></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="position: relative; top: 0.5em;">1922–1961</span></td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender"> Post-colonial</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1961–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/16px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/24px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/32px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cameroon" title="Portal:Cameroon">Cameroon portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Cameroon" title="Template:History of Cameroon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Cameroon" title="Template talk:History of Cameroon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Cameroon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Cameroon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Colonial Nigeria</b> was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> from the mid-nineteenth century until 1 October 1960 when <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> achieved independence.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Treaty_of_Cession" title="Lagos Treaty of Cession">annexed</a> <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos</a> in 1861 and established the <a href="/wiki/Oil_River_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil River Protectorate">Oil River Protectorate</a> in 1884. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a>. </p><p>From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Niger_Company" title="Royal Niger Company">Royal Niger Company</a>, authorised by charter, and governed by <a href="/wiki/George_Taubman_Goldie" title="George Taubman Goldie">George Taubman Goldie</a>. In 1900, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria Protectorate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a> passed from company hands to the Crown. At the urging of Governor <a href="/wiki/Frederick_John_Dealtry_Lugard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick John Dealtry Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a>, the two territories were amalgamated as the <b>Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria</b>, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). Progressive constitutions after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> provided for increasing representation and electoral government by Nigerians. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> gained its independence.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Colony">Crown Colony</a> government on much of the area of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both <a href="/wiki/Autocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocratic">autocratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucratic</a>. After initially adopting an <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a> approach, in 1906 the British merged the small <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos Colony</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria Protectorate</a> into a new Colony of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a>, and in 1914 that was combined with the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a> to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labour. The essential basis of this system was a <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money"> money economy</a>—specifically the British <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pound sterling</a>—which could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985page90_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985page90-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_British_influence">Origins of British influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of British influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1700s, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and other European powers had settlements and forts in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> wrote in 1776 that the African societies were "better established and more populous than those of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Though the Europeans possessed many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>, they have not yet established in either of those regions such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">America</a>." <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Earlier elements related to this were its founding of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate">Sierra Leone Colony</a> in 1787 as a refuge for <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freed slaves</a>, the independent <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> movement intended to bring <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Edo_State" title="Edo State">Edo Kingdom</a>, and programs of exploration sponsored by learned societies and scientific groups, such as the London-based <a href="/wiki/African_Association" title="African Association">African Association</a>. </p><p>Local leaders, cognizant of the situation in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">India</a>, and elsewhere, recognised the risks of British expansion. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".<sup id="cite_ref-IsicheiPage362_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IsicheiPage362-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was <a href="/wiki/Gombe_Abba" title="Gombe Abba">Gombe-Abba</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (1898–1922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Gombe_Emirate" title="Gombe Emirate">Gombe Emirate</a>, Modibbo Bubayero, to <a href="/wiki/Nafada" title="Nafada">Nafada</a> town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_trade_and_abolition">Slave trade and abolition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Slave trade and abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Slavery in Nigeria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements,_1736.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg/300px-Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg/450px-Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg/600px-Negroland_and_Guinea_with_the_European_Settlements%2C_1736.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="894" /></a><figcaption>Map of Negroland and Guinea including the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a>, 1736, by London cartographer <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Moll" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermann Moll">Hermann Moll</a></figcaption></figure> <p>European slave trading from <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 1700–1850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. But in the 1700s, the <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a> (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a>) became the next most important hub. <a href="/wiki/Ouidah" title="Ouidah">Ouidah</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a> were the major ports on the coast. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,000–2,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. The trade subsequently continued under the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Biafra" title="Bight of Biafra">Bight of Biafra</a>, the major ports were <a href="/wiki/Calabar" title="Calabar">Old Calabar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Akwa_Akpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Akwa Akpa">Akwa Akpa</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bonny" title="Kingdom of Bonny">Bonny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalabari_Kingdom" title="Kalabari Kingdom">New Calabar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area.<sup id="cite_ref-Richardson2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1807, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a> enacted the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act</a>, prohibiting <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subjects</a> from participating in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">blockade of Africa</a>. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule.<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Britain also annexed <a href="/wiki/Freetown" title="Freetown">Freetown</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, declaring it a <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Colony">Crown Colony</a> in 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the <a href="/wiki/Edo_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Edo Empire">Edo Empire</a>. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. The French had <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_France" title="End of slavery in France">abolished slavery</a> following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, although it briefly re-established it in its <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">Caribbean colonies</a> especially <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">France sold Louisiana to the United States</a> in 1803, the same year that it gave up on trying to regain <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>. By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, it ended slavery in its possessions. Between them, the French and the British had purchased a majority of the slaves sold from the ports of Edo. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. </p><p>Lagos became a major <a href="/wiki/Slave_fort" title="Slave fort">slave port</a> in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Much of the <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a> which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 1776–1850. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. By 1826–1850, the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports.<sup id="cite_ref-Ojo2008_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ojo2008-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ojo2008_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ojo2008-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missionaries">Missionaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Missionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Portugal" title="Catholic Church in Portugal">Portuguese Roman Catholic</a> priests who accompanied traders and officials to the <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West African</a> coast introduced <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Edo_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Edo Empire">Edo Empire</a> in the fifteenth century. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_missions" title="Catholic missions">Catholic missionaries</a> waned. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. </p><p>Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. For some time, missionaries operated in the area between Lagos and Ibadan. The first missions were opened by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Church_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Missionary Society">Church Missionary Society</a> (CMS). Other <a href="/wiki/Protestant_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant denominations">Protestant denominations</a> from <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> also opened missions and, in the 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Religious_order_(Catholic)" title="Religious order (Catholic)">Roman Catholic religious orders</a> established missions. Protestant missionaries tended to divide the country into spheres of activity to avoid competition with each other, and Catholic missions similarly avoided duplication of effort among the several religious orders working there. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a>; the CMS worked among the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>. </p><p>The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ajayi_Crowther" title="Samuel Ajayi Crowther">Samuel Ajayi Crowther</a> as the first <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Diocese_on_the_Niger" title="Anglican Diocese on the Niger">Anglican Bishop of the Niger</a>. Crowther, a liberated <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. </p><p>In large measure, European missionaries assumed the value of colonial rule in terms of promoting education, health and welfare measures, thereby effectively reinforcing colonial policy. Some <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Africa" title="Christianity in Africa">African Christian</a> communities formed their own independent churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The missionaries gained in power throughout the 1800s. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commerce">Commerce</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal commodities of legitimate trade were <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palm_kernel_oil" title="Palm kernel oil">palm kernels</a>, which were used in Europe to make <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">lubricants</a> for machinery before <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">petroleum products</a> were developed for that purpose. Although this trade grew to significant proportions—palm oil exports alone were worth £1 billion a year by 1840—it was concentrated near the coast, where <a href="/wiki/Arecaceae" title="Arecaceae">palm trees</a> grew in abundance. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">slavery</a> and the slave trade. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. </p><p>Initially, most <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the <a href="/wiki/Ngwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngwa">Ngwa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nri_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nri Kingdom">Nri Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Awka" title="Awka">Awka</a> and other Igbo peoples. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a> for sale to European merchants. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. The Igbo redirected slaves into the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nigeria" title="Economy of Nigeria">domestic economy</a>, especially to grow the staple food crop, <a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">yams</a>, in northern <a href="/wiki/Igboland" title="Igboland">Igboland</a> for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. </p><p>From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. British merchants led the trade in palm oil, while the Portuguese and others continued the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Richardson2004_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Etemad_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etemad-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">subsistence</a> to the production of palm oil as a <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Niger Delta and <a href="/wiki/Calabar" title="Calabar">Calabar</a>, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. The Delta streams were called "oil rivers". The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crews, for the defense of the harbor. Whenever a trader had become successful enough to keep a war canoe, he was expected to form his own "house". Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. </p><p>Because of the hazards of <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Africa" title="Climate of Africa">climate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">tropical diseases</a> for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. An example was that at <a href="/wiki/Onitsha" title="Onitsha">Onitsha</a>, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. </p><p>Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">Government of the United Kingdom</a> appoint a consul to cover the region. Consequently, in 1849, <a href="/wiki/John_Beecroft" title="John Beecroft">John Beecroft</a> was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>. Beecroft was the British representative to <a href="/wiki/Bioko" title="Bioko">Fernando Po</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">African Slave Trade Patrol</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was stationed. </p><p>In 1850, the British created a "<a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of Equity</a>" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local <a href="/wiki/Efik_people" title="Efik people">Efik</a> traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Biafra" title="Bight of Biafra">Bight of Biafra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 30–40% of the demand for British cotton during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> of 1750–1790.<sup id="cite_ref-Etemad_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etemad-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploration">Exploration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration of Africa</a></div> <p>At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)" title="Mungo Park (explorer)">Mungo Park</a>, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Muslim Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">slave traders</a>. In 1805, he set out on a second expedition, sponsored by the British Government, to follow the Niger to the sea. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930 mi), passing through the western portions of the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a>, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near <a href="/wiki/Bussa,_Nigeria" title="Bussa, Nigeria">Bussa</a>. </p><p>On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Clapperton" title="Hugh Clapperton">Hugh Clapperton</a> learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it.<sup id="cite_ref-Kryza_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kryza-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His servant, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lander" title="Richard Lander">Richard Lander</a>, and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. The Lander brothers were seized by slave traders in the interior and sold down the river to a waiting European ship. </p><p>Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. In the 1850s, <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a> had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> merchant, <a href="/wiki/Macgregor_Laird" title="Macgregor Laird">Macgregor Laird</a>, opened the river. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Barth" title="Heinrich Barth">Heinrich Barth</a>, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_colonial_claims">First colonial claims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: First colonial claims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lagos_Colony">Lagos Colony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lagos Colony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos Colony</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_(1888%E2%80%931906).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Lagos_Colony_%281888%E2%80%931906%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Lagos Colony (1886–1906)</figcaption></figure> <p>British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a> detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul <a href="/wiki/John_Beecroft" title="John Beecroft">John Beecroft</a> to encourage the overthrow of the regime. In 1851 deposed king <a href="/wiki/Akitoye" title="Akitoye">Akintoye of Lagos</a> sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. The Royal Navy <a href="/wiki/Reduction_of_Lagos" title="Reduction of Lagos">bombarded Lagos</a> in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Between_Great_Britain_and_Lagos,_1_January_1852" title="Treaty Between Great Britain and Lagos, 1 January 1852">treaty</a> with the newly installed Oba <a href="/wiki/Akintoye" class="mw-redirect" title="Akintoye">Akintoye</a>, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. Lagos was annexed as a <a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Colony">Crown Colony</a> in 1861 via the <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Treaty_of_Cession" title="Lagos Treaty of Cession">Lagos Treaty of Cession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The early history of <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos Colony</a> was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the <a href="/wiki/Ilorin_Emirate" title="Ilorin Emirate">emirate of Ilorin</a>, the British Governor—assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Missionary Society">CMS</a>—succeeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Colonial Lagos</a> was a busy, cosmopolitan port. Its architecture was in both <a href="/wiki/Victorian_architecture" title="Victorian architecture">Victorian</a> and Brazilian style, as many of the black elite were English-speakers from Sierra Leone and freedmen repatriated from the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Empire of Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Cuba">Spanish Cuba</a>. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. Africans also were represented on the Lagos Legislative Council, a largely appointed assembly. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a> in London.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Page2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Page2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Hawley_Glover" title="John Hawley Glover">John Glover</a>, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Police_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Police Force">Nigerian Police Force</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AsiegbuPageXxv-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa_thaler" title="Maria Theresa thaler">Maria Theresa dollar</a>, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pound sterling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1891, the <a href="/wiki/African_Banking_Corporation" title="African Banking Corporation">African Banking Corporation</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_British_West_Africa" title="Bank of British West Africa">Bank of British West Africa</a> in Lagos.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oil_Rivers_Protectorate">Oil Rivers Protectorate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Oil Rivers Protectorate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast Protectorate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger_Coast_Scott_44.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Niger_Coast_Scott_44.jpg/220px-Niger_Coast_Scott_44.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Niger_Coast_Scott_44.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> on a stamp of the Niger Coast Protectorate, 1894</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Oil_Rivers_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil Rivers Protectorate">Oil Rivers Protectorate</a>, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">equity courts</a> established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. </p><p>In 1894 the territory was redesignated the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast Protectorate</a> and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as <a href="/wiki/Lokoja" title="Lokoja">Lokoja</a>, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Page2_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Page2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".<sup id="cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AsiegbuPageXxv-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Royal_Niger_Company">Royal Niger Company</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Royal Niger Company"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Niger_Company" title="Royal Niger Company">Royal Niger Company</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_(1888-1899).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg/220px-Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg/330px-Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg/440px-Ensign_of_the_Royal_Niger_Company_%281888-1899%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Ensign of the Royal Niger Company (1888–1899)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg/220px-British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg/330px-British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg/440px-British_stamps_used_at_Akassa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>British stamps used in 1898 at <a href="/wiki/Akassa" title="Akassa">Akassa</a> by the Royal Niger Company</figcaption></figure> <p>The legitimate trade in commodities attracted a number of British merchants to the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a>, as well as some men who had been formerly engaged in the slave trade but who now changed their line of wares. The large companies that subsequently opened depots in the delta cities and in Lagos were as ruthlessly competitive as the delta towns themselves and frequently used force to compel potential suppliers to agree to contracts and to meet their demands. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis-à-vis, local merchants. </p><p>In the 1870s, therefore, <a href="/wiki/George_Taubman_Goldie" title="George Taubman Goldie">George Taubman Goldie</a> began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company.<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. </p><p>The Royal Niger Company established its headquarters far inland at <a href="/wiki/Lokoja" title="Lokoja">Lokoja</a>, which was the main trading port of the company,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from where it began to assume responsibility for the administration of areas along the Niger and Benue rivers where it maintained depots. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The company interfered in the territory along the Niger and the Benue, sometimes becoming embroiled in serious conflicts when its British-led native constabulary intercepted slave raids or attempted to protect trade routes. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Officials of the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. </p><p>Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. One 1885 treaty read: </p> <blockquote><p>We, the undersigned King and Chiefs […] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory […] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). </p><p>We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. </p><p>In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government … [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. </p><p> The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.).<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. The council was headed by a Governor. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the company did accept that local kings could act as partners in governance and trade. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work.<sup id="cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. In 1886, Taubman secured a <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a> and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The charter allowed the company to collect customs and make treaties with local leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Goldie's direction, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Niger_Company" title="Royal Niger Company">Royal Niger Company</a> was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Consequently, he may well deserve the epithet of the "father of Nigeria", which historians accorded him. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. </p><p>The Royal Niger Company had its own armed forces.<sup id="cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AsiegbuPageXxv-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. The appointment of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Chamberlain" title="Joseph Chamberlain">Joseph Chamberlain</a> as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_conquest">Military conquest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1892 the <a href="/wiki/British_Armed_Forces" title="British Armed Forces">British Armed Forces</a> set out to fight the <a href="/wiki/Ijebu_Kingdom" title="Ijebu Kingdom">Ijebu Kingdom</a>, which had resisted missionaries and foreign traders. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy.<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British <a href="/wiki/Maxim_gun" title="Maxim gun">Maxims</a>, the earliest <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine gun</a>. With this victory, the British went on to conquer the rest of <a href="/wiki/Yorubaland" title="Yorubaland">Yorubaland</a>, which had also been weakened by sixteen years of civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos.<sup id="cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png/280px-King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png/420px-King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png/560px-King_Koko_in_His_War_Canoe.png 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption><i>King Koko in His War Canoe</i>, London <i>Daily Graphic</i>, 30 March 1895; depicting <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_Koko_Mingi_VIII_of_Nembe" title="Frederick William Koko Mingi VIII of Nembe">King Frederick William Koko</a>—onetime antagonist to the Royal Niger Company</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1896–1897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a <a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">larger retaliatory force</a> captured <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a> and drove <a href="/wiki/Ovonramwen" title="Ovonramwen">Ovonramwen</a>, the Oba of Benin, into exile.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the <a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro Confederacy</a>, the British launched the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Aro_War" title="Anglo-Aro War">Anglo-Aro War</a> of 1901–1902. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British forces began annual pacification missions to convince the locals of British supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a> began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The British captured <a href="/wiki/Kano_(city)" title="Kano (city)">Kano</a> in 1903. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lugard was slow to describe these excursions to the Colonial Office, which apparently learned of preparations to attack Kano from the newspapers in December 1902. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lugard informed the leaders of conquered <a href="/wiki/Sokoto" title="Sokoto">Sokoto</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fulani</a> in old times […] conquered this country. They took the right to rule over it, to levy taxes, to depose kings and to create kings. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_administration_under_the_Crown">Political administration under the Crown</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political administration under the Crown"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria Protectorate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Nigeria" title="Provinces of Nigeria">Provinces of Nigeria</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices,_Westminster,_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="1875 illustration of British Colonial Office" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg/198px-The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg/297px-The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg/396px-The_new_Home_and_Colonial_Offices%2C_Westminster%2C_1875._Wellcome_L0004550.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="1045" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The British <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Office" title="Colonial Office">Colonial Office</a> in <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a>, created in the 1860s by architect <a href="/wiki/George_Gilbert_Scott" title="George Gilbert Scott">George Gilbert Scott</a>; illustrated in 1875</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Same building today" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg/192px-Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg/288px-Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg/384px-Foreign_%26_Commonwealth_Office_main_building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign and Commonwealth Office">Foreign and Commonwealth Office</a></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_to_Crown_rule">Transition to Crown rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Transition to Crown rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concrete plans for transition to <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown rule</a>—direct control by the British Government—apparently began in 1897. In May of this year, Herbert J. Read published a <i>Memorandum on <a href="/wiki/British_possessions" class="mw-redirect" title="British possessions">British possessions</a> in West Africa</i>, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between <a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos Colony</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast Protectorate</a> and the Royal Niger Company. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year, the British created the <a href="/wiki/Royal_West_African_Frontier_Force" title="Royal West African Frontier Force">Royal West African Frontier Force</a> (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a>. In one year, Lugard recruited 2600 troops, evenly split between Hausa and Yoruba. The officers of the RWAFF were British. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the <a href="/wiki/William_Palmer,_2nd_Earl_of_Selborne" title="William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne">Earl of Selborne</a>, in 1898. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_Convention_of_1898" title="Anglo-French Convention of 1898">Anglo-French Convention of 1898</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The territory of the Royal Niger Company became the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a>, and the Company itself became a private corporation which continued to do business in Nigeria. The company received £865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. Under Lugard from 1900 to 1906, the Protectorate consolidated political control over the area through military conquest and initiated the use of British currency in substitute for barter.<sup id="cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_administration">Colonial administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Colonial administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at <a href="/wiki/Whitehall" title="Whitehall">Whitehall</a>. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle class—i.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (1898–1914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, <a href="/wiki/William_A._Baillie-Hamilton" title="William A. Baillie-Hamilton">William Baillie Hamilton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Olivier,_1st_Baron_Olivier" title="Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier">Sydney Olivier</a>, and Charles Strachey.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Olivier was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a> and a friend of <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg/220px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg/330px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg/440px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-71-65.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Undated British archival photo of a locomotive in Nigeria</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the Colonial Office was the Governor, who managed the administration of his colony and held powers of emergency rule. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were <a href="/wiki/Henry_McCallum" title="Henry McCallum">Henry McCallum</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_MacGregor" title="William MacGregor">William MacGregor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Egerton" title="Walter Egerton">Walter Egerton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Moor" title="Ralph Moor">Ralph Moor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Girouard" title="Percy Girouard">Percy Girouard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hesketh_Bell" title="Henry Hesketh Bell">Hesketh Bell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a>. Most of these came from military backgrounds. All were knighted.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Walter Egerton's sixfold agenda for 1908, as detailed on 29 November 1907, in a telegram to the Colonial Office, is representative of British priorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Egerton_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Egerton-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <ol><li>To pacify the country;</li> <li>To establish settled government in the newly won districts;</li> <li>To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country;</li> <li>To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts;</li> <li>To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and</li> <li>To extend the railways.</li></ol></blockquote> <p>Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Egerton_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Egerton-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1895 to 1900, a <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Nigeria" title="Rail transport in Nigeria">railway</a> was constructed running from Lagos to <a href="/wiki/Ibadan" title="Ibadan">Ibadan</a>; it opened in March 1901. This line was extended to <a href="/wiki/Osogbo" title="Osogbo">Oshogbo</a>, 100 kilometres (62 mi) away, in 1905–1907, and to <a href="/wiki/Zungeru" title="Zungeru">Zungeru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minna" title="Minna">Minna</a> in 1908–1911. Its final leg enabled it to meet another line, constructed 1907–1911, running from Baro, through Minnia, to Kano.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts and fined £50 if they failed to supply. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.<sup id="cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frederick_Lugard">Frederick Lugard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Frederick Lugard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a>, who was appointed as High Commissioner of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria Protectorate</a> in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from <a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> and established <a href="/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uganda Protectorate">British presence in Uganda</a>. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. </p><p>During his six-year tenure as High Commissioner, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Sir Frederick Lugard</a> (as he became in 1901) was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the <a href="/wiki/Fulani" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulani">Fulani</a> emirs of the <a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a>. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Borno capitulated without a fight, but in 1903 Lugard's RWAFF mounted assaults on Kano and Sokoto. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. </p><p>Lugard's success in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">northern Nigeria</a> has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amalgamation">Amalgamation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Amalgamation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg/390px-Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg/585px-Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg/780px-Southern_and_Northern_Nigeria_c._1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1175" /></a><figcaption>A map displaying Southern and Northern Nigeria, 1914</figcaption></figure> <p>Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. (Specifically, it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985amalgamation_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985amalgamation-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985amalgamation_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985amalgamation-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Hong_Kong" title="Governor of Hong Kong">Governor of Hong Kong</a>, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. On 9 May 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Page89_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Page89-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Anderson_(colonial_administrator)" title="John Anderson (colonial administrator)">John Anderson</a> diplomatically suggested: </p> <blockquote><p>If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Page89_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Page89-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The task of unification was achieved on the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. From January 1914 onwards, the newly united colony and <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> was presided over by a <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a>, who was entitled the <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_and_governors-general_of_Nigeria" title="List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria">Governor-General of Nigeria</a>. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF <a href="/wiki/Nigeria_Regiment" title="Nigeria Regiment">Nigeria Regiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: </p> <blockquote><p>Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. It is not a personal union of separate colonies under the same Governor as the Windwards, it is not a Confederation of States. If adopted, his proposals can hardly be a permanent solution and I gather that Sir F. Lugard only regards them as temporary—at any rate in part. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problem—Unitary v. Federal State—will probably have become clear.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985page90_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985page90-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indirect_rule">Indirect rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Indirect rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Houten_roeiboot_onderdeel_van_de_miniatuurvoorstelling_van_een_roeiboot_met_een_Europeaan_en_vier_roeiers._TMnr_3441-7a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Yoruba sculpture from colonial period depicting a British district officer</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg/220px-Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg/330px-Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg/440px-Emir_of_Kano-1911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>The Emir of Kano, with cavalry, photographed in 1911</figcaption></figure> <p>The Protectorate was centrally administered by the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Service" title="Colonial Service">Colonial Civil Service</a>, staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staff—many of whom originated from outside the territory. Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were <a href="/wiki/Resident_minister" title="Resident minister">Residents</a> and <a href="/wiki/District_officer" title="District officer">District Officers</a>, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. The Resident also oversaw a Provincial Court at the region's capital.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The Native Administration was headed by the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_traditional_rulers" title="Nigerian traditional rulers">traditional rulers</a>—mostly <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emirs</a> in the north and often <a href="/wiki/Oba_(ruler)" title="Oba (ruler)">obas</a> in the south—and their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Richmond_Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Richmond Palmer">Herbert Richmond Palmer</a> developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Governor of Northern Nigeria after Lugard.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulers—including the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Sokoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Sokoto">Sultan of Sokoto</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Kano" class="mw-redirect" title="Emir of Kano">Emir of Kano</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">Oba of Benin</a>—to represent all parts of the colony. The council was promoted as a device for allowing the expression of opinions that could instruct the Governor-General. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. </p><p>Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdivided—<a href="/wiki/Northern_Region,_Nigeria" title="Northern Region, Nigeria">Northern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Region,_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Region, Nigeria">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Region,_Nigeria" title="Eastern Region, Nigeria">Eastern</a> regions. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. In the Northern Region, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Richmond_Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Richmond Palmer">the colonial government</a> took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule.<sup id="cite_ref-palmer_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palmer-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-palmer_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palmer-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. In some instances, however, a double allegiance—to the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administration—was maintained. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">Oba of Benin</a>, whose office was closely identified with <a href="/wiki/Edo_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Edo religion">Edo religion</a>, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Region,_Nigeria" title="Eastern Region, Nigeria">Eastern Region</a>, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:36%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. … In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulers—the system was modified to fit the needs of each region. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a> was recognised as an official language in the north, and knowledge of it was expected of colonial officers serving there. In the South, only English had official status. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. </p><p>Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. British soap and cosmetics manufacturers tried to obtain land concessions for growing oil palms, but these were refused. Instead, the companies had to be content with a monopoly of the export trade in these products. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the <a href="/wiki/Jos_Plateau" title="Jos Plateau">Jos Plateau</a>. </p><p>The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disaster—the Great Drought of 1913–14. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. The <a href="/wiki/Nigeria_Regiment" title="Nigeria Regiment">Nigeria Regiment</a> of the RWAFF, integrating troops from the north and south, saw action against <a href="/wiki/Schutztruppe" title="Schutztruppe">German colonial forces</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> and in <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a>. </p><p>During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. To raise additional revenues, Lugard took steps to institute a uniform tax structure patterned on the traditional system that he had adopted in the north during his tenure there. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. In 1920, portions of former <a href="/wiki/German_Cameroon" class="mw-redirect" title="German Cameroon">German Cameroon</a> were <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandated</a> to Britain by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and were administered as part of Nigeria. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/British_entry_into_World_War_I" title="British entry into World War I">British entry into World War I</a> saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/H._H._Asquith" title="H. H. Asquith">H. H. Asquith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Liberal_government,_1905%E2%80%931915" title="Liberal government, 1905–1915">Liberal government</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Asquith_coalition_ministry" title="Asquith coalition ministry">war coalition</a> favored allowing international <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>. In 1916, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Carson" title="Edward Carson">Sir Edward Carson</a> led the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_Unionist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative and Unionist Party">Conservative and Unionist Party</a> to vote against Party Leader <a href="/wiki/Bonar_Law" title="Bonar Law">Bonar Law</a> on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. It was replaced by a new <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_George_ministry" title="Lloyd George ministry">coalition government</a> led by <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> featuring Conservatives and <a href="/wiki/Coalition_Liberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Liberal">Lloyd George's supporters</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>, while Asquith and the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Liberal_Party_(UK,_1918)" title="Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)">remainder of the Liberals</a> entered opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to <a href="/wiki/Kaduna" title="Kaduna">Kaduna</a> in the north. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Lugard bequeathed to his successor a prosperous colony when his term as Governor-General expired. </p><p>The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Carland1985Page66_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carland1985Page66-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_colonial_policy_under_Clifford">Developments in colonial policy under Clifford</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Developments in colonial policy under Clifford"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_Whitehall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Africa_Whitehall.jpg/220px-Africa_Whitehall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Africa_Whitehall.jpg/330px-Africa_Whitehall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Africa_Whitehall.jpg/440px-Africa_Whitehall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1373" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>Sculptural representation of Africa at the Colonial Office building on Whitehall street; created by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hugh_Armstead" title="Henry Hugh Armstead">Henry Hugh Armstead</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Lugard's immediate successor (1919–1925), <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Clifford_(colonial_administrator)" title="Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)">Sir Hugh Clifford</a>, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> in 1912–1919. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. The experiment began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. He said that he did "not consider that their past traditions and their present backward cultural conditions afford to any such experiment a reasonable chance of success".<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies.us-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct".<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies.us-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. </p><p>Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Richmond_Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Richmond Palmer">Sir Richmond Palmer</a>, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation.<sup id="cite_ref-palmer_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palmer-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. A.J. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race […] never yet satisfied a nation long and […] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition".<sup id="cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countrystudies.us-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influenza_Pandemic_of_1918">Influenza Pandemic of 1918</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Influenza Pandemic of 1918"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Influenza pandemic</a> made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread of the disease was quick and deadly, with an estimated 1.5% of the population of Lagos falling victim.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disease first found its home among the many trading ports along the West African coast.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of <a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H1N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H1N1">H1N1 influenza A</a>, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics_and_finance">Economics and finance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Economics and finance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nigeria" title="Economy of Nigeria">Economy of Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_British_Empire" title="Economy of the British Empire">Economy of the British Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg/260px-1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg/390px-1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg/520px-1910s_loom_Lagos_Nigeria_by_H_Hunting_of_Paterson_Zochonis_4545440293_University_of_Toronto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>Looms in Lagos, photographed in 1910–1913 by H. Hunting of the <a href="/wiki/PZ_Cussons" title="PZ Cussons">Patterson Zuchonis</a> trading company</figcaption></figure> <p>The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling £250,000 or more each year.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its revenue quickly increased, from £4,424 in 1901 to £274,989 in 1910. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from £361,815 to £1,933,235 over the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After establishing political control of the country, the British implemented a system of taxation in order to force the indigenous Africans to shift from subsistence farming to <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">wage labour</a>. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. These policies were met with resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936, of £6,259,547 income for the Nigerian state, £1,156,000 went back to England as home pay for British officials in the Nigerian civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of £25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. Other firms applying for licenses were rejected. In November 1908, Bergheim reported striking oil; in September 1909, he reported extracting 2,000 barrels per day. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The British <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">turned to Persia</a> for oil.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Cowrie" title="Cowrie">cowrie</a>, which was already valued locally. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. </p><p>In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. Direct taxation on men was introduced in 1928 without major incidents. However, in October 1929 in <a href="/wiki/Oloko" title="Oloko">Oloko</a> a <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. This led to protests known as the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_War" title="Women's War">Women's War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_Southern_Nigerian_nationalism">Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Special:EditPage/Colonial Nigeria">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_nationalism" title="Nigerian nationalism">Nigerian nationalism</a></div> <p>British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> derived both from an older political particularism and broad <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanism</a>, rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. </p><p>Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging <a href="/wiki/Westernized" class="mw-redirect" title="Westernized">Westernised</a> elite. </p><p>The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a> and <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">W.E.B. Du Bois</a>. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the <a href="/wiki/West_African_Students_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Students Union">West African Students Union</a>, founded in London in 1925. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness and complexity of indigenous cultures. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. </p><p>Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Protestant sects had flourished in Christianity since the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>; the emergence of independent <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nigeria" title="Christianity in Nigeria">Christian churches in Nigeria</a> (as of <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">black denominations in the United States</a>) was another phase of this history. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonial_era_Lagos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Colonial_era_Lagos.png/310px-Colonial_era_Lagos.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Colonial_era_Lagos.png/465px-Colonial_era_Lagos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Colonial_era_Lagos.png/620px-Colonial_era_Lagos.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Colonial Lagos circa 1910</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the <a href="/wiki/Nigeria_Union_of_Teachers" title="Nigeria Union of Teachers">Nigerian Union of Teachers</a>; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by <a href="/wiki/Obafemi_Awolowo" title="Obafemi Awolowo">Obafemi Awolowo</a>. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. </p><p>Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelands—as well as by the need for mutual aid—the new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. They were the most politically conscious segment of the population and created the vanguard of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, some of which were published before World War I, provided coverage of nationalist views. </p><p>The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Macauley" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Macauley">Herbert Macauley</a>, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the <i><a href="/wiki/Lagos_Daily_News" title="Lagos Daily News">Lagos Daily News</a></i>. He also led the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_National_Democratic_Party" title="Nigerian National Democratic Party">Nigerian National Democratic Party</a>, which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. </p><p>The National Youth Movement used nationalist rhetoric to agitate for improvements in education. The movement brought to public notice a long list of future leaders, including <a href="/wiki/H.O._Davies" class="mw-redirect" title="H.O. Davies">H.O. Davies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a>. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Laski" title="Harold Laski">Harold Laski</a> at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. </p><p>By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth of Nations</a> so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Three years later internal divisions arose that was dominated by major ethnic loyalties. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the <a href="/wiki/Action_Group_(Nigeria)" title="Action Group (Nigeria)">Action Group</a>. The Yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Nigeria_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Nigeria during World War II">Military history of Nigeria during World War II</a></div> <p>During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">Ethiopian campaign</a>. Nigerian units also contributed to two divisions serving with British forces in Palestine, Morocco, Sicily and Burma, where they won many honours. Wartime experiences provided a new frame of reference for many soldiers, who interacted across ethnic boundaries in ways that were unusual in Nigeria. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. </p><p>The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Action_Group_(Nigeria)" title="Action Group (Nigeria)">Action Group</a> was largely the creation of Chief <a href="/wiki/Obafemi_Awolowo" title="Obafemi Awolowo">Obafemi Awolowo</a>, General Secretary of <a href="/wiki/Egbe_Omo_Oduduwa" title="Egbe Omo Oduduwa">Egbe Omo Oduduwa</a> and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Region,_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Region, Nigeria">Western Region</a>. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. </p><p>Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Nigeria_and_the_Cameroons" title="National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons">National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons</a>. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. He used for the first time in Nigeria modern, sometimes flamboyant, electioneering techniques. Among his leading lieutenants were <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Akintola" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Akintola">Samuel Akintola</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ogbomoso" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogbomoso">Ogbomoso</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Adesoji_Aderemi" title="Adesoji Aderemi">Oni of Ife</a>, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. </p><p>The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. It backed Yoruba <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">irredentism</a> in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Northern_People%27s_Congress" title="Northern People's Congress">Northern People's Congress</a> (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. It represented a substantial element of reformism in the North. The most powerful figure in the party was <a href="/wiki/Ahmadu_Bello" title="Ahmadu Bello">Ahmadu Bello</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sardauna_of_Sokoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardauna of Sokoto">Sardauna of Sokoto</a>. </p><p>Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. </p><p>The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. </p><p>The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroad—a group that included <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Tafawa_Balewa" title="Abubakar Tafawa Balewa">Abubakar Tafawa Balewa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aminu_Kano" title="Aminu Kano">Aminu Kano</a>—was allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. The emirs gave support to limited modernization largely from fears of the unsettling presence of southerners in the north, and by observing the improvements in living conditions in the South. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Critics, including representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Belt" title="Middle Belt">Middle Belt</a> who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential <a href="/wiki/Separatist_movements_of_Nigeria" title="Separatist movements of Nigeria">separatist movements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950 <a href="/wiki/Aminu_Kano" title="Aminu Kano">Aminu Kano</a>, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Elements_Progressive_Union" title="Northern Elements Progressive Union">Northern Elements Progressive Union</a> (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Nigeria_and_the_Cameroons" title="National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons">National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons</a> (NCNC). </p><p>The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. </p><p>In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. They were never able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. They received attention from major parties before the elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. </p><p>The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. The trend was toward the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system of government</a>, with regional assemblies and a federal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Nigeria)" title="House of Representatives (Nigeria)">House of Representatives</a>. </p><p>In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> at <a href="/wiki/Westminster" title="Westminster">Westminster</a> and promulgated in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_and_governors-general_of_Nigeria" title="List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria">Governor-General</a> and his appointed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Council_(Commonwealth_countries)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)">Executive Council</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Richards_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Richards Constitution">Richards Constitution</a> (after Governor-General <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Richards,_1st_Baron_Milverton" title="Arthur Richards, 1st Baron Milverton">Sir Arthur Richards</a>, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. The introduction of the federal principle, with deliberative authority devolved on the regions, signalled recognition of the country's diversity. Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. </p><p>The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Richards_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Richards Constitution">Richards Constitution</a>. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Macpherson_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Macpherson Constitution">Macpherson Constitution</a>, after the incumbent Governor-General <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Macpherson" title="John Stuart Macpherson">John Stuart Macpherson</a>, went into effect the following year. </p><p>The most important innovations in the new charter reinforced the dual course of constitutional evolution, allowing for both regional autonomy and federal union. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Subsequent revisions contained in the <a href="/wiki/Lyttleton_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyttleton Constitution">Lyttleton Constitution</a>, enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-governing_regions_(1957)"><span id="Self-governing_regions_.281957.29"></span>Self-governing regions (1957)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Self-governing regions (1957)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Nigeria" title="Federation of Nigeria">Federation of Nigeria</a></div> <p>In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally <a href="/wiki/Self-governing_colony" title="Self-governing colony">self-governing</a> under the parliamentary system. Similar status was acquired by the Northern Region two years later. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government of Nigeria">Nigerian federal government</a> at Lagos. The federal government retained specified powers, including responsibility for banking, currency, external affairs, defence, shipping and navigation and communications, but real political power was centred in the regions. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. </p><p>Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. Because of the spread of mission schools and wealth derived from export crops, the southern parties were committed to policies that would benefit the south of the country. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. </p><p>Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. </p><p>The cleavage between the Yoruba and the Igbo was accentuated by their competition for control of the political machinery. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. </p><p>In the immediate <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-World War II period</a>, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Although <a href="/wiki/Per_capita_income" title="Per capita income">per capita income</a> in the country as a whole remained low by international standards, rising incomes among salaried personnel and burgeoning urbanization expanded consumer demand for imported goods. </p><p>In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> during the decade. </p><p>The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Petroleum industry in Nigeria">discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits</a>. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by <a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a> and <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">British Petroleum</a>. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at <a href="/wiki/Oloibiri_Oilfield" title="Oloibiri Oilfield">Olobiri</a> in the Niger Delta. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at <a href="/wiki/Port_Harcourt" title="Port Harcourt">Port Harcourt</a>. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1954_Nigerian_general_election" title="1954 Nigerian general election">election of the House of Representatives</a> after the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Nigeria" title="Constitution of Nigeria">1954 constitution</a> gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. </p><p>As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian <a href="/wiki/Federal_Executive_Council_(Nigeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Executive Council (Nigeria)">Federal Executive Council</a>. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Tafawa_Balewa" title="Abubakar Tafawa Balewa">Abubakar Tafawa Balewa</a>, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Nigeria" title="Prime Minister of Nigeria">Prime Minister of Nigeria</a>. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_conferences_in_the_UK_(1957–58)"><span id="Constitutional_conferences_in_the_UK_.281957.E2.80.9358.29"></span>Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Constitutional conferences in the UK (1957–58)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Conferences_(Nigeria)" title="Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)">Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)</a></div> <p>The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Conferences_(Nigeria)" title="Lancaster House Conferences (Nigeria)">Lancaster House</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by <a href="/wiki/The_Right_Honourable" title="The Right Honourable">The Rt. Hon.</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Lennox-Boyd,_1st_Viscount_Boyd_of_Merton" title="Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton">Alan Lennox-Boyd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of Parliament (UK)">M.P.</a>, the British <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for the Colonies">Secretary of State for the Colonies</a>. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. </p><p>Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in <a href="/wiki/1959_Nigerian_general_election" title="1959 Nigerian general election">December 1959</a>; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The NCNC backed creation of a midwest state and proposed federal control of education and health services. </p><p>The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Ghana" title="Dominion of Ghana">Ghana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_(1961%E2%80%931971)" title="Sierra Leone (1961–1971)">Sierra Leone</a>. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independent_Nigeria_(1960)"><span id="Independent_Nigeria_.281960.29"></span>Independent Nigeria (1960)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Independent Nigeria (1960)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Nigerian_Republic" title="First Nigerian Republic">First Nigerian Republic</a></div> <p>By a British <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Parliament_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom">Act of Parliament</a>, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Azikiwe was installed as <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_and_governors-general_of_Nigeria" title="List of governors and governors-general of Nigeria">Governor-General</a> of the federation and <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Tafawa_Balewa" title="Abubakar Tafawa Balewa">Balewa</a> continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. The Governor-General represented the <a href="/wiki/British_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="British monarch">British monarch</a> as head of state and was appointed by <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. </p><p>The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. </p><p>In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The most striking departure was in the Northern Region, where special provisions brought the regional constitution into consonance with Islamic law and custom. The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. </p><p>In February 1961, a <a href="/wiki/1961_British_Cameroons_referendum" title="1961 British Cameroons referendum">plebiscite</a> was conducted to determine the disposition of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cameroons" title="Southern Cameroons">Southern Cameroons</a> and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. By an overwhelming majority, voters in the Southern Cameroons opted to join formerly French-administered Cameroon over integration with Nigeria as a separate federated region. In the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cameroons_referendum,_1959" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Cameroons referendum, 1959">Northern Cameroons</a>, however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclaves_of_Forcados_and_Badjibo" title="Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo">Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandele_Omoniyi" title="Bandele Omoniyi">Bandele Omoniyi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All of this section to this point is from <i>Nigeria: A Country Study</i> (1991) prepared by staff of the Library of Congress of the United States.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes_2">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-constitution1954-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-constitution1954_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-constitution1954_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190224231209/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf">"The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 16. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Nigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 24 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nigeria+%28Constitution%29+Order+in+Council%2C+1954&rft.pages=16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconfinder.richmond.edu%2Fadmin%2Fdocs%2FNigeria_Constitution_1954.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUgorji2012" class="citation book cs1">Ugorji, Basil (2012). <i>From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa</i>. Outskirts Press. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781432788353" title="Special:BookSources/9781432788353"><bdi>9781432788353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Cultural+Justice+to+Inter-Ethnic+Mediation%3A+A+Reflection+on+the+Possibility+of+Ethno-Religious+Mediation+in+Africa&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Outskirts+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781432788353&rft.aulast=Ugorji&rft.aufirst=Basil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmitage1952" class="citation book cs1">Armitage, John (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/britannicabookof030472mbp#page/n477/mode/2up"><i>Britannica Book of the Year 1952: Events of 1951</i></a>. London: Encyclopædia Britannica Ltd. p. 456.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannica+Book+of+the+Year+1952%3A+Events+of+1951&rft.place=London&rft.pages=456&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Ltd.&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Armitage&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbritannicabookof030472mbp%23page%2Fn477%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAwa1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eme_Awa" title="Eme Awa">Awa, Eme O.</a> (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae"><i>Federal Government in Nigeria</i></a></span>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/21">21</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Federal+Government+in+Nigeria&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Awa&rft.aufirst=Eme+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffederalgovernmen0000awae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAwa1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eme_Awa" title="Eme Awa">Awa, Eme O.</a> (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae"><i>Federal Government in Nigeria</i></a></span>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen0000awae/page/130">130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Federal+Government+in+Nigeria&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Awa&rft.aufirst=Eme+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffederalgovernmen0000awae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheEmpirein1924-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheEmpirein1924_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheEmpirein1924_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishempire.co.uk/timeline/colonies1924.htm">"The British Empire in 1924"</a>. <i>The British Empire</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+British+Empire&rft.atitle=The+British+Empire+in+1924&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishempire.co.uk%2Ftimeline%2Fcolonies1924.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarlington2009" class="citation book cs1">Darlington, Mgbeke (2009). <i>Fundamentals of Public Administration: A Blueprint for Nigeria Innovative Public Sector</i>. AuthorHouse. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781449024550" title="Special:BookSources/9781449024550"><bdi>9781449024550</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Public+Administration%3A+A+Blueprint+for+Nigeria+Innovative+Public+Sector&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781449024550&rft.aulast=Darlington&rft.aufirst=Mgbeke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_-_Independent_Nigeria_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria">"Nigeria - Independent Nigeria"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Nigeria+-+Independent+Nigeria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FNigeria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 1–2. "Crown Colony Government in Nigeria and elsewhere in the British Empire was an autocratic government. Officials at the Colonial Office and colonial governors in the field never pretended otherwise. In fact, autocratic, bureaucratic rule was the true legacy of British colonial government in Africa."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland (1985), <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hermann2011-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hermann2011_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria", <i>International Journal of African Historical Studies</i> 44.3, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swindell1994-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swindell1994_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 1900–1906", <i>Paideuma</i> 40, 1994, pp. 149–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985page90-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985page90_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985page90_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IsicheiPage362-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IsicheiPage362_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaya2021" class="citation web cs1">Yaya, Haruna Gimba (12 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dailytrust.com/gombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british/">"Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British"</a>. <i>Daily Trust</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Trust&rft.atitle=Gombe-Abba%3A+Historic+emirs%27+town+ruined+by+the+British&rft.date=2021-06-12&rft.aulast=Yaya&rft.aufirst=Haruna+Gimba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailytrust.com%2Fgombe-abba-historic-emirs-town-ruined-by-the-british%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Ellis, "African and European relations in the last century of the transatlantic slave trade"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, <i>From Slave Trade to Empire</i> (2004), pp. 21–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richardson2004-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson2004_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson2004_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 1700–1891"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, <i>From Slave Trade to Empire</i> (2004), pp. 47–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Randy J. Sparks, <i>The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey</i>; Harvard University Press, 2004; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01312-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01312-3">0-674-01312-3</a>; Chapter 1: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tt6BCT-9yEgC&pg=PA10">A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-InyangBassey2014-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-InyangBassey2014_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 1860–1890", <i>Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences</i> 5.20, September 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), p. xxiii. "After the Abolition Act in 1807 made the trade in African slaves illegal for British subjects, Britain did not stop there: For the next quarter of a century successive British Governments embarked on a kind of aggressive diplomacy, bullying and bribing other European nations, especially Spain and Portugal, to toe the anti-slavery line with England. / On the West African Coast itself British anti-slavery policy became very evident. Freed slaves were resettled at Freetown, thus becoming British subjects. A detachment of the all-powerful British Navy, the West African naval squadron, was stationed in West African waters to patrol along the coastline and to intercept any slave ships or vessels equipped for the slave trade, and to bring slave vessels captured for trial before British controlled courts in Freetown. At the same time, Britain embarked on securing from African rulers, in consideration of payments to these rulers, what became known as anti-slave trade treaties. By these treaties, the rulers engaged to stop the traffic in slaves in their respective territories. In the process of enforcing these anti-slave trade policies on the west coast with its powerful navy, Britain discovered the military weakness or inferiority of the African states in relation to its own military power."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ojo2008-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ojo2008_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ojo2008_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Olatunji Ojo, "The Organization of the Atlantic Slave Trade in Yorubaland, ca.1777 to ca.1856", <i>International Journal of African Historical Studies</i> 41.1, 2008. "Slave production in the interior raised exports from Lagos tenfold, making it West Africa's leading slave port. The most accurate trade figures are found in the Trans-Atlantic slave voyage database (TSD), which put the number of slave exports between 1776 and 1850 at 308,800. Of that number, only 24,000 slaves were shipped before 1801, while 114,200 and 170,600 were sold during 1801–25 and 1826–50, respectively. Exports from Badagry lagged far behind, with about 37,400 slaves sold during 1776–1860."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), pp. xiv-xv. "Here again, European and African scholars have been at loggerheads and in the same kinds of conflicts as had featured in their interpretations of the primary motives of the British anti-slavery movement and abolitionism in the mid-19th century, namely, British self-interest or imperial ambitions on the one hand, and British humanitarian feeling for Africa on the other."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamuno, <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State</i> (1972), p. 6. "To the British, traffic in human beings after 1807 was both 'uncivilised' and illegal. As the century went on, a strong feeling developed that the slave trade, as an aspect of piracy, stood condemned in international and municipal law. This change in moral tone over the slave trade at first seemed incomprehensible to generations of people in Southern Nigeria who within a relatively short period were presented with two different concepts of right and wrong. Their skepticism about the correctness of such conflicting standards persisted into the early twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Warren Whatley & Rob Gillezeau, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-personal.umich.edu/~baileymj/Whatley_Gillezeau.pdf">The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies</a>", <i>World Economic History Congress</i>, Utrecht, 23 May 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nigeria-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nigeria_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/">Influence of Christian Missions"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Helen Chapin Metz</a>, ed., <i>Nigeria: A Country Study</i>, Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991, accessed 18 April 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamuno, <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State</i> (1972), pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Etemad-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Etemad_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etemad_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bouda Etemad, "Economic relations between Europe and Black Africa <i>c</i>. 1780–1938"; in Pétré-Grenouilleau, <i>From Slave Trade to Empire</i> (2004), pp. 69–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamuno, <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State</i> (1972), p. 14. "The most significant economic development in Southern Nigeria since 1807 was the transition from the pre-colonial emphasis on subsistence agriculture to an increasing concentration on production for sale."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kryza-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kryza_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kryza, F. T. (2007). <i>The Race for Timbuktu</i>. Harper Collins, New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-056064-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-056064-5">978-0-06-056064-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851" <i>ANU Historical Journal</i> (1977), Vol. 13, pp 11-19. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0001-2068">0001-2068</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985Page2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Page2_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Page2_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AsiegbuPageXxv-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AsiegbuPageXxv_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), pp. xxv. "In the Lagos Colony Captain John Glover, as the administrator of the Colony, created between 1861 and 1862 the famous Hausa militia ('Glover's Hausas') which became the nucleus of the Lagos Constabulary (itself splitting after 1895 into two bodies, one a civil police force, the other a military unit). The earliest recruits into the Lagos militia came from the liberated African yard or depot which glover had established in the Colony for the reception of run-away domestic slaves from the surrounding local communities. In the Niger territories, the Royal Niger Company organized its own constabulary forces between 1886 and 1899; at the Niger Coast Protectorate the Consular Administration, with its headquarters at Calabar, established after 1891 the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or Constabulary, sometimes known as the 'Oil Rivers Irregulars' (which under Consul Annesley acquired the name of the 'forty thieves'). Thus by 1897 when the WAFF was created, British West Africa had in some form or other known, like French West Africa, almost half a century of European or British military presence and activity."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamuno, <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State</i> (1972), pp. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Northern Nigeria: The Illo Canceller and Borgu Mail" by Ray Harris in <i><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Study_Circle" title="West Africa Study Circle">Cameo</a></i>, Vol. 14, No. 3, Whole No. 90, October 2013, pp. 158–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 10–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 12–13. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. […] They needed special personnel: such officials who knew the local conditions and who could communicate between the Company and the indigenous people. […] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 13–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 372–373.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), pp. xiv, xxviii–xxx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), pp. 365–366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tamuno, <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State</i> (1972), p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), pp. 367–368. "East of the Niger, where no obvious and redoubtable foe existed, it was necessary to invent one. Gradually, in the dispatches of the 1890s, one sees the emergence of an image of Arochukwu rather like that which prevailed of Benin at the same time: a sinister 'fetish' power, deeply involved with slave trading, indelibly opposed to European penetration, and wielding a very great influence over the politics of other states. One has the suggestion that the Igbo were in need of release from Aro tyranny, precisely the suggestion which was made with reference to Benin and the Sokoto Caliphate."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 56–58. "And so, flying the flags of civilisation and commerce, the Colonial Office finally authorized the expedition to begin in December 1901. Over the summer the Aros conveniently made some slave raids on neighbouring tribes, providing the Colonial Office and the Southern Nigerian Government with, as Nigeria Department member Butler termed it, 'the technical justification for the expedition' which, as he further noted, had 'already been decided to be necessary on more general grounds'. The expedition began and ended right on schedule."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 58–59. "Moor's successor, Sir Walter Egerton, quickly embarked on, with the blessings of the Colonial Office, a policy of sending out pacification patrols annually. For the most part, the patrols did not involve the use of force so much as they did the threat of force if submission was not made. At the beginning of each dry season, the Southern Nigerian troops would establish a central base on the edge of the area they were to take over. Then small columns of soldiers would be sent out to different parts of the unoccupied country. Usually, this show of force was enough, and the area would soon be open for the introduction of district administration and commercial development."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 369–371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 60–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), pp. xxv–xxvii. "Right from the start Lugard adopted a policy of keeping the entire force predominantly Hausa, with Yorubas as the next preferred ethnic group to recruit into the force. By the middle of 1898 Lugard reported to the Colonial Office that there were already some 2600 native soldiers (made up of Hausa and Yorubas in equal proportions) in the force, while more vigorous recruiting expeditions were being undertaken by European officials into Yorubaland and Northern Nigeria. […] Adequate historical information and knowledge about the organization and exploits of the WAFF, the military activities and experiences of some of the remarkable personalities and individual soldiers and officials who belonged to it, have unfortunately been lacking in our own time thanks to the strict official policy of secrecy and silence which the British government imposed right from the start on all officers serving in, or retired from, that force."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 3–4, 50–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 19–22. "Those in the upper-middle class were in higher-income groups or in important professional, commercial, or industrial positions. / These definitions place Colonial Office permanent officials primarily in the upper middle class. This can be seen by looking at Table 1.2 Three of these men — William Baillie Hamilton, Dougal Malcolm, and Charles Strachey — also had connections with the nobility and landed gentry. Nine had fathers in prestigious occupations — the Church, the Bar, and the highest ranks of the Civil Service and the armed forces; and the remaining five had fathers in the important professional, commercial, or industrial positions."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 35–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985Egerton-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Egerton_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Egerton_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 104–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 135–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985amalgamation-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985amalgamation_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985amalgamation_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 79–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 87. "Although permanent officials like some, though not all, of Lugard's ideas, they had built up considerable antipathy toward Lugard during his tour of duty in Northern Nigeria (1900–6). His unorthodox and administratively untidy ways exasperated them. However, Harcourt and Anderson decided they could not have Lugard's ideas without Lugard. In August 1911 Anderson told Lugard that they were anxious to amalgamate the Nigerian administrations; 'But our difficulty is to get the right man for the job. We are agreed that you are that man.'"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985Page89-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Page89_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Page89_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asiegbu, <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders</i> (1984), p. xxxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 92–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 17–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 19–21. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-palmer-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-palmer_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-palmer_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-palmer_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Richmond_Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Richmond Palmer">Sir Richmond Palmer</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2010" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, John (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07"><i>Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown</i></a>. London: Vintage. pp. 166–167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-091-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84595-091-0"><bdi>978-1-84595-091-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/489636152">489636152</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pistols+at+Dawn%3A+Two+Hundred+Years+of+Political+Rivalry+from+Pitt+and+Fox+to+Blair+and+Brown&rft.place=London&rft.pages=166-167&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F489636152&rft.isbn=978-1-84595-091-0&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpistolsatdawntwo0000camp%2F13960%2Ft6wx5mm07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carland1985Page66-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carland1985Page66_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 66. "In British colonial administrative history the importance of indirect rule – in theory and in practice – should not be underestimated. Indirect rule, as it developed in Northern Nigeria before 1914, became the most influential model for local government in other British Crown Colonies. By the 1930s practically all of British tropical Africa, outside the urban areas, had accepted indirect rule as the basic mode of local government."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria." <i>International Journal of African Historical Studies</i> 31.1 (1998): 23-51.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/220883">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies.us-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies.us_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Nigeria: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm">http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/19.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOluwasegun2017" class="citation journal cs1">Oluwasegun, Jimoh Mufutau (1 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909615587367">"Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 1918–1919 Influenza in Lagos"</a>. <i>Journal of Asian and African Studies</i>. <b>52</b> (4): 412–424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021909615587367">10.1177/0021909615587367</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9096">0021-9096</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146894627">146894627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Managing+Epidemic%3A+The+British+Approach+to+1918%E2%80%931919+Influenza+in+Lagos&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=412-424&rft.date=2017-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146894627%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-9096&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0021909615587367&rft.aulast=Oluwasegun&rft.aufirst=Jimoh+Mufutau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F0021909615587367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guardian.ng/life/the-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic/">"The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic"</a>. <i>The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News</i>. 29 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian+Nigeria+News+-+Nigeria+and+World+News&rft.atitle=The+Nigerian+Victory+Against+The+1918+Influenza+Pandemic+and+1897+Smallpox+Epidemic&rft.date=2020-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguardian.ng%2Flife%2Fthe-nigerian-victory-against-the-1918-influenza-pandemic-and-1897-smallpox-epidemic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFagunwa2020" class="citation journal cs1">Fagunwa, Omololu (21 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.cjgh.org/index.php/cjgh/article/view/455">"African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic"</a>. <i>Christian Journal for Global Health</i>. <b>7</b> (5): 52–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15566%2Fcjgh.v7i5.455">10.15566/cjgh.v7i5.455</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2167-2415">2167-2415</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234371554">234371554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Journal+for+Global+Health&rft.atitle=African+Pentecostalism+and+the+1918+Influenza+Pandemic%3A+The+Supernatural+Amid+the+Fearful+and+Implications+for+the+COVID-19+Pandemic&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=52-64&rft.date=2020-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234371554%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2167-2415&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15566%2Fcjgh.v7i5.455&rft.aulast=Fagunwa&rft.aufirst=Omololu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.cjgh.org%2Findex.php%2Fcjgh%2Farticle%2Fview%2F455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhadike1981" class="citation journal cs1">Ohadike, D. C. (July 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021853700019587/type/journal_article">"The influenza pandemic of 1918–19 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages"</a>. <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 379–391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700019587">10.1017/S0021853700019587</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8537">0021-8537</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11632223">11632223</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29770303">29770303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+influenza+pandemic+of+1918%E2%80%9319+and+the+spread+of+cassava+cultivation+on+the+lower+Niger%3A+a+study+in+historical+linkages&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=379-391&rft.date=1981-07&rft.issn=0021-8537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29770303%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11632223&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700019587&rft.aulast=Ohadike&rft.aufirst=D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0021853700019587%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonial+Nigeria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 85–86, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), pp. 386–388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; <i>Economic Development and Cultural Change</i> 13.4, July 1965.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 127–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carland, <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria</i> (1985), pp. 184–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isichei, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (1983), p. 392–393. "A Tiv political sociologist has explored this theme in Tiv experience. As late as the early 'thirties, a well-informed observer could state, 'I am not conscious of any race consciousness among the Tiv except on the very widest and vaguest basis…'. But this soon changed. 'By its constant treatment of the Tiv as a corporate body with homogenous interests, the Native Administration went a long way towards creating the level of ethnic consciousness which developed. And conversely, by imposing a Yoruba Muslim from Bida as Chief of Makurdi, the British created a wholly new demand for a Tiv paramount chief, the Tor Tiv. By the 1960s, ethnic consciousness had become a key determinant of Tiv political behaviour."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Nigeria: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm">http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/20.htm</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html">Country Studies On-Line - Nigeria</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Afeadie, Philip Atsu. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1886–1914". PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. September 1996.</li> <li>Asiegbu, Johnson U. J. <i>Nigeria and its British Invaders, 1851–1920: A Thematic Documentary History</i>. New York & Enugu: Nok Publishers International, 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88357-101-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-88357-101-3">0-88357-101-3</a></li> <li>Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. <i>The missionary impact on modern Nigeria, 1842-1914: A political and social analysis</i> (London: Longmans, 1966).</li> <li>Burns, Alan C. <i>History of Nigeria</i> (3rd ed. London, 1942) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15075">online free</a>.</li> <li>Carland, John M. <i>The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914</i>. Hoover Institution Press, 1985. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-8141-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8179-8141-1">0-8179-8141-1</a></li> <li>Dike, K. O. "John Beecroft, 1790—1854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 1849—1854" <i>Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria</i> 1#1 (1956), pp. 5–14, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856608">online</a></li> <li>Fafunwa, A. Babs. <i>History of education in Nigeria</i> (Routledge, 2018).</li> <li>Falola, Toyin, & Matthew M. Heaton, <i>A History of Nigeria</i> (Cambridge UP, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68157-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68157-5">978-0-521-68157-5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofnigeria00falo">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. <i>Historical dictionary of Nigeria</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018).</li> <li>Isichei, Elizabeth. <i>A History of Nigeria</i>. (Longman, Inc., 1983). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-64331-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-64331-7">0-582-64331-7</a></li> <li>Larymore, Constance. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74070">A Resident's wife in Nigeria</a></i>. (United Kingdom: George Routledge & Sons, Limited, 1908).</li> <li>Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 1940–1947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'." <i>Itinerario</i> 43.3 (2019): 516–542.</li> <li>Pétré-Grenouilleau, Olivier (ed.). <i>From Slave Trade to Empire: Europe and the colonisation of Black Africa 1780s–1880s</i>. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-714-65691-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-714-65691-7">0-714-65691-7</a></li> <li>Tamuno, T. N. <i>The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898–1914</i>. New York: Humanities Press, 1972. SBN 391 00232 5</li> <li>Tamuno, T. N. (1970). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151120010318/https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/exhibit/birth-of-the-nigerian-colony/ARi_MKdz?hl=en&position=0%2C8">Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 1851–1914</a> — <i><a href="/wiki/Pan-Atlantic_University" title="Pan-Atlantic University">Pan-Atlantic University</a>, School of Media and Communication exhibit.</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="/wiki/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_overseas_territories" title="Template talk:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_British_Empire_and_Current_British_Overseas_Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Former <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and Current <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Legend</span></dt> <dd>Former territory</dd> <dd><b>Current territory</b></dd> <dd>*Current <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realm</a></dd> <dd><sup>†</sup>Current member of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a></b> since 1960 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a> 1794–1796</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></b> since 1713</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland" title="Heligoland">Heligoland</a> 1807–1890</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands" title="United States of the Ionian Islands">Ionian Islands</a> 1809–1864</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Ireland</a> 1542–1800 <span style="font-size:85%;">(integrated into the UK)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Free State</a> 1921–1931</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup>Malta <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Protectorate</a> 1800–1813</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Colony</a> 1813–1964</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Minorca</a> 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1815</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>) 1868–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bechuanaland_Protectorate" title="Bechuanaland Protectorate">Bechuanaland</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>) 1884–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Cameroons" title="British Cameroons">Cameroons</a><sup>13</sup> 1919–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> 1795–1803</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape of Good Hope</a> 1806–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Central_Africa_Protectorate" title="British Central Africa Protectorate">Central Africa</a> 1891–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">East Africa</a> 1895–1920</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Egypt</a> 1882–1922</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Gambia_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Gambia Colony and Protectorate">The Gambia</a> 1816–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>) 1874–1957</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya</a> 1920–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos</a> 1862–1906</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeira</a> 1807–1808</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Mauritius" title="British Mauritius">Mauritius</a> 1810–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal</a> 1856–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast</a> 1884–1900</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nigeria</a> 1914–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a><sup>15</sup> 1924–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> 1891–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1658</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a> 1903–1976</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate">Sierra Leone</a> 1792–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">Somaliland</a> 1884–1960</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a> 1910–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="South-West Africa">South-West Africa</a><sup>12</sup> 1915–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a><sup>14</sup> 1923–1965 and 1979–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Swaziland">Swaziland</a> 1893–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a> 1899–1956</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory" title="Tanganyika Territory">Tanganyika</a><sup>13</sup> 1922–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1816</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uganda Protectorate">Uganda</a> 1890–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> 1890–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zululand</a> 1887–1897</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>12</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><sup>13</sup><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. British Cameroons is now part of <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, while Tanganyika is part of <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.</li> <li><sup>14</sup><a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">Self-governing</a> Southern Rhodesia <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">unilaterally declared independence</a> in 1965 (as <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a>) and continued as an <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">unrecognised</a> state until the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a>. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.</li> <li><sup>15</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony">Aden Colony</a> 1839–1967</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">Afghanistan</a> 1839–1842 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">Protectorate</a> 1879–1919</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Bencoolen" title="British Bencoolen">Bencoolen</a> 1685–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island" title="Bangka Island">Banka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belitung" title="Belitung">Billiton</a> 1812–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal</a> 1757–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a> (protectorate) 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">Borneo</a> 1874–1963</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></b> since 1965 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>)<sup>26</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a> 1824–1948</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei</a> 1888–1984</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a> 1795–1948</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> 1841–1997</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a><sup>18</sup> 1858–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> 1811–1816</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> 1918–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Labuan</a> 1848–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> 1819–1826 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated States</a> 1895–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated States</a> 1885–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Union</a> 1946–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation</a> 1948–1957</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_the_Maldives" title="Independence of the Maldives">Maldives</a> 1796–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_Manila" title="British occupation of Manila">Manila and Cavite</a> 1762–1764</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a><sup>19</sup> 1920–1932</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Muscat and Oman</a> 1891–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a> 1882–1963 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang" title="Padang">Padang</a> 1781–1784 and 1795–1819</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a><sup>19</sup> 1923–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Penang" title="History of Penang">Penang</a> 1786–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4n_S%C6%A1n_Island" title="Côn Sơn Island">Pulo Condore</a> 1702–1705</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a> 1841–1946 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Singapore" title="Colony of Singapore">Singapore</a> 1946–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">South Vietnam</a> 1945–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> 1826–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a> 1921–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucial_States" title="Trucial States">Trucial States</a> 1892–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihaiwei_under_British_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Weihaiwei under British rule">Weihai</a> 1898–1930</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>18</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><sup>19</sup><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iraqi Treaty">Anglo-Iraqi Treaty</a></li> <li><sup>26</sup>Legitimacy of territorial establishment <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago_sovereignty_dispute" title="Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute">disputed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></b> since 1650</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> 1632–1860</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="History of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a> 1860–1981</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bahamas" title="History of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a> 1670–1973</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a> 1624–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department" title="Bay Islands Department">Bay Islands</a> 1643–1860</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">Belize</a> 1871–1981</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></b> since 1619</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Territories" title="British Arctic Territories">British Arctic Territories</a> 16th c.–1880</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1858%E2%80%931866)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)">British Columbia</a> 1858–1866 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1866%E2%80%931871)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)">1866–1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> 1754–1820</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dominica" title="History of Dominica">Dominica</a> 1763–1978</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Grenada" title="History of Grenada">Grenada</a> 1762–1974</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canada" title="Province of Canada">Province</a> 1841–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Confederation_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931914)" title="Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)">Dominion</a> 1867–1931</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Carolina" title="Province of Carolina">Carolina</a> 1663–1712</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></b> since 1670</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_District" title="Columbia District">Columbia District</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oregon_Country" title="Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a> 1818–1846</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Colony" title="Delaware Colony">Delaware</a> 1701–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Jersey" title="East Jersey">East Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Georgia</a> 1733–1776</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Jamaica</a> 1655–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Leeward_Islands" title="British Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a> 1671–1816, 1833–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">MassachusettsBay</a> 1629–1691 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province</a>, 1691–1776</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> 1632–1776</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></b> since 1632</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a> 1655–1860</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevis" title="Nevis">Nevis</a> 1628–1983</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Albion" title="New Albion">New Albion</a> 1579</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Brunswick" title="History of New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> 1784–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England" title="Dominion of New England">New England</a> 1686–1689</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> 1680–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Colony" title="New Haven Colony">New Haven</a> 1637–1662</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">New Jersey</a> 1665–1674 and 1702–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a> 1664–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="History of Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> 1583–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-Western_Territory" title="North-Western Territory">North-Western Territory</a> 1859–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nova_Scotia" title="History of Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> 1713–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulet_affair_(1843)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulet affair (1843)">Paulet affair</a> 1843</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prince_Edward_Island" title="History of Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> 1763–1873</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> 1681–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a> 1620–1691</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">Quebec</a> 1763–1791* <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_the_Queen_Charlotte_Islands" title="Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands">Queen Charlotte Islands</a> 1853–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> 1670–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint Croix</a> 1625–1650</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">Saint Kitts</a> 1623–1983</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="History of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> 1882–1983</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> 1605–1979</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a> 1627–1979</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saybrook_Colony" title="Saybrook Colony">Saybrook</a> 1635–1644</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stickeen_Territories" title="Stickeen Territories">Stickeen</a> 1862–1863</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> 1889–1962</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></b> since 1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Vancouver_Island" title="Colony of Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> 1849–1866</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></b> since 1666</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> 1607–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_West_Florida" title="British West Florida">West Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Federation" title="West Indies Federation">West Indies Federation</a> 1958–1962 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Associated_States" title="West Indies Associated States">Associated States</a> 1967–1983</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Jersey" title="West Jersey">West Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Windward_Islands" title="British Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a> 1833–1960</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template talk:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">18th and 19th centuries</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">20th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_South_Wales" title="Colony of New South Wales">New South Wales</a> 1788–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Tasmania" title="Colony of Tasmania">Tasmania</a> 1803–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Islands" title="Auckland Islands">Auckland Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1807–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a><sup>21</sup> 1824–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Queensland" title="Colony of Queensland">Queensland</a> 1824–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swan_River_Colony" title="Swan River Colony">Swan River</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Western Australia">Western Australia</a> 1829–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of South Australia">South Australia</a> 1836–1901</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" title="History of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></b> since 1838</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_Zealand" title="Colony of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1841–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Australia" title="North Australia">North Australia</a> 1846–1847</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Victoria" title="Colony of Victoria">Victoria</a> 1851–1901</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Fiji" title="Colony of Fiji">Fiji</a> 1874–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territories" title="British Western Pacific Territories">Western Pacific Territories</a> 1877–1976</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">Papua</a> 1884–1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_Federation" title="Cook Islands Federation">Cook Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1888–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Islands">Union Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1889–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands" title="Gilbert and Ellice Islands">Gilbert and Ellice Islands</a><sup>22</sup> 1892–1979</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands" title="British Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> 1893–1978</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tonga" title="History of Tonga">Tonga</a> 1900–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Niue" title="History of Niue">Niue</a><sup>20</sup> 1900–1974</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1901%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Australia (1901–1945)">Australia</a> 1901–1942</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1907–1947</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa_Trust_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa Trust Territory">Samoa</a> 1914–1962</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nauru" title="History of Nauru">Nauru</a> 1919–1942 and 1945–1968</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>20</sup>Now part of the <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a></li> <li><sup>21</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><sup>22</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> and <sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_colony" title="Providence Island colony">Providence Island</a> 1631–1641</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willoughbyland" class="mw-redirect" title="Willoughbyland">Willoughbyland</a> 1651–1667</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago_of_San_Andr%C3%A9s,_Providencia_and_Santa_Catalina" title="Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina">Saint Andrew and Providence Islands</a><sup>4</sup> 1670–1688</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">Guiana</a> 1831–1966</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></b><sup>5</sup> since 1833</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></b><sup>5</sup> since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>4</sup>Now a <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_Colombia" title="Departments of Colombia">department</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><sup>5</sup>Occupied by Argentina during the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a> of April–June 1982.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica_and_the_South_Atlantic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica and the South Atlantic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1658</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1815</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1816</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></b> since 1833</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a>)</span> 1841–1933</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Ross_Dependency" title="Ross Dependency">Ross Dependency</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a>)</span> 1841–1947</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory" title="British Antarctic Territory">British Antarctic Territory</a></b><sup>24</sup> since 1908</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></b><sup>25</sup> since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>23</sup>Since 2009 part of <b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></b>; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.</li> <li><sup>24</sup>Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Treaty">Antarctic Treaty</a>.</li> <li><sup>25</sup>Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_flags_of_the_British_Empire_and_the_overseas_territories" title="Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories">Historical flags of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a> culture</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:British_Empire" title="Category:British Empire">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nigeria_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nigeria_topics" title="Template:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nigeria_topics" title="Template talk:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nigeria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nigeria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nigeria-related_articles" title="Index of Nigeria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="KingdomsEmpires" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><div class="hlist"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Kingdoms</li><li>Empires</li></ul></div> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornu Empire">Kanem-Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nri" title="Kingdom of Nri">Nri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausa kingdoms">Hausa kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kano" title="Kingdom of Kano">Kano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daura_Emirate" title="Daura Emirate">Daura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Katsina" title="History of Katsina">Katsina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazzau" title="Zazzau">Zazzau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobir" title="Gobir">Gobir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadejia" title="Hadejia">Biram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rano" title="Rano">Rano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebbi_Emirate" title="Kebbi Emirate">Kebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwararafa" title="Kwararafa">Kwararafa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Nigerian_history" title="Timeline of Nigerian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Early history of Nigeria">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_before_1500" title="History of Nigeria before 1500">before 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Nigeria (1500–1800)">1500-1800</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Colonial Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nigerian_Republic" title="First Nigerian Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_Nigeria" title="Military dictatorship in Nigeria">Military dictatorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Nigerian_Republic" title="Second Nigerian Republic">Second Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Nigerian_Republic" title="Third Nigerian Republic">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Nigerian_Republic" title="Fourth Nigerian Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria" title="Geography of Nigeria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau" title="Adamawa Plateau">Adamawa Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Nigeria" title="Template:Borders of Nigeria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_Nigeria" title="List of populated places in Nigeria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nigeria" title="Climate change in Nigeria">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Nigeria" title="List of ecoregions in Nigeria">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Environmental issues in the Niger Delta">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Islands of Nigeria">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos_Plateau" title="Jos Plateau">Jos Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Mountains of Nigeria">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Nigeria" title="List of national parks of Nigeria">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Rivers of Nigeria">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Benue" class="mw-redirect" title="River Benue">Benue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Nigeria" title="Wildlife of Nigeria">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife conservation in Nigeria">Wildlife conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Nigeria" title="Politics of Nigeria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Nigeria" title="Subdivisions of Nigeria">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_villages_in_Nigeria" title="Lists of villages in Nigeria">Villages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Nigeria" title="Cabinet of Nigeria">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Nigeria" title="Constitution of Nigeria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Nigeria" title="Elections in Nigeria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Ministries_of_Nigeria" title="Federal Ministries of Nigeria">Federal Executive Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Nigeria" title="Foreign relations of Nigeria">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Nigeria" title="Human rights in Nigeria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Nigeria">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Nigeria" title="Human trafficking in Nigeria">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Law_enforcement_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Law enforcement in Nigeria">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Armed_Forces" title="Nigerian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Nigeria">National Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Senate">Senate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Nigeria" title="List of political parties in Nigeria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_(Nigeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)">PDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_Progressives_Congress" title="All Progressives Congress">APC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Nigeria" title="President of Nigeria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of Nigeria">Vice-President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Nigeria" title="Supreme Court of Nigeria">Supreme Court</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nigeria" title="Economy of Nigeria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Nigeria" title="Agriculture in Nigeria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_Drain_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain Drain in Nigeria">Brain Drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Nigeria" title="Central Bank of Nigeria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nigeria" title="Corruption in Nigeria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Nigeria" title="Economic history of Nigeria">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Nigeria" title="Energy in Nigeria">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Nigeria" title="Mining industry of Nigeria">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_naira" title="Nigerian naira">Naira <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum in Nigeria">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Stock_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Nigeria" title="Tourism in Nigeria">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Nigeria" title="Transport in Nigeria">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Society of Nigeria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Nigeria" title="Abortion in Nigeria">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Nigeria" title="Censorship in Nigeria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_in_Nigeria#Baby_factories" title="Child sexual abuse in Nigeria">Baby factories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Nigeria" title="Capital punishment in Nigeria">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Nigeria" title="Child labour in Nigeria">Child labour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Girl_child_labour_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Girl child labour in Nigeria">Girl child labour</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Child marriage in Nigeria">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_in_Nigeria" title="Child sexual abuse in Nigeria">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nigeria" title="Corruption in Nigeria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Nigeria" title="Crime in Nigeria">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Nigeria" title="Demographics of Nigeria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Domestic violence in Nigeria">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Nigeria">Ethnic groups</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Actualization_of_the_Sovereign_State_of_Biafra" title="Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra">MASSOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People" title="Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People">MOSOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oodua_Peoples_Congress" title="Oodua Peoples Congress">Oodua Peoples Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Nigeria" title="Female genital mutilation in Nigeria">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Nigeria" title="Gender inequality in Nigeria">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Nigeria" title="Health in Nigeria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nigeria" title="Languages of Nigeria">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Nigeria" title="Polygamy in Nigeria">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Nigeria" title="Poverty in Nigeria">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Nigeria" title="Prostitution in Nigeria">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_in_Nigeria" title="List of protests in Nigeria">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of Nigeria">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals_and_Nigeria" title="Sustainable Development Goals and Nigeria">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nigeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nigeria" title="Women in Nigeria">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Nigeria" title="Youth in Nigeria">Youth</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Conflicts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><div class="hlist"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Conflicts in Nigeria">Conflicts</a></li></ul></div> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal conflicts in Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Herder%E2%80%93farmer_conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria">Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamist_insurgency_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist insurgency in Nigeria">Islamist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Conflict in the Niger Delta">Niger Delta conflicts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Niger_Delta_conflict" title="2016 Niger Delta conflict">2016 conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Nigeria" title="Culture of Nigeria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria,_We_Hail_Thee" title="Nigeria, We Hail Thee">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Nigeria" title="Cinema of Nigeria">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria" title="Coat of arms of Nigeria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_cuisine" title="Nigerian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Nigeria" title="Flag of Nigeria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nigerians" title="List of Nigerians">List of Nigerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature" title="Nigerian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Nigeria">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nigeria" title="Music of Nigeria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Nigeria" title="Public holidays in Nigeria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sharia_in_Nigeria" title="Sharia in Nigeria">Sharia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Nigeria" title="Smoking in Nigeria">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in Nigeria">Video gaming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Nigeria" title="Outline of Nigeria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nigeria-related_articles" title="Index of Nigeria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nigeria" title="Category:Nigeria">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nigeria" 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