CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Electric charge - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"9f935b07-366f-480a-9825-12ad5e0f4cc8","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Electric_charge","wgTitle":"Electric charge","wgCurRevisionId":1255600491,"wgRevisionId":1255600491,"wgArticleId":9804,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages","Pages using Template:Physical constants with rounding","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Commons category link from Wikidata","Electric charge","Chemical properties","Conservation laws","Electricity", "Electrostatics","Flavour (particle physics)","Spintronics","Electromagnetic quantities"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Electric_charge","wgRelevantArticleId":9804,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":["sysop"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false, "wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1111","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements", "mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/1200px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/800px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/640px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Electric charge - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Electric_charge rootpage-Electric_charge skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Electric+charge" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Electric+charge" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Electric+charge" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Electric+charge" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Unit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_charge_in_static_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_charge_in_static_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The role of charge in static electricity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_role_of_charge_in_static_electricity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The role of charge in static electricity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_charge_in_static_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electrification_by_sliding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrification_by_sliding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Electrification by sliding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrification_by_sliding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_charge_in_electric_current" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_charge_in_electric_current"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The role of charge in electric current</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_charge_in_electric_current-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation_of_electric_charge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation_of_electric_charge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Conservation of electric charge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation_of_electric_charge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relativistic_invariance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relativistic_invariance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Relativistic invariance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relativistic_invariance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric charge</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">116 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriese_lading" title="Elektriese lading – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektriese lading" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%BB%E1%88%AD%E1%8C%85" title="ቻርጅ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቻርጅ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%AD%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شحنة كهربائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شحنة كهربائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_ll%C3%A9trica" title="Carga llétrica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Carga llétrica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_y%C3%BCk%C3%BC" title="Elektrik yükü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektrik yükü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%88" title="الکتریک یوکو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکتریک یوکو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বৈদ্যুতিক আধান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈদ্যুতিক আধান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-h%C5%8D" title="Tiān-hō – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-hō" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Электрычны зарад – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электрычны зарад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Электрычны зарад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Электрычны зарад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C" title="इलेक्ट्रिक चार्ज – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इलेक्ट्रिक चार्ज" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Електрически заряд – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електрически заряд" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrische_Lodung" title="Elektrische Lodung – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Elektrische Lodung" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dni_naboj" title="Električni naboj – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Električni naboj" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0rrega_el%C3%A8ctrica" title="Càrrega elèctrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Càrrega elèctrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Электро каплам – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электро каплам" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karga_(dagitab)" title="Karga (dagitab) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Karga (dagitab)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrick%C3%BD_n%C3%A1boj" title="Elektrický náboj – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektrický náboj" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwefr_drydanol" title="Gwefr drydanol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwefr drydanol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_ladning" title="Elektrisk ladning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektrisk ladning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="تعميرة د التريسينتي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تعميرة د التريسينتي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrische_Ladung" title="Elektrische Ladung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrische Ladung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrilaeng" title="Elektrilaeng – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektrilaeng" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF" title="Ηλεκτρικό φορτίο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρικό φορτίο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_el%C3%A9ctrica" title="Carga eléctrica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carga eléctrica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra_%C5%9Dargo" title="Elektra ŝargo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektra ŝargo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karga_elektriko" title="Karga elektriko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Karga elektriko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="بار الکتریکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بار الکتریکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_%C3%A9lectrique" title="Charge électrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Charge électrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucht_leictreach" title="Lucht leictreach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Lucht leictreach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_el%C3%A9ctrica" title="Carga eléctrica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carga eléctrica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB" title="電 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0" title="વિદ્યુતભાર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વિદ્યુતભાર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%ED%95%98" title="전하 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전하" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%81%D6%84" title="Էլեկտրական լիցք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրական լիցք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6" title="विद्युत आवेश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विद्युत आवेश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dni_naboj" title="Električni naboj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Električni naboj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muatan_listrik" title="Muatan listrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Muatan listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_electric" title="Carga electric – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Carga electric" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umlelesa" title="Umlelesa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umlelesa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafhle%C3%B0sla" title="Rafhleðsla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafhleðsla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carica_elettrica" title="Carica elettrica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carica elettrica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%9F_%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%99" title="מטען חשמלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מטען חשמלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B6" title="ವಿದ್ಯುದಾವೇಶ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುದಾವೇಶ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ელექტრული მუხტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტრული მუხტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Электр заряды – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электр заряды" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaji_ya_umeme" title="Chaji ya umeme – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chaji ya umeme" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar%C3%AA_karebay%C3%AE" title="Barê karebayî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Barê karebayî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Электр заряды – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электр заряды" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onus_electricum" title="Onus electricum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Onus electricum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriskais_l%C4%81di%C5%86%C5%A1" title="Elektriskais lādiņš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektriskais lādiņš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektros_kr%C5%ABvis" title="Elektros krūvis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektros krūvis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrische_laojing" title="Elektrische laojing – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Elektrische laojing" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektromos_t%C3%B6lt%C3%A9s" title="Elektromos töltés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektromos töltés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%98" title="Електричен набој – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електричен набој" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D" title="വൈദ്യുത ചാർജ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യുത ചാർജ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="विद्युतभार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विद्युतभार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="الکتریکی بار – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="الکتریکی بار" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cas_elektrik" title="Cas elektrik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cas elektrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B3" title="Цахилгаан цэнэг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цахилгаан цэнэг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="လျှပ်စစ်ဓာတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လျှပ်စစ်ဓာတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrische_lading" title="Elektrische lading – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektrische lading" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6" title="विद्युत आवेश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विद्युत आवेश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C" title="इलेक्ट्रिक चार्ज – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इलेक्ट्रिक चार्ज" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電荷" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_l%C3%A4%C3%A4s" title="Elektrisk lääs – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Elektrisk lääs" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_ladning" title="Elektrisk ladning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrisk ladning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_ladning" title="Elektrisk ladning – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektrisk ladning" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_electrica" title="Carga electrica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Carga electrica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8D%D2%A5%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Тулэҥер татыл – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Тулэҥер татыл" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaarjii" title="Chaarjii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Chaarjii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr_zaryad" title="Elektr zaryad – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektr zaryad" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%88_%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9C" title="ਬਿਜਲਈ ਚਾਰਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਜਲਈ ਚਾਰਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC" title="برقی چارج – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برقی چارج" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B8" title="បន្ទុកអគ្គីសនី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បន្ទុកអគ្គីសនី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caria_eletrost%C3%A0tica" title="Caria eletrostàtica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Caria eletrostàtica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81adunek_elektryczny" title="Ładunek elektryczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ładunek elektryczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_el%C3%A9trica" title="Carga elétrica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carga elétrica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_zaryad%C4%B1" title="Elektrik zaryadı – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Elektrik zaryadı" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sarcină electrică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinchikilla_chaqna" title="Pinchikilla chaqna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pinchikilla chaqna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Электрический заряд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электрический заряд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D2%95%D1%8B%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Чаҕыл иитик – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Чаҕыл иитик" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chairge" title="Electric chairge – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Electric chairge" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leedenge" title="Leedenge – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Leedenge" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngarkesa_elektrike" title="Ngarkesa elektrike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ngarkesa elektrike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electric charge" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%BD%D8%B1%DA%AA_%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC" title="اليڪٽرڪ چارج – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اليڪٽرڪ چارج" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrick%C3%BD_n%C3%A1boj" title="Elektrický náboj – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektrický náboj" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dni_naboj" title="Električni naboj – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Električni naboj" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saldanab" title="Saldanab – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Saldanab" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%95%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="بارگەی کارەبایی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بارگەی کارەبایی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Наелектрисање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Наелектрисање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dni_naboj" title="Električni naboj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Električni naboj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muatan_listrik" title="Muatan listrik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Muatan listrik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A4hk%C3%B6varaus" title="Sähkövaraus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sähkövaraus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_laddning" title="Elektrisk laddning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektrisk laddning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karga_ng_kuryente" title="Karga ng kuryente – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Karga ng kuryente" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்னூட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்னூட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Электр корылмасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Электр корылмасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%82" title="విద్యుదావేశం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విద్యుదావేశం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="ประจุไฟฟ้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประจุไฟฟ้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_y%C3%BCk%C3%BC" title="Elektrik yükü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektrik yükü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_zar%C3%BDady" title="Elektrik zarýady – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Elektrik zarýady" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B4" title="Електричний заряд – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електричний заряд" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="برقی بار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقی بار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carga_e%C5%82%C3%A8trica" title="Carga ełètrica – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Carga ełètrica" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_t%C3%ADch" title="Điện tích – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện tích" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="電荷" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karga_nga_elektrika" title="Karga nga elektrika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Karga nga elektrika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanu_mb%C3%ABj" title="Yanu mbëj – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Yanu mbëj" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E8%8D%B7" title="电荷 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电荷" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="עלעקטרישע לאדונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עלעקטרישע לאדונג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80d%C3%ACj%E1%BB%8D_%C3%ACtann%C3%A1" title="Àdìjọ ìtanná – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Àdìjọ ìtanná" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電荷" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="電荷" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1111#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Electric_charge" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Electric_charge" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Electric_charge" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&oldid=1255600491" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Electric_charge&id=1255600491&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_charge"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_charge"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Electric_charge&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_charge" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1111" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electromagnetic property of matter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Electric charge</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/220px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/330px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg/440px-VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="165" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a> of a positive and a negative point charge</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Common symbols</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>q</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/SI_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="SI unit">SI unit</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> (C)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other units</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">faraday</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ampere-hour" title="Ampere-hour">ampere-hour</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">In <a href="/wiki/SI_base_unit" title="SI base unit"><span class="wrap">SI base units</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data">C = A⋅s</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Intensive_and_extensive_properties" title="Intensive and extensive properties">Extensive</a>?</th><td class="infobox-data">yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Conserved_quantity" title="Conserved quantity">Conserved</a>?</th><td class="infobox-data">yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dimensional_analysis#Formulation" title="Dimensional analysis">Dimension</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}{\mathsf {I}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">T</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">I</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}{\mathsf {I}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8b09680229812bf73f439d414b73e5156228790" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.23ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}{\mathsf {I}}}"></span></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solenoid"><img alt="Solenoid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/190px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/285px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/380px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_electromagnetics" title="Computational electromagnetics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism" title="List of textbooks in electromagnetism">Textbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_phenomena" title="List of electrical phenomena">Phenomena</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">Charge density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">Conductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electret" title="Electret">Electret</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electric charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment" title="Electric dipole moment">Electric dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_flux" title="Electric flux">Electric flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">Electrostatic discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_induction" title="Electrostatic induction">Electrostatic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law" title="Gauss's law">Gauss law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">Permittivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization_density" title="Polarization density">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectricity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">Magnetostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law" title="Biot–Savart law">Biot–Savart law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_magnetism" title="Gauss's law for magnetism">Gauss magnetic law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">Magnetic flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_scalar_potential" title="Magnetic scalar potential">Magnetic scalar potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">Magnetic vector potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetization" title="Magnetization">Magnetization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-hand_rule#Electromagnetism" title="Right-hand rule">Right-hand rule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Electrodynamics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_radiation" title="Cyclotron radiation">Cyclotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">Displacement current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_current" title="Eddy current">Eddy current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">Electromagnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">Electromagnetic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefimenko%27s_equations" title="Jefimenko's equations">Jefimenko equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larmor_formula" title="Larmor formula">Larmor formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenz%27s_law" title="Lenz's law">Lenz law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_stress_tensor" title="Maxwell stress tensor">Maxwell tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poynting_vector" title="Poynting vector">Poynting vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Electrical network</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">Capacitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_density" title="Current density">Current density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">Direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_impedance" title="Electrical impedance">Impedance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">Inductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_analysis_(electrical_circuits)" title="Network analysis (electrical circuits)">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Parallel circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance" title="Electrical resistance and conductance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonator#Electromagnetics" title="Resonator">Resonant cavities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Series circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(radio_frequency)" title="Waveguide (radio frequency)">Waveguides</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_circuit" title="Magnetic circuit">Magnetic circuit</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DC_motor" title="DC motor">DC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_machine" title="Electric machine">Electric machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrator%E2%80%93capacitor_model" title="Gyrator–capacitor model">Gyrator–capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">Induction motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_motor" title="Linear motor">Linear motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetomotive_force" title="Magnetomotive force">Magnetomotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeance" title="Permeance">Permeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_complex_reluctance" title="Magnetic complex reluctance">Reluctance (complex)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance" title="Magnetic reluctance">Reluctance (real)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotor_(electric)" title="Rotor (electric)">Rotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stator" title="Stator">Stator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism" title="Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism">Covariant formulation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor" title="Electromagnetic tensor">Electromagnetic tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism_and_special_relativity" title="Classical electromagnetism and special relativity">Electromagnetism and special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-current" title="Four-current">Four-current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential" title="Electromagnetic four-potential">Four-potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_descriptions_of_the_electromagnetic_field" title="Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field">Mathematical descriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations_in_curved_spacetime" title="Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime">Maxwell equations in curved spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_electromagnetism" title="Relativistic electromagnetism">Relativistic electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor" title="Electromagnetic stress–energy tensor">Stress–energy tensor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">Ampère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biot" title="Jean-Baptiste Biot">Biot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Davy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Faraday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Fizeau" title="Hippolyte Fizeau">Fizeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopkinson" title="John Hopkinson">Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_D._Jefimenko" title="Oleg D. Jefimenko">Jefimenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">Joule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Kirchhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Larmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Lenz" title="Emil Lenz">Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Marie_Li%C3%A9nard" title="Alfred-Marie Liénard">Liénard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Ohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">Poynting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ritchie_(physicist)" title="William Ritchie (physicist)">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Savart" title="Félix Savart">Savart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Singer" title="George Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz" title="Charles Proteus Steinmetz">Steinmetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Wiechert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electromagnetism" title="Template talk:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Electric charge</b> (symbol <i>q</i>, sometimes <i>Q</i>) is the <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical property</a> of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> that causes it to experience a <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> when placed in an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>. Electric charge can be <i>positive</i> or <i>negative</i>. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. An object with no net charge is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Neutral_particle" title="Neutral particle">electrically neutral</a>. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called <a href="/wiki/Classical_electrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical electrodynamics">classical electrodynamics</a>, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum effects</a>. </p><p>Electric charge is a <a href="/wiki/Conservation_law_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation law (physics)">conserved property</a>: the net charge of an <a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">isolated system</a>, the quantity of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change. Electric charge is carried by <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is <i><a href="/wiki/Charge_quantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge quantization">quantized</a></i>: it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a>, <i>e</i>, about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6981160200000000000♠"></span>1.602<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−19</sup> C</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-physconst-e_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-e-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is the smallest charge that can exist freely. Particles called <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> have smaller charges, multiples of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span><i>e</i>, but they are found only combined in particles that have a charge that is an integer multiple of <i>e</i>. In the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, charge is an absolutely conserved quantum number. The proton has a charge of +<i>e</i>, and the electron has a charge of −<i>e</i>. </p><p>Today, a negative charge is defined as the charge carried by an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> and a positive charge is that carried by a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. Before these particles were discovered, a positive charge was defined by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> as the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed with a silk cloth. </p><p>Electric charges produce <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric fields</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A moving charge also produces a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The interaction of electric charges with an electromagnetic field (a combination of an electric and a magnetic field) is the source of the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is one of the four <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">fundamental interactions</a> in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. The study of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>-mediated interactions among charged particles is called <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit" title="SI derived unit">SI derived unit</a> of electric charge is the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> (C) named after French physicist <a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> it is also common to use the <a href="/wiki/Ampere-hour" title="Ampere-hour">ampere-hour</a> (A⋅h). In <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> it is common to use the elementary charge (<i>e</i>) as a unit. Chemistry also uses the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">Faraday constant</a>, which is the charge of one <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a> of elementary charges. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg/250px-Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg/375px-Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg/500px-Electric_field_point_lines_equipotentials.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing field lines and <a href="/wiki/Equipotential" title="Equipotential">equipotentials</a> around an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, a negatively charged particle. In an electrically neutral <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons (which are positively charged), resulting in a net zero overall charge</figcaption></figure> <p>Charge is the fundamental property of matter that exhibits <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a> attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter with charge. Electric charge is a characteristic property of many <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">subatomic particles</a>. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge <i>e</i>; we say that electric charge is <i><a href="/wiki/Charge_quantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge quantization">quantized</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment" title="Oil drop experiment">oil drop experiment</a> demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. It has been discovered that one type of particle, <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>, have fractional charges of either −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span> or +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">2</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span>, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free-standing quarks have never been observed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">By convention</a>, the charge of an <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> is negative, <i>−e</i>, while that of a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> is positive, <i>+e</i>. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract. <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a> quantifies the electrostatic <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inversely proportional to the square</a> of the distance between them. The charge of an <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign. </p><p>The electric charge of a <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that it is made up of. This charge is often small, because matter is made of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, and atoms typically have equal numbers of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral. </p><p>An <i><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a></i> is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion). <i>Monatomic ions</i> are formed from single atoms, while <i>polyatomic ions</i> are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_plus_thumb.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Electric field induced by a positive electric charge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/VFPt_plus_thumb.svg/200px-VFPt_plus_thumb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/VFPt_plus_thumb.svg/300px-VFPt_plus_thumb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/VFPt_plus_thumb.svg/400px-VFPt_plus_thumb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="180" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_minus_thumb.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Electric field induced by a negative electric charge" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VFPt_minus_thumb.svg/200px-VFPt_minus_thumb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VFPt_minus_thumb.svg/300px-VFPt_minus_thumb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/VFPt_minus_thumb.svg/400px-VFPt_minus_thumb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="180" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Electric field induced by a positive electric charge (left) and a field induced by a negative electric charge (right).</div></div></div></div> <p>During the formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral <i>ionic compounds</i> electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral. </p><p>Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> with <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> with <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>. In this way, non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of <i><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of charge">conservation of charge</a></i> always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa. </p><p>Even when an object's net charge is zero, the charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>, or bound polar molecules). In such cases, the object is said to be <a href="/wiki/Polarization_density" title="Polarization density">polarized</a>. The charge due to polarization is known as <a href="/wiki/Bound_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Bound charge">bound charge</a>, while the charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called <i>free charge</i>. The motion of electrons in conductive <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> in a specific direction is known as <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unit">Unit</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Unit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">SI</a> unit of <a href="/wiki/Quantity" title="Quantity">quantity</a> of electric charge is the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a> (symbol: C). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)" title="Cross section (geometry)">cross section</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductor</a> carrying one <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a> for one <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">second</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CIPM1946_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIPM1946-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-CIPM1946_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIPM1946-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lowercase symbol <i>q</i> is often used to denote a quantity of electric charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an <a href="/wiki/Electrometer" title="Electrometer">electrometer</a>, or indirectly measured with a <a href="/wiki/Galvanometer" title="Galvanometer">ballistic galvanometer</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a> (the electric charge of the proton) is defined as a fundamental constant in the SI.<sup id="cite_ref-9thSIp127_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9thSIp127-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The value for elementary charge, when expressed in SI units, is exactly <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6981160217663400000♠"></span>1.602<span style="margin-left:.25em;">176</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">634</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−19</sup> C</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-physconst-e_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-e-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After discovering the <a href="/wiki/Charge_quantization" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge quantization">quantized</a> character of charge, in 1891, <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">George Stoney</a> proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge. <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> subsequently discovered the particle that we now call the electron in 1897. The unit is today referred to as <em>elementary charge</em>, <em>fundamental unit of charge</em>, or simply denoted <i>e</i>, with the charge of an electron being −<i>e</i>. The charge of an isolated system should be a multiple of the elementary charge <i>e</i>, even if at <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">large scales</a> charge seems to behave as a continuous quantity. In some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of an elementary charge; for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect" title="Fractional quantum Hall effect">fractional quantum Hall effect</a>. </p><p>The unit <a href="/wiki/Faraday_constant" title="Faraday constant">faraday</a> is sometimes used in electrochemistry. One faraday is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of elementary charges,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e. <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7004964853321200000♠"></span>9.648<span style="margin-left:.25em;">533</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">212</span>...<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>4</sup></span> C. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History of electromagnetic theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electricity#History" title="Electricity">Electricity § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bcoulomb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bcoulomb.png/220px-Bcoulomb.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bcoulomb.png/330px-Bcoulomb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bcoulomb.png/440px-Bcoulomb.png 2x" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="2085" /></a><figcaption>Coulomb's <a href="/wiki/Torsion_balance#Torsion_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsion balance">torsion balance</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From ancient times, people were familiar with four types of phenomena that today would all be explained using the concept of electric charge: (a) <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>, (b) the <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Torpedo fish">torpedo fish</a> (or electric ray), (c) <a href="/wiki/St_Elmo%27s_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="St Elmo's Fire">St Elmo's Fire</a>, and (d) that <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> rubbed with <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a> would attract small, light objects.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first account of the <em>amber effect</em> is often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a>, who lived from c. 624 to c. 546 BC, but there are doubts about whether Thales left any writings;<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his account about amber is known from an account from early 200s.<sup id="cite_ref-DL_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DL-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This account can be taken as evidence that the phenomenon was known since at least c. 600 BC, but Thales explained this phenomenon as evidence for inanimate objects having a soul.<sup id="cite_ref-DL_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DL-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, there was no indication of any conception of electric charge. More generally, the ancient Greeks did not understand the connections among these four kinds of phenomena. The Greeks observed that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a>. They also found that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an <a href="/wiki/Electric_spark" title="Electric spark">electric spark</a> to jump,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="cannot find any source for this claim (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared until late 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This property derives from the <a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">triboelectric effect</a>. In late 1100s, the substance <a href="/wiki/Jet_(lignite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet (lignite)">jet</a>, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an amber effect,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the middle of the 1500s, <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Fracastoro" title="Girolamo Fracastoro">Girolamo Fracastoro</a>, discovered that <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> also showed this effect.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some efforts were made by Fracastoro and others, especially <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> to develop explanations for this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-Roller356_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roller356-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, which had been studied quantitatively since antiquity, the start of ongoing qualitative and quantitative research into electrical phenomena can be marked with the publication of <i><a href="/wiki/De_Magnete" title="De Magnete">De Magnete</a></i> by the English scientist <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> in 1600.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this book, there was a small section where Gilbert returned to the amber effect (as he called it) in addressing many of the earlier theories,<sup id="cite_ref-Roller356_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roller356-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and coined the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> word <i>electrica</i> (from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἤλεκτρον</span></span> (ēlektron), the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word for <i>amber</i>). The Latin word was translated into English as <em>electrics</em>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gilbert is also credited with the term <i>electrical</i>, while the term <i>electricity</i> came later, first attributed to Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Pseudodoxia_Epidemica" title="Pseudodoxia Epidemica">Pseudodoxia Epidemica</a> from 1646.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (For more linguistic details see <a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_electricity" title="Etymology of electricity">Etymology of electricity</a>.) Gilbert hypothesized that this amber effect could be explained by an effluvium (a small stream of particles that flows from the electric object, without diminishing its bulk or weight) that acts on other objects. This idea of a material electrical effluvium was influential in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a precursor to ideas developed in the 18th century about "electric fluid" (Dufay, Nollet, Franklin) and "electric charge".<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie11_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie11-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1663 <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Guericke" title="Otto von Guericke">Otto von Guericke</a> invented what was probably the first <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" title="Electrostatic generator">electrostatic generator</a>, but he did not recognize it primarily as an electrical device and only conducted minimal electrical experiments with it.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other European pioneers were <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, who in 1675 published the first book in English that was devoted solely to electrical phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie20_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie20-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His work was largely a repetition of Gilbert's studies, but he also identified several more "electrics",<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie21_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie21-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and noted mutual attraction between two bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie20_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie20-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1729 <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gray_(scientist)" title="Stephen Gray (scientist)">Stephen Gray</a> was experimenting with <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>, which he generated using a glass tube. He noticed that a cork, used to protect the tube from dust and moisture, also became electrified (charged). Further experiments (e.g., extending the cork by putting thin sticks into it) showed—for the first time—that electrical effluvia (as Gray called it) could be transmitted (conducted) over a distance. Gray managed to transmit charge with twine (765 feet) and wire (865 feet).<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie27_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through these experiments, Gray discovered the importance of different materials, which facilitated or hindered the conduction of electrical effluvia. <a href="/wiki/John_Theophilus_Desaguliers" title="John Theophilus Desaguliers">John Theophilus Desaguliers</a>, who repeated many of Gray's experiments, is credited with coining the terms <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">insulators</a> to refer to the effects of different materials in these experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie27_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie27-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gray also discovered electrical induction (i.e., where charge could be transmitted from one object to another without any direct physical contact). For example, he showed that by bringing a charged glass tube close to, but not touching, a lump of lead that was sustained by a thread, it was possible to make the lead become electrified (e.g., to attract and repel brass filings).<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie28_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie28-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attempted to explain this phenomenon with the idea of electrical effluvia.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gray's discoveries introduced an important shift in the historical development of knowledge about electric charge. The fact that electrical effluvia could be transferred from one object to another, opened the theoretical possibility that this property was not inseparably connected to the bodies that were electrified by rubbing.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie35_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie35-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1733 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Cisternay_du_Fay" title="Charles François de Cisternay du Fay">Charles François de Cisternay du Fay</a>, inspired by Gray's work, made a series of experiments (reported in <i>Mémoires de l'<a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Royale_des_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie Royale des Sciences">Académie Royale des Sciences</a></i>), showing that more or less all substances could be 'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and proposed that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he expressed in terms of a two-fluid theory.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> was rubbed with <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, du Fay said that the glass was charged with <i><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">vitreous</a> electricity</i>, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with <i><a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resinous</a> electricity</i>. In contemporary understanding, positive charge is now defined as the charge of a glass rod after being rubbed with a silk cloth, but it is arbitrary which type of charge is called positive and which is called negative.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important two-fluid theory from this time was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Nollet" title="Jean-Antoine Nollet">Jean-Antoine Nollet</a> (1745).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Up until about 1745, the main explanation for electrical attraction and repulsion was the idea that electrified bodies gave off an effluvium.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> started electrical experiments in late 1746,<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie38_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie38-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by 1750 had developed a one-<a href="/wiki/Fluid_theory_of_electricity" title="Fluid theory of electricity">fluid theory of electricity</a>, based on an experiment that showed that a rubbed glass received the same, but opposite, charge strength as the cloth used to rub the glass.<sup id="cite_ref-Baigrie38_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baigrie38-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter and coined the term <em>charge</em> itself (as well as <a href="/wiki/Electrical_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical battery">battery</a> and some others<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>); for example, he believed that it was the <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Leyden_jar" title="Leyden jar">Leyden jar</a> that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained an excess of the fluid it was <em>positively</em> charged and when it had a deficit it was <em>negatively</em> charged. He identified the term <em>positive</em> with vitreous electricity and <em>negative</em> with resinous electricity after performing an experiment with a glass tube he had received from his overseas colleague Peter Collinson. The experiment had participant A charge the glass tube and participant B receive a shock to the knuckle from the charged tube. Franklin identified participant B to be positively charged after having been shocked by the tube.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin1747_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin1747-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some ambiguity about whether <a href="/wiki/William_Watson_(scientist)" title="William Watson (scientist)">William Watson</a> independently arrived at the same one-fluid explanation around the same time (1747). Watson, after seeing Franklin's letter to Collinson, claims that he had presented the same explanation as Franklin in spring 1747.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin had studied some of Watson's works prior to making his own experiments and analysis, which was probably significant for Franklin's own theorizing.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen66_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen66-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One physicist suggests that Watson first proposed a one-fluid theory, which Franklin then elaborated further and more influentially.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A historian of science argues that Watson missed a subtle difference between his ideas and Franklin's, so that Watson misinterpreted his ideas as being similar to Franklin's.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any case, there was no animosity between Watson and Franklin, and the Franklin model of electrical action, formulated in early 1747, eventually became widely accepted at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen66_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen66-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Franklin's work, effluvia-based explanations were rarely put forward.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is now known that the Franklin model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge.<sup id="cite_ref-one-kind_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-one-kind-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until 1800 it was only possible to study conduction of electric charge by using an electrostatic discharge. In 1800 <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> was the first to show that charge could be maintained in continuous motion through a closed path.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1833, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> sought to remove any doubt that electricity is identical, regardless of the source by which it is produced.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He discussed a variety of known forms, which he characterized as common electricity (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">piezoelectricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">magnetic induction</a>), voltaic electricity (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>), and animal electricity (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bioelectricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioelectricity">bioelectricity</a>). </p><p>In 1838, Faraday raised a question about whether electricity was a fluid or fluids or a property of matter, like gravity. He investigated whether matter could be charged with one kind of charge independently of the other.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He came to the conclusion that electric charge was a relation between two or more bodies, because he could not charge one body without having an opposite charge in another body.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1838, Faraday also put forth a theoretical explanation of electric force, while expressing neutrality about whether it originates from one, two, or no fluids.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He focused on the idea that the normal state of particles is to be nonpolarized, and that when polarized, they seek to return to their natural, nonpolarized state. </p><p>In developing a field theory approach to electrodynamics (starting in the mid-1850s), <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> stops considering electric charge as a special substance that accumulates in objects, and starts to understand electric charge as a consequence of the transformation of energy in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchwald_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchwald-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pre-quantum understanding considered magnitude of electric charge to be a continuous quantity, even at the microscopic level.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchwald_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchwald-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_role_of_charge_in_static_electricity">The role of charge in static electricity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The role of charge in static electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a> refers to the electric charge of an object and the related <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">electrostatic discharge</a> when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrification_by_sliding">Electrification by sliding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electrification by sliding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectric effect</a></div> <p>When a piece of glass and a piece of resin—neither of which exhibit any electrical properties—are rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract each other. </p><p>A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena: </p> <ul><li>The two pieces of glass repel each other.</li> <li>Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.</li> <li>The two pieces of resin repel each other.</li></ul> <p>This attraction and repulsion is an <i>electrical phenomenon</i>, and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be <i>electrified</i>, or <i>electrically charged</i>. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by sliding. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts. </p><p>If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be <i>vitreously</i> electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be <i>resinously</i> electrified. All electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified. </p><p>An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative. The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary convention—just as it is a matter of convention in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">mathematical diagram</a> to reckon positive distances towards the right hand.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_role_of_charge_in_electric_current">The role of charge in electric current</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The role of charge in electric current"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a> is the flow of electric charge through an object. The most common <a href="/wiki/Charge_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge carriers">charge carriers</a> are the positively charged <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> and the negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the <i><a href="/wiki/Conventional_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional current">conventional current</a></i> without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations. </p><p>At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a> that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (<a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>. </p><p>Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the <a href="/wiki/Drift_velocity" title="Drift velocity">drift velocity</a> of the actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation_of_electric_charge">Conservation of electric charge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conservation of electric charge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Charge_conservation" title="Charge conservation">Charge conservation</a></div> <p>The total electric charge of an <a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">isolated system</a> remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from <a href="/wiki/Gauge_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge invariance">gauge invariance</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a>. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current <a href="/wiki/Continuity_equation" title="Continuity equation">continuity equation</a>. More generally, the rate of change in <a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">charge density</a> <i>ρ</i> within a volume of integration <i>V</i> is equal to the area integral over the <a href="/wiki/Current_density" title="Current density">current density</a> <b>J</b> through the closed surface <i>S</i> = ∂<i>V</i>, which is in turn equal to the net <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> <i>I</i>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="nowrap mw-no-invert"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \,\mathrm {d} V=}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>d</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \,\mathrm {d} V=}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6878cfd62d5c52742275cb1ea23e9b977a50945a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:15.385ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \,\mathrm {d} V=}"></span> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="\oiint" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/OiintLaTeX.svg/25px-OiintLaTeX.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/OiintLaTeX.svg/38px-OiintLaTeX.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/OiintLaTeX.svg/50px-OiintLaTeX.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="354" /></span></span><span style="position:relative; right:8px; top:18px; margin-right:-8px;"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \partial V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="1"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \partial V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/653fbc92de8717f852eff10169cfa75aa15d9815" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.196ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \partial V}"></span></span> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">J</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">S</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>∫</mo> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>I</mi> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/db49330ff38780a0435d8264e9cf757c7f29873e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:25.673ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.}"></span></span></dd></dl> <p>Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/603cc05669821e7dd573f9ee20e6c2d819b219c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:9.923ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The charge transferred between times <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/994ac55ac0657dcb7a6f411b423571120077d364" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.529ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {f} }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {f} }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3b535702a6ac584baff2a43eee732f4365f88c8b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.684ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {f} }}"></span> is obtained by integrating both sides: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q=\int _{t_{\mathrm {i} }}^{t_{\mathrm {f} }}I\,\mathrm {d} t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">f</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q=\int _{t_{\mathrm {i} }}^{t_{\mathrm {f} }}I\,\mathrm {d} t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e14f2f66b608d96bedd0281eab2380fc2e65db62" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:12.197ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q=\int _{t_{\mathrm {i} }}^{t_{\mathrm {f} }}I\,\mathrm {d} t}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>I</i> is the net outward current through a closed surface and <i>q</i> is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relativistic_invariance">Relativistic invariance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relativistic invariance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from the properties described in articles about <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, charge is a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Charge_invariance" title="Charge invariance">invariant</a>. This means that any particle that has charge <i>q</i> has the same charge regardless of how fast it is travelling. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> (two <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SI_electromagnetism_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI electromagnetism units">SI electromagnetism units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">Color charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_charge" title="Partial charge">Partial charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a> or antielectron is an antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-physconst-e-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-physconst-e_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-physconst-e_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e">"2022 CODATA Value: elementary charge"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+elementary+charge&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChabaySherwood2015" class="citation book cs1">Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015). <i>Matter and interactions</i> (4th ed.). Wiley. p. 867.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+interactions&rft.pages=867&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chabay&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft.au=Sherwood%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChabaySherwood2015" class="citation book cs1">Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015). <i>Matter and interactions</i> (4th ed.). Wiley. p. 673.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+interactions&rft.pages=673&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chabay&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft.au=Sherwood%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChabaySherwood2015" class="citation book cs1">Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015). <i>Matter and interactions</i> (4th ed.). Wiley. p. 942.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+interactions&rft.pages=942&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chabay&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft.au=Sherwood%2C+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRennieLaw2019" class="citation book cs1">Rennie, Richard; Law, Jonathan, eds. (2019). "Quantum electrodynamics". <i>A Dictionary of Physics</i> (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198821472" title="Special:BookSources/9780198821472"><bdi>9780198821472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Quantum+electrodynamics&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Physics&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780198821472&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIPM1946-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CIPM1946_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIPM1946_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/ci/cipm/41-1946/resolution-2">"CIPM, 1946: Resolution 2"</a>. BIPM.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CIPM%2C+1946%3A+Resolution+2&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fci%2Fcipm%2F41-1946%2Fresolution-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9thSIp127-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9thSIp127_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf"><i>The International System of Units</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (9th ed.), International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Dec 2022, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-822-2272-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-822-2272-0"><bdi>978-92-822-2272-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+System+of+Units&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=International+Bureau+of+Weights+and+Measures&rft.date=2022-12&rft.isbn=978-92-822-2272-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fdocuments%2F20126%2F41483022%2FSI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGambhirBanerjeeDurgapal1993" class="citation book cs1">Gambhir, RS; Banerjee, D; Durgapal, MC (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-Qpy0KQayIC&pg=PA51"><i>Foundations of Physics, Vol. 2</i></a>. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122405231" title="Special:BookSources/9788122405231"><bdi>9788122405231</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Physics%2C+Vol.+2&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Wiley+Eastern+Limited&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9788122405231&rft.aulast=Gambhir&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=Banerjee%2C+D&rft.au=Durgapal%2C+MC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-Qpy0KQayIC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1954" class="citation book cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll"><i>The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll/page/n18">1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+the+concept+of+electric+charge%3A+Electricity+from+the+Greeks+to+Coulomb&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofcon0000roll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Grady2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_O%27Grady" title="Patricia O'Grady">O'Grady, Patricia F.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ"><i>Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy</i></a>. Ashgate. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351895378" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351895378"><bdi>978-1351895378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thales+of+Miletus%3A+The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science+and+Philosophy&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1351895378&rft.aulast=O%27Grady&rft.aufirst=Patricia+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZTUlDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DL-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DL_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DL_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_I#Thales_24">"Lives of the Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, Book 1, §24"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Eminent+Philosophers+by+Diogenes+La%C3%ABrtius%2C+Book+1%2C+%C2%A724&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FLives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers%2FBook_I%23Thales_24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1953" class="citation journal cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 348. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953AmJPh..21..343R">1953AmJPh..21..343R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1933449">10.1119/1.1933449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Prenatal+History+of+Electrical+Science&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=348&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.1933449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953AmJPh..21..343R&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1953" class="citation journal cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 351. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953AmJPh..21..343R">1953AmJPh..21..343R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1933449">10.1119/1.1933449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Prenatal+History+of+Electrical+Science&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=351&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.1933449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953AmJPh..21..343R&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1953" class="citation journal cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 353. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953AmJPh..21..343R">1953AmJPh..21..343R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1933449">10.1119/1.1933449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Prenatal+History+of+Electrical+Science&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=353&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.1933449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953AmJPh..21..343R&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roller356-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roller356_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roller356_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1953" class="citation journal cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science". <i>American Journal of Physics</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 356. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953AmJPh..21..343R">1953AmJPh..21..343R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1933449">10.1119/1.1933449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Prenatal+History+of+Electrical+Science&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=356&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.1933449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953AmJPh..21..343R&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoche1998" class="citation book cs1">Roche, J.J. (1998). <i>The mathematics of measurement</i>. London: The Athlone Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0387915814" title="Special:BookSources/978-0387915814"><bdi>978-0387915814</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mathematics+of+measurement&rft.place=London&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=The+Athlone+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0387915814&rft.aulast=Roche&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1954" class="citation book cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll"><i>The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll/page/6">6–7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+the+concept+of+electric+charge%3A+Electricity+from+the+Greeks+to+Coulomb&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofcon0000roll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span><br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1979" class="citation book cs1">Heilbron, J.L. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UlTLRUn1sy8C&pg=PA169"><i>Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5"><bdi>978-0-520-03478-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+Centuries%3A+A+Study+of+Early+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03478-5&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUlTLRUn1sy8C%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrother_PotamianWalsh1909" class="citation book cs1">Brother Potamian; Walsh, J.J. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924004627059"><i>Makers of electricity</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University_Press" title="Fordham University Press">Fordham University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924004627059/page/n81">70</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+electricity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Brother+Potamian&rft.au=Walsh%2C+J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924004627059&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie11-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie11_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeathcote1950" class="citation journal cs1">Heathcote, N.H. de V. (1950). "Guericke's sulphur globe". <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 304. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033795000201981">10.1080/00033795000201981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Guericke%27s+sulphur+globe&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=304&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033795000201981&rft.aulast=Heathcote&rft.aufirst=N.H.+de+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L.</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UlTLRUn1sy8C&pg=PA215"><i>Electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of early Modern physics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 215–218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-03478-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-03478-3"><bdi>0-520-03478-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+centuries%3A+a+study+of+early+Modern+physics&rft.pages=215-218&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-520-03478-3&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUlTLRUn1sy8C%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie20-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie20_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie20_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie21-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie21_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie27-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie27_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie27_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie28-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie28_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1979" class="citation book cs1">Heilbron, J.L. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UlTLRUn1sy8C&pg=PA248"><i>Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5"><bdi>978-0-520-03478-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+Centuries%3A+A+Study+of+Early+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03478-5&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUlTLRUn1sy8C%26pg%3DPA248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie35-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie35_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollerRoller1954" class="citation book cs1">Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll"><i>The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentofcon0000roll/page/40">40</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+development+of+the+concept+of+electric+charge%3A+Electricity+from+the+Greeks+to+Coulomb&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Roller&rft.aufirst=Duane&rft.au=Roller%2C+D.H.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentofcon0000roll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM">Two Kinds of Electrical Fluid: Vitreous and Resinous – 1733. Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (1698–1739)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090526211225/http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM">Archived</a> 2009-05-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. sparkmuseum.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangsness1986" class="citation book cs1">Wangsness, Roald K. (1986). <i>Electromagnetic Fields</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-81186-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-81186-6"><bdi>0-471-81186-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electromagnetic+Fields&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-471-81186-6&rft.aulast=Wangsness&rft.aufirst=Roald+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1979" class="citation book cs1">Heilbron, J.L. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UlTLRUn1sy8C&pg=PA169"><i>Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 280–289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03478-5"><bdi>978-0-520-03478-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+Centuries%3A+A+Study+of+Early+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=280-289&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03478-5&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUlTLRUn1sy8C%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Heilbron, John (2003). "Leyden jar and electrophore". In Heilbron, John (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195112290" title="Special:BookSources/9780195112290"><bdi>9780195112290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leyden+jar+and+electrophore&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780195112290&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baigrie38-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie38_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baigrie38_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaigrie2007" class="citation book cs1">Baigrie, Brian (2007). <i>Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+magnetism%3A+A+historical+perspective&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarnieri2014" class="citation journal cs1">Guarnieri, Massimo (2014). "Electricity in the Age of Enlightenment". <i>IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2335431">10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34246664">34246664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Industrial+Electronics+Magazine&rft.atitle=Electricity+in+the+Age+of+Enlightenment&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=61&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIE.2014.2335431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34246664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guarnieri&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spark.iop.org/electric-charge-and-current-short-history">"Electric charge and current - a short history | IOPSpark"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electric+charge+and+current+-+a+short+history+%26%23124%3B+IOPSpark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspark.iop.org%2Felectric-charge-and-current-short-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Franklin1747-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Franklin1747_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1747" class="citation pressrelease cs1">Franklin, Benjamin (1747-05-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benjamin-franklin-history.org/letter-from-benjamin-franklin-to-peter-collison-dated-may-25-1747/">"Letter to Peter Collinson, May 25, 1747"</a>. Letter to Peter Collinson<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+to+Peter+Collinson%2C+May+25%2C+1747&rft.date=1747-05-25&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benjamin-franklin-history.org%2Fletter-from-benjamin-franklin-to-peter-collison-dated-may-25-1747%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1748" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, William (1748). "Some further inquiries into the nature and properties of electricity". <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>45</b>: 100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1748.0004">10.1098/rstl.1748.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186207940">186207940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Some+further+inquiries+into+the+nature+and+properties+of+electricity&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1748&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1748.0004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186207940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen66-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen66_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen66_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1966" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, I. Bernard (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklinnewtonin0000cohe/page/390/mode/2up"><i>Franklin and Newton</i></a> (reprint ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 390–413.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+and+Newton&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=390-413&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=I.+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranklinnewtonin0000cohe%2Fpage%2F390%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, Steven</a> (2003). <i>The discovery of subatomic particles</i> (rev ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521823517" title="Special:BookSources/9780521823517"><bdi>9780521823517</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+discovery+of+subatomic+particles&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=rev&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780521823517&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_L._Heilbron" title="John L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L.</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UlTLRUn1sy8C&pg=PA344"><i>Electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of early Modern physics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. pp. 344–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-03478-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-03478-3"><bdi>0-520-03478-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+centuries%3A+a+study+of+early+Modern+physics&rft.pages=344-5&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-520-03478-3&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUlTLRUn1sy8C%26pg%3DPA344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTricker1965" class="citation book cs1">Tricker, R.A.R (1965). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyelectrodyna0000tric"><i>Early electrodynamics: The first law of circulation</i></a></span>. Oxford: Pergamon. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyelectrodyna0000tric/page/2">2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781483185361" title="Special:BookSources/9781483185361"><bdi>9781483185361</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+electrodynamics%3A+The+first+law+of+circulation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Pergamon&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=9781483185361&rft.aulast=Tricker&rft.aufirst=R.A.R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyelectrodyna0000tric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-one-kind-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-one-kind_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenker2007" class="citation web cs1">Denker, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205132208/http://www.av8n.com/physics/one-kind-of-charge.htm">"One Kind of Charge"</a>. <i>www.av8n.com/physics</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.av8n.com/physics/one-kind-of-charge.htm">the original</a> on 2016-02-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.av8n.com%2Fphysics&rft.atitle=One+Kind+of+Charge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Denker&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.av8n.com%2Fphysics%2Fone-kind-of-charge.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZangwill2013" class="citation book cs1">Zangwill, Andrew (2013). <i>Modern Electrodynamics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89697-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89697-9"><bdi>978-0-521-89697-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Electrodynamics&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-521-89697-9&rft.aulast=Zangwill&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaraday1833" class="citation journal cs1">Faraday, Michael (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rstl.1833.0006">"Experimental researches in electricity — third series"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>123</b>: 23–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1833.0006">10.1098/rstl.1833.0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111157008">111157008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Experimental+researches+in+electricity+%E2%80%94+third+series&rft.volume=123&rft.pages=23-54&rft.date=1833&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1833.0006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111157008%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Faraday&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1833.0006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaraday1838" class="citation journal cs1">Faraday, Michael (1838). "Experimental researches in electricity — eleventh series". <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>128</b>: 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1838.0002">10.1098/rstl.1838.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116482065">116482065</a>. <q>§1168</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Experimental+researches+in+electricity+%E2%80%94+eleventh+series&rft.volume=128&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1838.0002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A116482065%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Faraday&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinle2013" class="citation book cs1">Steinle, Friedrich (2013). "Electromagnetism and field physics". In Buchwald, Jed Z.; Fox, Robert (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of the history of physics</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 560.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electromagnetism+and+field+physics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+history+of+physics&rft.pages=560&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Steinle&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaraday1838" class="citation journal cs1">Faraday, Michael (1838). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1838.0014">"Experimental researches in electricity — fourteenth series"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>128</b>: 265–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1838.0014">10.1098/rstl.1838.0014</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109146507">109146507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Experimental+researches+in+electricity+%E2%80%94+fourteenth+series&rft.volume=128&rft.pages=265-282&rft.date=1838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1838.0014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A109146507%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Faraday&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frstl.1838.0014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buchwald-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buchwald_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buchwald_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchwald2013" class="citation book cs1">Buchwald, Jed Z. (2013). "Electrodynamics from Thomson and Maxwell to Hertz". In Buchwald, Jed Z.; Fox, Robert (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of the history of physics</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 575.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electrodynamics+from+Thomson+and+Maxwell+to+Hertz&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+history+of+physics&rft.pages=575&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Buchwald&rft.aufirst=Jed+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (1891) <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism">A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</a></i>, pp. 32–33, Dover Publications</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefimenko1999" class="citation journal cs1">Jefimenko, O.D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/zna.1999.54.issue-10-11/zna-1999-10-1113/zna-1999-10-1113.pdf">"Relativistic invariance of electric charge"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A</i>. <b>54</b> (10–11): 637–644. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ZNatA..54..637J">1999ZNatA..54..637J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzna-1999-10-1113">10.1515/zna-1999-10-1113</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29149866">29149866</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Naturforschung+A&rft.atitle=Relativistic+invariance+of+electric+charge&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=10%E2%80%9311&rft.pages=637-644&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29149866%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzna-1999-10-1113&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999ZNatA..54..637J&rft.aulast=Jefimenko&rft.aufirst=O.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdownloadpdf%2Fj%2Fzna.1999.54.issue-10-11%2Fzna-1999-10-1113%2Fzna-1999-10-1113.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/248688/how-can-we-prove-charge-invariance-under-lorentz-transformation">"How can we prove charge invariance under Lorentz Transformation?"</a>. <i>physics.stackexchange.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=physics.stackexchange.com&rft.atitle=How+can+we+prove+charge+invariance+under+Lorentz+Transformation%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.stackexchange.com%2Fquestions%2F248688%2Fhow-can-we-prove-charge-invariance-under-lorentz-transformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingal1992" class="citation journal cs1">Singal, A.K. (1992). "On the charge invariance and relativistic electric fields from a steady conduction current". <i>Physics Letters A</i>. <b>162</b> (2): 91–95. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992PhLA..162...91S">1992PhLA..162...91S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0375-9601%2892%2990982-R">10.1016/0375-9601(92)90982-R</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0375-9601">0375-9601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+A&rft.atitle=On+the+charge+invariance+and+relativistic+electric+fields+from+a+steady+conduction+current&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-95&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0375-9601&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0375-9601%2892%2990982-R&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992PhLA..162...91S&rft.aulast=Singal&rft.aufirst=A.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectric+charge" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Electric_charge" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Electric charge">Electric charge</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005012550/http://www.ce-mag.com/archive/2000/marapril/mrstatic.html">How fast does a charge decay?</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1111#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1111#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1111#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/904526/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4151721-0">Germany</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&oldid=1255600491">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&oldid=1255600491</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electric_charge" title="Category:Electric charge">Electric charge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemical_properties" title="Category:Chemical properties">Chemical properties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conservation_laws" title="Category:Conservation laws">Conservation laws</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electricity" title="Category:Electricity">Electricity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electrostatics" title="Category:Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Flavour_(particle_physics)" title="Category:Flavour (particle physics)">Flavour (particle physics)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spintronics" title="Category:Spintronics">Spintronics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electromagnetic_quantities" title="Category:Electromagnetic quantities">Electromagnetic quantities</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Template:Physical_constants_with_rounding" title="Category:Pages using Template:Physical constants with rounding">Pages using Template:Physical constants with rounding</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 5 November 2024, at 19:38<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electric_charge&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-6x78m","wgBackendResponseTime":183,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.940","walltime":"1.181","ppvisitednodes":{"value":4248,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":128264,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2127,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":6,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":198193,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 994.566 1 -total"," 37.59% 373.832 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.50% 134.266 30 Template:Cite_book"," 10.34% 102.880 1 Template:Lang"," 9.55% 95.012 6 Template:Cite_web"," 9.46% 94.045 1 Template:Electromagnetism"," 8.68% 86.285 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 8.12% 80.803 1 Template:Infobox_physical_quantity"," 7.91% 78.673 1 Template:Infobox"," 6.45% 64.193 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.626","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18603970,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-f6w29","timestamp":"20241122140448","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Electric charge","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_charge","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1111","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1111","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-25T18:08:51Z","dateModified":"2024-11-05T19:38:20Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/ed\/VFPt_charges_plus_minus_thumb.svg","headline":"physical property that quantifies an object's interaction with electric fields"}</script> </body> </html>