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Aboriginal groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islanders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Islanders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Torres Strait Islanders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islanders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_groupings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_groupings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Other groupings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_groupings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Migration_to_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_to_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Migration to Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration_to_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aboriginal_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aboriginal_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Aboriginal peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Torres Strait Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Before_European_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_European_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Before European contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_European_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aboriginal_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aboriginal_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Aboriginal people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Island_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Island_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Torres Strait Island people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Island_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_colonisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_colonisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 British colonisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_colonisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 First contact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dates_by_area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dates_by_area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Dates by area </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dates_by_area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frontier_wars_and_massacres" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frontier_wars_and_massacres"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Frontier wars and massacres </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frontier_wars_and_massacres-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1871–1969:_Stolen_Generations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1871–1969:_Stolen_Generations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 1871–1969: Stolen Generations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1871–1969:_Stolen_Generations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Late 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reconciliation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconciliation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 Reconciliation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconciliation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergency_Response/Stronger_Futures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergency_Response/Stronger_Futures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.1 Emergency Response/Stronger Futures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergency_Response/Stronger_Futures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_change_proposed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_change_proposed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.2 Constitutional change proposed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_change_proposed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Population </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Population-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Population subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-colonisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-colonisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pre-colonisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-colonisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inclusion_in_the_national_Census" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inclusion_in_the_national_Census"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Inclusion in the national Census </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inclusion_in_the_national_Census-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_and_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_and_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Distribution and growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_and_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indigenous_Australians_by_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_Australians_by_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Indigenous Australians by state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_Australians_by_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Queensland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Queensland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3.1 Queensland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Queensland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Languages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Languages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aboriginal_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aboriginal_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Aboriginal languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cross-cultural_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-cultural_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Cross-cultural communications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cross-cultural_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Island_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Island_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Torres Strait Island languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Island_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belief_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Belief systems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Belief_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Belief systems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Belief_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditional_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Traditional beliefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aboriginal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aboriginal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Aboriginal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islander" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Islander"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Torres Strait Islander </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islander-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_colonisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_colonisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 After colonisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_colonisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aboriginal_peoples_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aboriginal_peoples_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Aboriginal peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aboriginal_peoples_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islander_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torres_Strait_Islander_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Torres Strait Islander peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torres_Strait_Islander_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_census_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_census_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Recent census figures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_census_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music,_dance_and_ceremony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music,_dance_and_ceremony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Music, dance and ceremony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music,_dance_and_ceremony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_and_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_and_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Film and television </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_and_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Theatre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreation_and_sport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreation_and_sport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Recreation and sport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreation_and_sport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Contemporary issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Closing_the_Gap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closing_the_Gap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Closing the Gap </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closing_the_Gap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Life_expectancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_expectancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Life expectancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_expectancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Mental health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance_abuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance_abuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Substance abuse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance_abuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Employment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Crime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Family violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efforts_towards_recognition_and_reparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_towards_recognition_and_reparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Efforts towards recognition and reparations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efforts_towards_recognition_and_reparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Political issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Political representation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_government_initiatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_government_initiatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Federal government initiatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_government_initiatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2019:_Indigenous_voice_to_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2019:_Indigenous_voice_to_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3.1 2019: Indigenous voice to government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2019:_Indigenous_voice_to_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_title,_sovereignty_and_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_title,_sovereignty_and_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Native title, sovereignty and treaties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_title,_sovereignty_and_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominent_Indigenous_Australians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominent_Indigenous_Australians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Prominent Indigenous Australians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominent_Indigenous_Australians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Indigenous Australians</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" > 46 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eardf%C3%A6ste_Australiaware" title="Eardfæste Australiaware – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Eardfæste Australiaware" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="سكان أستراليا الأصليون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سكان أستراليا الأصليون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerli_avstraliyal%C4%B1lar" title="Yerli avstraliyalılar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yerli avstraliyalılar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7_%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="اوسترالیا یئرلیلری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوسترالیا یئرلیلری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80" title="অস্ট্রেলীয় আদিবাসী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অস্ট্রেলীয় আদিবাসী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ind%C3%ADgenes_australians" title="Indígenes australians – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Indígenes australians" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%A1lci" title="Austrálci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Austrálci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%A4%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="السكان لأصليين دؤسطراليا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="السكان لأصليين دؤسطراليا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B8%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B8%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιθαγενείς πληθυσμοί της Αυστραλίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιθαγενείς πληθυσμοί της Αυστραλίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ind%C3%ADgenas_de_Australia" title="Indígenas de Australia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Indígenas de Australia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indi%C4%9Denaj_a%C5%ADstralianoj" title="Indiĝenaj aŭstralianoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Indiĝenaj aŭstralianoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiako_indigena" title="Australiako indigena – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Australiako indigena" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="بومیان استرالیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بومیان استرالیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autochtones_d%27Australie" title="Autochtones d'Australie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Autochtones d'Australie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bund%C3%BAchasaigh_na_hAstr%C3%A1ile" title="Bundúchasaigh na hAstráile – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bundúchasaigh na hAstráile" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobos_ind%C3%ADxenas_australianos" title="Pobos indíxenas australianos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobos indíxenas australianos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%BC%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%9B%90%EC%A3%BC%EB%AF%BC" title="오스트레일리아 원주민 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오스트레일리아 원주민" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BE%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ավստրալիայի աբորիգեններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ավստրալիայի աբորիգեններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="ऑस्ट्रेलियाई आदिवासी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऑस्ट्रेलियाई आदिवासी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pribumi_Australia" title="Pribumi Australia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pribumi Australia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aborigines_australian" title="Aborigines australian – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Aborigines australian" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumbyggjar_%C3%81stral%C3%ADu" title="Frumbyggjar Ástralíu – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumbyggjar Ástralíu" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenae_Australiani" title="Indigenae Australiani – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Indigenae Australiani" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australianes_orijinal" title="Australianes orijinal – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Australianes orijinal" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ausztr%C3%A1l_%C5%91slak%C3%B3k" title="Ausztrál őslakók – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ausztrál őslakók" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سكان استراليا الاصليين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سكان استراليا الاصليين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E5%85%88%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91" title="オーストラリア先住民 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オーストラリア先住民" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australske_urfolk" title="Australske urfolk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Australske urfolk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86_%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AE_%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%80" title="ଅଷ୍ଟ୍ରେଲିଆ ଆଦିମ ଅଧିବାସୀ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଅଷ୍ଟ୍ରେଲିଆ ଆଦିମ ଅଧିବାସୀ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Аборигены Австралии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аборигены Австралии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awcuo_yuncumin_%E6%BE%B3%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91" title="Awcuo yuncumin 澳洲原住民 – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Awcuo yuncumin 澳洲原住民" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australies" title="Indigenous Australies – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Indigenous Australies" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Indigenous Australians" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%A1lski_domorodci" title="Austrálski domorodci – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Austrálski domorodci" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avstralski_domorodci" title="Avstralski domorodci – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Avstralski domorodci" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaborygyny" title="Jaborygyny – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Jaborygyny" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%DA%B5%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%AC%DB%8E%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="خەڵکی خۆجێیی ئوسترالیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەڵکی خۆجێیی ئوسترالیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Домородачки Аустралијанци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Домородачки Аустралијанци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_alkuper%C3%A4iskansat" title="Australian alkuperäiskansat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Australian alkuperäiskansat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the two ethnically distinct groups of indigenous peoples of Australia: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a>. For the whole Australian population, see <a href="/wiki/Australians" title="Australians">Australians</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Indigenous_Australians" title="Talk:Indigenous Australians">talk page</a>. (October 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders Indigenous Australians</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">812,728 (<a href="/wiki/2021_Australian_census" title="2021 Australian census">2021 census</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2021-1">[1]</a> 3.2% of Australia's population</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Population distribution by state/territory</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox infobox-3cols-child infobox-table"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 265,685</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (3.55%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 221,276</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (4.57%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 100,512</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (3.93%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 74,546</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (30.34%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(state)" title="Victoria (state)">Victoria</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 57,767</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (0.94%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 42,265</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (2.47%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 28,537</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (5.51%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 7,513</td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> (1.86%)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></th><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-a" style="text-align: right;"> 795<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStats_NZ2018-2">[2]</a></td><td class="infobox-data infobox-data-b" style="text-align: right;"> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Mostly <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Australian Aboriginal English</a>, small minority <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_English" title="Torres Strait English">Torres Strait English</a>) Minority: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian Aboriginal languages</a> (historically, now certain tribes) <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a> <a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Kriol language">Australian Kriol language</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Australia" title="Christianity in Australia">Christianity</a> 53%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Australia" title="Irreligion in Australia">no religion</a> 37%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology</a> <2%</li> <li><a href="#Torres_Strait_Islander">Torres Strait Islander religion and mythology</a> (historically)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_New_Guinea" title="Indigenous people of New Guinea">Papuans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Indigenous Australians are people with familial heritage from, or recognised membership of, the various ethnic groups living within the territory of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> prior to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)" title="History of Australia (1788–1850)">British colonisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2021a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStyle_Manual2021-4">[4]</a> They consist of two distinct groups, which include many ethnic groups: the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> of the mainland and many islands, including <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Tasmanians" title="Aboriginal Tasmanians">Tasmania</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a> of the seas between <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>. 812,728 people <a href="/wiki/Aboriginality" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginality">self-identified</a> as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin in the 2021 Australian Census, representing 3.2% of the total population of Australia. Of these Indigenous Australians, 91.4% identified as Aboriginal; 4.2% identified as Torres Strait Islander; while 4.4% identified with both groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2022-5">[5]</a> However, the Government has stated that as of 30 June 2021, there are 983,700 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, representing 3.8% of the total population of Australia, as the "final 2021 Census-based estimated resident population". Of these, 91.7% identified as Aboriginal; 4.0% identified as Torres Strait Islander; 4.3% identified with both groups.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-6">[6]</a> The term Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples or the person's specific cultural group, is often preferred, though the terms First Nations of Australia, First Peoples of Australia and First Australians are also increasingly common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> Since 1995, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_flag" title="Australian Aboriginal flag">Australian Aboriginal flag</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander_flag" title="Torres Strait Islander flag">Torres Strait Islander flag</a> have been official <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_flags" title="List of Australian flags">flags of Australia</a>. The time of arrival of the first human beings in Australia is a matter of debate and ongoing investigation. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia are those of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Mungo_remains" title="Lake Mungo remains">Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady</a>, which have been dated to around 40,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerJohnstonOlleyPrescott2003-11">[10]</a> although Indigenous Australians have most likely been living in Australia for upwards of 65,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarksonJacobsMarwickFullagar2017-12">[11]</a> Isolated for millennia by rising sea water after the last Ice Age, Australian Aboriginal peoples developed a variety of regional cultures and languages, invented distinct <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">artistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Dreaming" title="The Dreaming">religious</a> traditions, and affected the environment of the continent in a number of ways through hunting, <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">fire-stick farming</a>, and possibly the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Dingo" title="Dingo">dog</a>. Technologies for warfare and hunting like the <a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">boomerang</a> and spear were constructed of natural materials, as were musical instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Didgeridoo" title="Didgeridoo">didgeridoo</a>. Although there are a number of cultural commonalities among Indigenous Australians, there is also a great diversity among different communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge1990-13">[12]</a> The 2022 Australian census recorded 167 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages used at home by some 76,978 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2022-5">[5]</a> At the time of European colonisation, it is estimated that there were over 250 <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Aboriginal languages</a>. It is now estimated that all but 13 remaining Indigenous languages are considered endangered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2012-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS2014-15">[14]</a> Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Australian Aboriginal English</a> (which also has a tangible influence of Indigenous languages in the phonology and grammatical structure). Around three quarters of Australian place names are of Aboriginal origin.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyKennedy1992[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-16">[15]</a> The Indigenous population prior to European settlement was small, with estimates ranging widely from 318,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02002-17">[16]</a> to more than 3,000,000<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> in total. Given geographic and habitat conditions, they were distributed in a pattern similar to that of the current Australian population. The majority were living in the south-east, centred along the <a href="/wiki/Murray_River" title="Murray River">Murray River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPardoe20061–21-19">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> of British settlers arrived with instructions to "live in amity and kindness" with the Aboriginal population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyal2017-20">[19]</a> Nevertheless, a population collapse, principally from new infectious diseases, followed European colonisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallyn2011-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlynnJenifer2004145–146-22">[21]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> epidemic spread for three years after the arrival of Europeans. <a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="List of massacres of Indigenous Australians">Massacres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">frontier armed conflicts</a> and competition over resources with European settlers also contributed to the decline of the Aboriginal peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvansØrsted-Jensen201428-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_News2017-24">[23]</a> From the 19th to the mid-20th century, government policy <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">removed</a> many <a href="/wiki/Half-caste" title="Half-caste">mixed heritage</a> children from Aboriginal communities, with the intent to assimilate them to what had become the majority white culture. Such policy was judged "<a href="/wiki/Genocidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidal">genocidal</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Bringing_Them_Home" title="Bringing Them Home">Bringing Them Home</a> report (1997) published by the government in the late 20th century, as it reviewed human rights abuses during colonisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringing_them_Home:_"Chapter_13"1997[httpshumanrightsgovauour-workbringing-them-home-chapter-13Heading103_'Genocide']-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESentance2020-26">[25]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg/220px-Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg/330px-Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg/440px-Australian_Aboriginal_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_flag" title="Australian Aboriginal flag">Australian Aboriginal flag</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Thomas_(artist)" title="Harold Thomas (artist)">Harold Thomas</a>. Together with the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander_flag" title="Torres Strait Islander flag">Torres Strait Islander flag</a>, it was proclaimed a flag of Australia in 1995.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variations">edit</a>]</div> There are a number of contemporary appropriate terms to use when referring to Indigenous peoples of Australia. In contrast to when settlers referred to them by various terms, in the 21st century there is consensus that it is important to respect the "preferences of individuals, families, or communities, and allow them to define what they are most comfortable with" when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a> The word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aboriginal" class="extiw" title="wikt:aboriginal">aboriginal</a> has been in the English language since at least the 16th century to mean "first or earliest known, indigenous". It comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> ab (from) and origo (origin, beginning).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAborigine:_Merriam-Webster.com_Dictionary-27">[26]</a> The term was used in Australia as early as 1789 to describe its <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal peoples</a>. It became capitalised and was used as the common term to refer to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Today the latter peoples are not included in this term. The term "Aborigine" (as opposed to "Aboriginal") is often disfavoured, as it is regarded as having <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Australia">colonialist</a> connotations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2021a-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together2020-28">[27]</a> While the term "Indigenous Australians" has grown in popularity since the 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlinders_University:_Appropriate_Terminology-29">[28]</a> many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples dislike it. They feel that it is too generic<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS2015-9">[9]</a> and removes their distinct clan and people identity. However, many people think that the term is useful and convenient, and can be used where appropriate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a> In recent years, terms such as "First Nations",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedia_RING2018-30">[29]</a> "First Peoples"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMCA-31">[30]</a> and "First Australians" have become more common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a> Being as specific as possible, for example naming the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">language group</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Arrernte_people" title="Arrernte people">Arrernte</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">demonym</a> relating to geographic area (such as <a href="/wiki/Nunga" title="Nunga">Nunga</a>), is preferred as a way to affirm and maintain a sense of identity.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terms_"Black"_and_"Blackfella"">Terms "Black" and "Blackfella"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terms "Black" and "Blackfella"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_identity" title="Australian Aboriginal identity">Australian Aboriginal identity</a></div> European colonials from their early settlement used the term "Black" to refer to Aboriginal Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Hobart_Town_Courier''18281-34">[33]</a> While the term originally related to <a href="/wiki/Skin_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin colour">skin colour</a> and was often used pejoratively,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a> today the term is used to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general. It refers to any people of such heritage regardless of their level of skin pigmentation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird2011-35">[34]</a> In the 1970s, with a rise in Aboriginal activism, leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Gary_Foley" title="Gary Foley">Gary Foley</a> proudly embraced the term "Black". For example, writer <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Gilbert_(author)" title="Kevin Gilbert (author)">Kevin Gilbert</a>'s book of that time was entitled Living Black. The book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community, including <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jabanungga" title="Robert Jabanungga">Robert Jabanungga</a>, who reflected on contemporary Aboriginal culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1977-36">[35]</a> Use of this term varies depending on context, and its use needs care as it may be deemed inappropriate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a> The term "Black" has sometimes caused confusion as being applied to contemporary <a href="/wiki/African_Australians" title="African Australians">African immigrants</a> rather than the indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuantai2015-37">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Living_Black" title="Living Black">Living Black</a> is an Australian TV news and current affairs program covering "issues affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENITV:_Living_Black2015-38">[37]</a> It is presented and produced by <a href="/wiki/Karla_Grant" title="Karla Grant">Karla Grant</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Arrernte_people" title="Arrernte people">Arrernte</a> woman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEANZSOG:_Karla_Grantn.d.-39">[38]</a> A significant number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people use the term "<a href="/wiki/Blackfella" title="Blackfella">Blackfella</a>" and its associated forms to refer to Aboriginal Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELatimore2021-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQUoT:_Guidelines2015-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Blak"">"Blak"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: "Blak"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Blak_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Blak sovereignty">Blak sovereignty</a></div> The term blak is sometimes used as part of a wider social movement (seen in terms such as "Blaktivism" and "Blak History Month"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlak_History_Monthn.d.-42">[41]</a>). The term was coined in 1991 by photographer and multimedia artist <a href="/wiki/Destiny_Deacon" title="Destiny Deacon">Destiny Deacon</a>, in an exhibition entitled Blak lik mi. For Deacon's 2004 exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_Australia" title="Museum of Contemporary Art Australia">Museum of Contemporary Art</a>, blak was defined in a museum guide as: "a term used by some Aboriginal people to reclaim historical, representational, symbolical, stereotypical and romanticised notions of Black or Blackness. Often used as ammunition or inspiration."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunroMcLisky2004-43">[42]</a> Deacon said that removing the c from black to "de-weaponise the term 'black <a href="/wiki/Cunt" title="Cunt">cunt</a>'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalla2021-44">[43]</a> was "taking on the 'colonisers' language and flipping it on its head".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunro2020-45">[44]</a> Contemporary Aboriginal arts in the 21st century are sometimes referred to as a "Blak" arts movement, expressed in names such as BlakDance,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoehme2017-46">[45]</a> BlakLash Collective,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlakLash_Creativen.d.-47">[46]</a> and the title of <a href="/wiki/Thelma_Plum" title="Thelma Plum">Thelma Plum</a>'s song and album, <a href="/wiki/Better_in_Blak" title="Better in Blak">Better in Blak</a>. Melbourne has an annual Blak & Bright literary festival,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlak_&_Brightn.d.-48">[47]</a> Blak Dot Gallery, Blak Markets, and Blak Cabaret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunro2020-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_groups">Regional groups</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Regional groups">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aboriginal_groups">Aboriginal groups</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aboriginal groups">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg/220px-A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg/330px-A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg/440px-A_group_of_Aboriginal_men_in_possum_skin_cloaks_and_blankets_in_1858_at_Penshurst_in_Victoria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1583" /></a><figcaption>A group of Aboriginal men in <a href="/wiki/Possum-skin_cloak" title="Possum-skin cloak">possum-skin cloaks</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1858) in <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Victorians" title="Aboriginal Victorians">Victoria</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg/220px-Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg/330px-Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg/440px-Men_and_boys_playing_a_game_of_gorri_-_NMA-11726.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Men and boys playing a game of gorri, 1922</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_Aboriginal_group_names" title="List of Australian Aboriginal group names">List of Australian Aboriginal group names</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians#Groups_and_sub-groups" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians § Groups and sub-groups</a></div> Aboriginal peoples of Australia are the various peoples indigenous to mainland Australia and associated islands, excluding the Torres Strait Islands. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many regional groups that may be identified under names based on local language, locality, or what they are called by neighbouring groups. Some communities, cultures or groups may be inclusive of others and alter or overlap; significant changes have occurred in the generations after colonisation. The word "community" is often used to describe groups identifying by <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">kinship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal language">language</a>, or belonging to a particular place or "country". A community may draw on separate cultural values and individuals can conceivably belong to a number of communities within Australia; identification within them may be adopted or rejected. An individual community may identify itself by many names, each of which can have alternative English spellings. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg/220px-Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg/330px-Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg/440px-Australian_aborigines_-_Frontispiece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3154" data-file-height="4594" /></a><figcaption>Clan-head of the Kirræ Wuurong peoples, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1881</figcaption></figure> The naming of peoples is complex and multi-layered, but a few examples are <a href="/wiki/Anangu" class="mw-redirect" title="Anangu">Anangu</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arrernte_people" title="Arrernte people">Arrernte</a> in central Australia; <a href="/wiki/Koori" title="Koori">Koori</a> (or Koorie) in New South Wales and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Victorians" title="Aboriginal Victorians">Aboriginal Victorians</a>); Goorie (variant pronunciation and spelling of Koori) in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales; <a href="/wiki/Murri_people" title="Murri people">Murri</a>, used in parts of Queensland and northern New South Wales where specific collective names are not used; <a href="/wiki/Tiwi_people" title="Tiwi people">Tiwi people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tiwi_Islands" title="Tiwi Islands">Tiwi Islands</a> off Northern Territory; and <a href="/wiki/Palawah" class="mw-redirect" title="Palawah">Palawah</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>. The largest Aboriginal communities – the <a href="/wiki/Pitjantjatjara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitjantjatjara people">Pitjantjatjara</a>, the Arrernte, the <a href="/wiki/Luritja" title="Luritja">Luritja</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Warlpiri_people" title="Warlpiri people">Warlpiri</a> – are all from <a href="/wiki/Central_Australia" title="Central Australia">Central Australia</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Throughout the history of the continent, there have been many different Aboriginal groups, each with its own individual <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">language</a>, culture, and belief structure. At the time of British settlement, there were over 200 distinct languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath2017-49">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg/220px-Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg/330px-Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg/440px-Dowling_Natives_of_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hawker_Dowling" title="Robert Hawker Dowling">Robert Hawker Dowling</a>, Group of Natives of Tasmania, 1859</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Tasmanians" title="Aboriginal Tasmanians">Tasmanian Aboriginal population</a> are thought to have first crossed into <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between the island and the rest of mainland Australia during the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPardoe19911-50">[49]</a> Estimates of the population of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania, before European arrival, are in the range of 3,000 to 15,000 people. However, genetic studies have suggested significantly higher figures, which are supported by Indigenous oral traditions that indicate a decline in population from diseases introduced by British and American sealers before settlement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadley201277–106-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[b]</a> The original population was further reduced to around 300 between 1803 and 1833 due to disease,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_Local_Radio2002-53">[51]</a> warfare, and other actions of British settlers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlainey198075-54">[52]</a> Despite more than 170 years of debate over who or what was responsible for this near-extinction, no consensus exists on its origins, process, or whether or not it was genocide. However, according to Benjamin Madley, using the "UN definition, sufficient evidence exists to designate the <a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Tasmanian catastrophe</a> genocide".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadley201277–106-51">[50]</a> A woman named Trugernanner (often rendered as <a href="/wiki/Truganini" title="Truganini">Truganini</a>), who died in 1876, was, and still is, widely believed to be the last of the "full-blooded" Tasmanian Aboriginal people. However, in 1889 Parliament recognised <a href="/wiki/Fanny_Cochrane_Smith" title="Fanny Cochrane Smith">Fanny Cochrane Smith</a> (d. 1905) as the last surviving "full-blooded" Tasmanian Aboriginal person.<a href="#cite_note-55">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[d]</a> The 2016 census reported 23,572 Indigenous Australians in the state of Tasmania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_Census2017-57">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torres_Strait_Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Islanders">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TorresStraitIslandsMap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TorresStraitIslandsMap.png/220px-TorresStraitIslandsMap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TorresStraitIslandsMap.png/330px-TorresStraitIslandsMap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/TorresStraitIslandsMap.png/440px-TorresStraitIslandsMap.png 2x" data-file-width="929" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a></figcaption></figure> The Torres Strait Islander people possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, and speak a <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEthnologue.com-58">[54]</a> Accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation "Aboriginal Australians". This has been another factor in the promotion of the more inclusive term "Indigenous Australians". Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify fully as <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> Islanders. A further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2004a-59">[55]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a> comprise over 100 islands,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaces_–_Torres_Strait_Islands2005-60">[56]</a> which were annexed by Queensland in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaces_–_Torres_Strait_Islands2005-60">[56]</a> Many Indigenous organisations incorporate the phrase "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander" to highlight the distinctiveness and importance of Torres Strait Islanders in Australia's Indigenous population. <a href="/wiki/Eddie_Mabo" title="Eddie Mabo">Eddie Mabo</a> was from "Mer" or <a href="/wiki/Murray_Island,_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Murray Island, Queensland">Murray Island</a> in the Torres Strait. He was a party in the <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">Mabo decision</a> of 1992.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlaces_–_Torres_Strait_Islands2005-60">[56]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[57]"><img alt="Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/120px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/180px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/240px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="4540" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of people with both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[57]"><img alt="Geographical distribution of people with both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/104px-Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/156px-Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg/208px-Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Indigenous_Status.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="6983" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of people with both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander ancestry[57]"><img alt="Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander ancestry[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg/104px-Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg/156px-Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg/208px-Torres_Strait_Islander_ancestry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="6983" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of people with Torres Strait Islander ancestry<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indigenous status of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]"><img alt="Indigenous status of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg/120px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg/180px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg/240px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_Indigenous_Status.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5726" data-file-height="5682" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indigenous status of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ancestry of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population (Torres Strait Islander or other)[57]"><img alt="Ancestry of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population (Torres Strait Islander or other)[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg/120px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg/180px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg/240px-Torres_Strait_Islander_localities_by_ancestry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5726" data-file-height="5682" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ancestry of population in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population (Torres Strait Islander or other)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]"><img alt="Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/120px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/180px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/240px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5726" data-file-height="5682" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Religious affiliations of Torres Strait islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]"><img alt="Religious affiliations of Torres Strait islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg/120px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg/180px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg/240px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Religious_affiliation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5726" data-file-height="5682" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Religious affiliations of Torres Strait islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_TableBuilder2021-61">[57]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_groupings">Other groupings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other groupings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Freshwater people" redirects here. For the American people, see <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater tribe">Freshwater tribe</a>.</div> Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people also sometimes refer to themselves by descriptions that relate to their <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a> environment, such as saltwater people for coast-dwellers (including Torres Strait Islander people<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArt_Gallery_of_NSW2014-62">[58]</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden2013-63">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmythMonaghanSmythConsultants2004-64">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReef_Catchmentsn.d.-65">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllmonKelly2018-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNiven2004329–349-67">[63]</a> freshwater people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_News2015-68">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHRC:_Nulungu_Reconciliation_Lecture2014-69">[65]</a> rainforest people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrier2015-70">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGregor2016-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2017-72">[68]</a> desert people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETourism_Australia2020-73">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Australian_Art_&_Culturen.d.-74">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIndigenous_Desert_Alliance-75">[71]</a> or spinifex people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS2015-9">[9]</a> (the latter referring to the <a href="/wiki/Pila_Nguru" class="mw-redirect" title="Pila Nguru">Pila Nguru</a> of <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasey2009122–138-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoxley2002-77">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="History of Indigenous Australians">History of Indigenous Australians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Prehistory of Australia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian archaeology">Australian archaeology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians#Origins" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians § Origins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_historical_figures" title="List of Indigenous Australian historical figures">List of Indigenous Australian historical figures</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_to_Australia">Migration to Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Migration to Australia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aboriginal_peoples">Aboriginal peoples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aboriginal peoples">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indig2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/220px-Indig2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/330px-Indig2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/440px-Indig2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8230" data-file-height="10041" /></a><figcaption>Artwork depicting the first contact that was made with the <a href="/wiki/Gweagal" title="Gweagal">Gweagal</a> Aboriginal people and <a href="/wiki/Captain_James_Cook" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain James Cook">Captain James Cook</a> and his crew on the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Cronulla_sand_dunes" title="Cronulla sand dunes">Kurnell Peninsula</a>, New South Wales</figcaption></figure> Several settlements of humans in Australia have been dated around 49,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus2016-78">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2016a-79">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a> of sediments surrounding stone artefacts at <a href="/wiki/Madjedbebe" title="Madjedbebe">Madjedbebe</a>, a rock shelter in northern Australia, indicates human activity at 65,000 years BP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarksonJacobsMarwickFullagar2017306–310-80">[76]</a> Genetic studies appear to support an arrival date of 50–70,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalaspinasWestawayMullerSousa2016207–214-81">[77]</a> The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of Africa) are those of <a href="/wiki/Mungo_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Mungo Man">Mungo Man</a>; they have been dated at 42,000 years old.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerJohnstonOlleyPrescott2003-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlleyRobertsYoshidaBowler20062469–2474-82">[78]</a> The initial comparison of the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> from the skeleton known as Lake Mungo 3 (LM3) with that of ancient and modern Aboriginal peoples indicated that Mungo Man is not related to Australian Aboriginal peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdcockDennisEastealHuttley2001537–542-83">[79]</a> However, these findings have been met with a general lack of acceptance in scientific communities.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The sequence has been criticised as there has been no independent testing, and it has been suggested that the results may be due to posthumous modification and thermal degradation of the DNA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20011655–1656-84">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithChamberlainRileyStringer2003203–217-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Museum-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForum2001163-87">[83]</a> Although the contested results seem to indicate that Mungo Man may have been an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdcockDennisEastealHuttley2001537–542-83">[79]</a> the administrative body for the <a href="/wiki/Mungo_National_Park" title="Mungo National Park">Mungo National Park</a> believes that present-day local Aboriginal peoples are descended from the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Mungo" title="Lake Mungo">Lake Mungo</a> remains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMungo_National_Park-88">[84]</a> Independent DNA testing is unlikely as the Indigenous custodians are not expected to allow further invasive investigations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2015-89">[85]</a> It is generally believed that Aboriginal people are the descendants of a single migration into the continent, a people that split from the ancestors of East Asians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallickLiLipsonMathieson2016-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipsonReich2017-91">[87]</a> Recent work with mitochondrial DNA suggests a founder population of between 1,000 and 3,000 women to produce the genetic diversity observed, which suggests that "initial colonisation of the continent would have required deliberate organised sea travel, involving hundreds of people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliam2013-92">[88]</a> Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct <a href="/wiki/Australian_megafauna" title="Australian megafauna">Australian megafauna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUoS2005-93">[89]</a> Some evidence from the analysis of charcoal and artefacts revealing human use suggests a date as early as 65,000 BP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonWahlquist2017-94">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2017-95">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a> has suggested habitation in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a> as far back as 60,000 years BP.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirdTurneyFifieldJones20021074-96">[92]</a> Evidence of fires in South-West Victoria suggest "human presence in Australia 120,000 years ago", although more research is required.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECareySherwoodPriceBowler201871–93-97">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians#Origins" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians § Origins</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:334px;max-width:334px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png/330px-Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png/495px-Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png/660px-Phylogenetic_structure_of_Eastern_Eurasians.png 2x" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Phylogenetic position of the Aboriginal Australian lineage among other <a href="/wiki/East-Eurasian" class="mw-redirect" title="East-Eurasian">East Eurasians</a></div></div></div></div></div>Genetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_East_Eurasians" title="Ancient East Eurasians">Eastern Eurasian</a> population wave during the <a href="/wiki/Initial_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Initial Upper Paleolithic">Initial Upper Paleolithic</a>, and are most closely related to other <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceanians</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a>. The Aboriginal Australians also show affinity to other <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasian</a> populations, such as <a href="/wiki/Negritos" class="mw-redirect" title="Negritos">Negritos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">Ancient Ancestral South Indians</a> groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Andamanese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Andamanese people">Andamanese people</a>, as well as to <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian peoples">East Asian peoples</a>. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern non-African (ENA) or East-Eurasian meta-population trifurcated, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the Ancient Ancestral South Indians, <a href="/wiki/Onge" title="Onge">Andamanese</a> and the East/Southeast Asian lineage including the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>, although Papuans may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOOA) as well, around 2%,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulottaGibbons2016-98">[94]</a> next to additional archaic admixture in the <a href="/wiki/Sahul" title="Sahul">Sahul</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2022-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaufikTeixeiraLlamasSudoyo2022-101">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png/220px-PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png/330px-PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png/440px-PCA_of_Orang_Asli_and_Andamanese_with_world_populations_in_HGDP.png 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="1439" /></a><figcaption>PCA of Orang Asli (Semang) and Andamanese, with worldwide populations in HGDP<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAghakhanianYunusNaiduJinam20151206–1215-102">[97]</a></figcaption></figure> Rasmussen et al. 2011 shows that Aboriginal Australian have a lower proportion of European alleles compared to Asians, which they believe is indicative of a multiple dispersal model.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEICommunity_Newsletter2012-103">[98]</a> Genetically, while Aboriginal Australians are most closely related to <a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papuan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuan people">Papuan</a> people, McEvoy et al. 2010<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvoyLindWangMoyzis2010297–305-104">[99]</a> believed there is also another component that could indicate Ancient Ancestral South Indian admixture or more recent European influence. Research indicates a single founding <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Sahul</a> group with subsequent isolation between regional populations which were relatively unaffected by later migrations from the Asian mainland, which may have introduced the <a href="/wiki/Dingo" title="Dingo">dingo</a> 4–5,000 years ago. The research also suggests a divergence from the Papuan people of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mamanwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamanwa">Mamanwa</a> people of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> about 32,000 years ago, with a rapid population expansion about 5,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvoyLindWangMoyzis2010297–305-104">[99]</a> A 2011 genetic study found evidence that the Aboriginal, Papuan and Mamanwa peoples carry some of the alleles associated with the <a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovan</a> peoples of Asia, (not found amongst populations in mainland Asia) suggesting that modern and archaic humans interbred in Asia approximately 44,000 years ago, before Australia separated from New Guinea and the migration to Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasmussenGuoWangLohmueller201194–98-105">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECallaway2011-106">[101]</a> A 2012 paper reports that there is also evidence of a substantial genetic flow from India to northern Australia estimated at slightly over four thousand years ago, a time when changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the Australian archaeological record, suggesting that these may be related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManfredMarkIrinaFrederick20131803–1808-107">[102]</a> Mallick et al. 2016 and Mark Lipson et al. 2017 study found that the bifurcation of Eastern Eurasian and Western Eurasian dates back to least 45,000 years ago, with Australasians nested inside the Eastern Eurasian clade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallickLiLipsonMathieson2016-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipsonReich2017-91">[87]</a> Aboriginal Australian men have <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_C-B477" title="Haplogroup C-B477">Haplogroup C-M347</a> in high frequencies with peak estimates ranging from 60.2%<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudjashovKivisildUnderhillEndicott20078726–8730-108">[103]</a> to 68.7%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayserBrauerWeissSchiefenhövel2003281–302-109">[104]</a> In addition, the basal form K2* (K-M526) of the extremely ancient <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_K-M526" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup K-M526">Haplogroup K2</a> – whose subclades <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)">Haplogroup R</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_Q-M242" title="Haplogroup Q-M242">haplogroup Q</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_M-P256" title="Haplogroup M-P256">haplogroup M</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_S-B254" title="Haplogroup S-B254">haplogroup S</a> can be found in the majority of Europeans, Northern South Asians, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous peoples of Oceania</a> – has only been found in living humans today amongst Aboriginal Australians. 27% of them may carry K2* and approximately 29% of Aboriginal Australian males belong to subclades of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_K2b1_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup K2b1 (Y-DNA)">K2b1</a>, a.k.a. <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_M-P256" title="Haplogroup M-P256">M</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_S-B254" title="Haplogroup S-B254">S</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENagleBallantynevan_OvenTyler-Smith2015367–381-110">[105]</a> Aboriginal Australians possess deep rooted clades of both mtDNA <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_M_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup M (mtDNA)">Haplogroup M</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup N (mtDNA)">Haplogroup N</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacAulayHillAchilliRengo20051034–1036-111">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torres_Strait_Islands">Torres Strait Islands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Islands">edit</a>]</div> Although it is estimated that people migrated from the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_archipelago" title="Indonesian archipelago">Indonesian archipelago</a> and New Guinea to mainland Australia about 70,000 years ago,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorres_Strait_history-112">[107]</a> as of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a> evidence of human settlement in the Torres Strait has only been uncovered by archaeologists dating back to about 2500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC2015-113">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidMcNivenMitchellOrr2004-114">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_European_contact">Before European contact</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Before European contact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aboriginal_people">Aboriginal people</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Aboriginal people">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ridpath%27s_Universal_history_-_an_account_of_the_origin,_primitive_condition_and_ethnic_development_of_the_great_races_of_mankind,_and_of_the_principal_events_in_the_evolution_and_progress_of_the_(14583949599).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ridpath%27s_Universal_history_-_an_account_of_the_origin%2C_primitive_condition_and_ethnic_development_of_the_great_races_of_mankind%2C_and_of_the_principal_events_in_the_evolution_and_progress_of_the_%2814583949599%29.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ridpath%27s_Universal_history_-_an_account_of_the_origin%2C_primitive_condition_and_ethnic_development_of_the_great_races_of_mankind%2C_and_of_the_principal_events_in_the_evolution_and_progress_of_the_%2814583949599%29.jpg/270px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ridpath%27s_Universal_history_-_an_account_of_the_origin%2C_primitive_condition_and_ethnic_development_of_the_great_races_of_mankind%2C_and_of_the_principal_events_in_the_evolution_and_progress_of_the_%2814583949599%29.jpg/360px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2056" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal Australians, from <a href="/wiki/John_Clark_Ridpath" title="John Clark Ridpath">Ridpath</a>'s Universal History</figcaption></figure> Aboriginal people in some regions lived as <a href="/wiki/Foragers" class="mw-redirect" title="Foragers">foragers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>, hunting and foraging for food from the land. Although Aboriginal society was generally mobile, or <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">semi-nomadic</a>, moving according to the changing food availability found across different areas as seasons changed, the mode of life and material cultures varied greatly from region to region, and there were permanent settlements<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Heritage_Places_–_Budj_Bim_National-115">[110]</a> and agriculture<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1984-116">[111]</a> in some areas. The greatest population density was to be found in the southern and eastern regions of the continent, the <a href="/wiki/River_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="River Murray">River Murray</a> valley in particular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPascoe2018-117">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">Canoes</a> were made out of bark for use on the Murray. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg/180px-Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg/270px-Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg/360px-Australian_Aborigine_canoe_scar_tree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Scarred_tree" title="Scarred tree">scarred tree</a> is where <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal</a> people have removed the bark to make a canoe, for use on the <a href="/wiki/Murray_River" title="Murray River">Murray River</a>. It was identified near <a href="/wiki/Mildura,_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mildura, Victoria">Mildura, Victoria</a>, and is now in the Mildura Visitor Centre.</figcaption></figure> There is some evidence that, before outside contact, some groups of Aboriginal Australians had a complex subsistence system with elements of agriculture, that was only recorded by the first European explorers. One early settler took notes on the life styles of the <a href="/wiki/Wathaurong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wathaurong">Wathaurung</a> people whom he lived near in Victoria. He saw women harvesting <a href="/wiki/Murnong" title="Murnong">Murnong</a> tubers, a native yam that is now almost extinct. However, the area that they were harvesting from was already cleared of other plants, making it easier to harvest Murnong (also known as yam daisy) exclusively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPascoe2018-117">[112]</a> Along the northern coast of Australia, <a href="/wiki/Parsnip_yam" class="mw-redirect" title="Parsnip yam">parsnip yams</a> were harvested by leaving the bottom part of the yam still stuck in the ground so that it would grow again in the same spot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGammage2011-118">[113]</a> Similar to many other farmers in the world, Aboriginal peoples used slash and burn techniques to enrich the nutrients of their soil. However, sheep and cattle later brought over by Europeans would ruin this soil by trampling on it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGammage2011-118">[113]</a> To add on the complexity of Aboriginal farming techniques, farmers deliberately exchanged seeds to begin growing plants where they did not naturally occur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerritsen2008-119">[114]</a> In fact there were so many examples of Aboriginal Australians managing farm land in a complex manner that Australian anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Tindale" title="Norman Tindale">Norman Tindale</a> was able to draw an Aboriginal grain belt, detailing the specific areas where crops were once produced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETindale1974?-120">[115]</a> In terms of aquaculture, explorer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mitchell_(explorer)" title="Thomas Mitchell (explorer)">Thomas Mitchell</a> noted large stone fish traps on the Darling River at Brewarrina. Each trap covers a pool, herding fish through a small entrance that would later be shut. Traps were created at different heights to accommodate different water levels during floods and droughts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinesHope1994-121">[116]</a> Technology used by Indigenous Australian societies before European contact included weapons, tools, shelters, watercraft, and the <a href="/wiki/Message_stick" title="Message stick">message stick</a>. Weapons included <a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">boomerangs</a>, spears (sometimes thrown with a <a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a>) with stone or fishbone tips, clubs, and (less commonly) axes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Herald''19193-122">[117]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> tools available included knives with ground edges, grinding devices, and eating containers. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_fibrecraft" title="Australian Aboriginal fibrecraft">Fibrecraft</a> was well-developed, and fibre nets, baskets, and bags were used for fishing, hunting, and carrying liquids. Trade networks spanned the continent, and transportation included <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoes</a>. Shelters varied regionally, and included <a href="/wiki/Wiltja" title="Wiltja">wiltjas</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atherton_Tablelands" class="mw-redirect" title="Atherton Tablelands">Atherton Tablelands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paperbark" class="mw-redirect" title="Paperbark">paperbark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stringybark" title="Stringybark">stringybark</a> sheets and raised platforms in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a>, whalebone <a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">huts</a> in what is now South Australia, stone shelters in what is now western Victoria, and a multi-room pole and bark structure found in <a href="/wiki/Corranderrk" class="mw-redirect" title="Corranderrk">Corranderrk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEaustralia.gov.au2016-123">[118]</a> A bark tent or lean-to is known as a <a href="/wiki/Humpy" title="Humpy">humpy</a>, gunyah, or wurley. Clothing included the <a href="/wiki/Possum-skin_cloak" title="Possum-skin cloak">possum-skin cloak</a> in the southeast, <a href="/wiki/Buka_cloak" title="Buka cloak">buka cloak</a> in the southwest and <a href="/wiki/Riji" title="Riji">riji</a> (pearl shells) in the northeast. There is evidence that some Aboriginal populations in northern Australia regularly <a href="/wiki/Makassan_contact_with_Australia" title="Makassan contact with Australia">traded</a> with <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Makassan</a> fishermen from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacKnight198669–75-124">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPascoe2015-125">[120]</a> At the time of first European contact, it is generally estimated that the pre-1788 population was 314,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 500,000 to 750,000 could have been sustained, with some ecologists estimating that a population of up to a million or even two million people was possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGough2011-126">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHugo2012-127">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[f]</a> More recent work suggests that Aboriginal populations exceeded 1.2 million 500 years ago, but may have fallen somewhat with the introduction of disease pathogens from Eurasia in the last 500 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliam2013-92">[88]</a> The population was split into 250 individual nations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorton1996-129">[123]</a> many of which were in alliance with one another, and within each nation there existed separate, often related <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clans</a>, from as few as 5 or 6 to as many as 30 or 40. Each nation had its own language, and a few had several. There is some evidence to suggest that the section of the Australian continent now occupied by Queensland was the single most densely populated area of pre-contact Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2007-130">[124]</a> There are also signs that the population density of Aboriginal Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Carpentaria" title="Gulf of Carpentaria">Gulf of Carpentaria</a> and westward including certain sections of Northern Territory and Western Australia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Distribution of the pre-contact Aboriginal population between the current states and territories<a href="#cite_note-131">[g]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">State/territory </th> <th colspan="2">Estimates of population share </th> <th rowspan="2">Traditional tribal land </th></tr> <tr> <th>1930 </th> <th>1988 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Queensland </td> <td>38.2% </td> <td>37.9% </td> <td>34.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Western Australia </td> <td>19.7% </td> <td>20.2% </td> <td>22.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Northern Territory </td> <td>15.9% </td> <td>12.6% </td> <td>17.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>New South Wales </td> <td>15.3% </td> <td>18.9% </td> <td>10.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Victoria </td> <td>4.8% </td> <td>5.7% </td> <td>5.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>South Australia </td> <td>4.8% </td> <td>4.0% </td> <td>8.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tasmania </td> <td>1.4% </td> <td>0.6% </td> <td>2.0% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torres_Strait_Island_people">Torres Strait Island people</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Island people">edit</a>]</div> The Torres Strait peoples' fishing economy relied on boats, which they built themselves. There is also evidence of the construction of large, complex <a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">buildings on stilts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">domed</a> structures using <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Thatched_roofs" class="mw-redirect" title="Thatched roofs">thatched roofs</a>, which catered for extended family members living together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPascoe2018-117">[112]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_colonisation">British colonisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: British colonisation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_contact">First contact</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: First contact">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland,_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg/170px-Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg/255px-Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg/340px-Two_of_the_Natives_of_New_Holland%2C_Advancing_to_Combat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2651" data-file-height="3131" /></a><figcaption>A 1770 sketch of two Aboriginal men by the British explorer <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>'s illustrator Sidney Parkinson</figcaption></figure> British exploration of the Australian coastline began with the buccaneer <a href="/wiki/William_Dampier" title="William Dampier">William Dampier</a> in 1688 and 1699. Dampier was impressed neither by the country nor the people of the west Australian coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBach1966-132">[125]</a> Almost a century later, the explorer <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a> mapped the east coast of Australia and claimed the territory for Britain in the name of <a href="/wiki/King_George_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King George III">King George III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Cook,_James''1966-133">[126]</a> Cook was impressed both by the land and the people whom he encountered, writing in his journal: "From what I have said of the Natives of <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland</a> they may appear to some to be the most wretched people upon Earth, but in reality they are far more happier than we Europeans; being wholy unacquainted not only with the superfluous but the necessary conveniencies so much sought after in Europe, they are happy in not knowing the use of them. They live in a Tranquillity which is not disturb'd by the Inequality of Condition".<a href="#cite_note-134">[127]</a> Nevertheless, Cook also noted in his journal two men at Botany Bay who "seem'd resolved to oppose" his first landing. According to Cook, after one of the men threw a rock, Cook fired a musquet loaded with small shott, which struck him with little effect.<a href="#cite_note-135">[128]</a> Some shott was lodged into one of the men's shields and was taken back to England by Cook, where it remains in the British Museum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigginsCollard2020-136">[129]</a> Cook spent a greater period of time among the Guugu Yimithirr people around modern <a href="/wiki/Cooktown" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooktown">Cooktown</a> in Queensland, where his ship was nearly wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef. Here relations were generally amicable and Cook recorded words from their language including "kangaroo", though a fight broke out when the British took turtles from the river without sharing them. Peace was restored when an elder presented Cook with a broken-tipped spear as a peace offering – remembered as a first "act of reconciliation". The encounter is commemorated annually by the Guugu Yimithirr to this day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimStephen2020-137">[130]</a> Cook's favourable impression of the East Coast of Australia led directly to the commencement of the British colonisation of Australia, commencing at Sydney in 1788. The <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> of British ships was commanded by Governor <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Phillip" title="Arthur Phillip">Arthur Phillip</a>, who had been instructed to "endeavour by every possible means to open an intercourse with the natives, and to conciliate their affections", and to enjoin his British subjects to "live in amity and kindness with them" so as "to cultivate an acquaintance with them without their having an idea of our great superiority over them".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyal2017-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dates_by_area">Dates by area</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dates by area">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg/220px-Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg/330px-Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg/440px-Batman_signs_treaty_artist_impression.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="777" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wurundjeri" title="Wurundjeri">Wurundjeri</a> people at the signing of <a href="/wiki/Batman%27s_Treaty" title="Batman's Treaty">Batman's Treaty</a>, 1835</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/British_colonisation_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="British colonisation of Australia">British colonisation of Australia</a> began with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a>, New South Wales, in 1788. Settlements were subsequently established in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> (1803), <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> (1803), <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> (1824), <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> (1826), and the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of South Australia">Colony of South Australia</a> (1836).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroome201018-138">[131]</a> The first settlement in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> was built after Captain <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bremer" title="Gordon Bremer">Gordon Bremer</a> took possession of the <a href="/wiki/Tiwi_Islands" title="Tiwi Islands">Tiwi Islands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bathurst_Island_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathurst Island (Australia)">Bathurst</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melville_Island_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Melville Island (Australia)">Melville</a>, claiming them for the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_South_Wales" title="Colony of New South Wales">colony of New South Wales</a>, although that settlement failed after a few years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris2001245-139">[132]</a> along with a couple of later attempts; permanent settlement was only finally achieved at <a href="/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory" title="Darwin, Northern Territory">Darwin</a> in 1869. Australia was the exception to British imperial colonisation practices, in that no treaty was drawn up setting out terms of agreement between the settlers and native proprietors, as was the case in North America and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">New Zealand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroome201018-138">[131]</a> Many of the men on the First Fleet had had military experience among Native American tribes in North America, and tended to attribute to the Aboriginal people alien and misleading systems or concepts like <a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">chieftainship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribe</a> with which they had become acquainted in the northern hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoley2007177–179-140">[133]</a> British administrative control began in the Torres Strait Islands in 1862, with the appointment of John Jardine, police magistrate at <a href="/wiki/Rockhampton" title="Rockhampton">Rockhampton</a>, as Government Resident in the Torres Straits. He originally established a small settlement on <a href="/wiki/Albany_Island" title="Albany Island">Albany Island</a>, but on 1 August 1864 he went to Somerset Island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELack1963132–153-141">[134]</a> English missionaries arrived on <a href="/wiki/Darnley_Island,_Torres_Strait" class="mw-redirect" title="Darnley Island, Torres Strait">Erub (Darnley Island)</a> on 1 July 1871.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETSRA_–_history-142">[135]</a> In 1872 the boundary of Queensland was extended to include <a href="/wiki/Thursday_Island" title="Thursday Island">Thursday Island</a> and some other islands in Torres Strait within 60 miles (97 km) of the Queensland coast, and in 1879 Queensland <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexed</a> the other islands, which became part of the British <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Queensland" title="Colony of Queensland">colony of Queensland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELack1963132–153-141">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact">Impact</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Impact">edit</a>]</div> One immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. In the 19th century, smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths, and vaccinations of the "native inhabitants" had begun in earnest by the 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlynnJenifer2004145–146-22">[21]</a> This smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Darug_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Darug people">Darug people</a>. The cause of the outbreak is disputed. Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeissMelodie-Jane2013-143">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackwell_Public_Schooln.d.-144">[137]</a> but it is also argued that <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Macassan</a> fishermen from <a href="/wiki/South_Sulawesi" title="South Sulawesi">South Sulawesi</a> and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia before the arrival of Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2007-145">[138]</a> A third suggestion is that the outbreak was caused by contact with members of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMear20081–22-146">[139]</a> A fourth theory is that the epidemic was of <a href="/wiki/Chickenpox" title="Chickenpox">chickenpox</a>, not smallpox, carried by members of the First Fleet, and to which the Aboriginal people also had no immunity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIlroy2013-147">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarmody2013-148">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKociumbas200479ff-149">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''United_Service''20147-150">[143]</a> Moreover, Aboriginal people were infected with sexually transmitted infections, especially syphilis and gonorrhea. Another consequence of British colonisation was European seizure of land and water resources, with the decimation of kangaroo and other food sources which continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as rural lands were converted for sheep and cattle grazing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPascoe2007182–185-151">[144]</a> Settlers also participated in the rape and forcible prostitution of Aboriginal women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnor2016-152">[145]</a> Some Europeans, for example escaped convicts, lived in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynardHaskins2016-153">[146]</a> In 1834 there occurred the first recorded use of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_tracker" title="Aboriginal tracker">Aboriginal trackers</a>, who proved very adept at navigating their way through the Australian landscape and finding people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpoonerFirmanYalmambirra2013329-154">[147]</a> During the 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_Aboriginal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tasmanian Aboriginal">Tasmanian Aboriginal</a> skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into <a href="/wiki/Craniofacial_anthropometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniofacial anthropometry">craniofacial anthropometry</a>. The skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Truganini" title="Truganini">Truganini</a>, a Tasmanian Aboriginal who died in 1876, was exhumed within two years of her death despite her pleas to the contrary by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Tasmania" title="Royal Society of Tasmania">Royal Society of Tasmania</a>, and later placed on display. Campaigns continue to have Aboriginal body parts returned to Australia for burial; Truganini's body was returned in 1976 and cremated, and her ashes were scattered according to her wishes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Place names sometimes reveal discrimination, such as Mount Jim Crow in <a href="/wiki/Rockhampton,_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockhampton, Queensland">Rockhampton, Queensland</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Mount_Baga" title="Mount Baga">Mount Baga</a>), as well as racist policies, like Brisbane's Boundary Streets, which used to indicate boundaries where Aboriginal people were not allowed to cross during certain times of the day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondon2011-155">[148]</a> There is ongoing discussion about changing many of these names.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMah2016-156">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerzonRobinson2018-157">[150]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indigenous-wages-graph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Indigenous-wages-graph.jpg/220px-Indigenous-wages-graph.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Indigenous-wages-graph.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing the destination of Indigenous wages in Queensland in the 19th and 20th centuries</figcaption></figure> Throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people had their lives under the jurisdiction of various state-based protection laws. These <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of Parliament">Acts of Parliament</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Protectors_of_Aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectors of Aborigines">Protectors of Aborigines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Protection_Board" title="Aboriginal Protection Board">Aboriginal Protection Boards</a>, whose role was to control the lives of Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMA:_APA2021-158">[151]</a> Wages were controlled by the Protectors, and Indigenous Australians received less income than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ-159">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ2016-160">[153]</a> During this time, many Aboriginal people were victims of slavery by colonists alongside <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander" title="Pacific Islander">Pacific Islander</a> peoples who were kidnapped from their homes, in a practice known as <a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">blackbirding</a>. Between 1860 and 1970, under the guise of protectionist policies, people, including children as young as 12, were forced to work on properties where they worked under horrific conditions and most did not receive any wages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimmonds2015-161">[154]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">pearling</a> industry, Aboriginal peoples were bought for about 5 pounds, with pregnant Aboriginal women "prized because their lungs were believed to have greater air capacity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2018b-162">[155]</a> Aboriginal prisoners in the Aboriginal-only prison on <a href="/wiki/Rottnest_Island" title="Rottnest Island">Rottnest Island</a>, many of whom were there on trumped up charges, were chained up and forced to work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2017-163">[156]</a> In 1971, 373 Aboriginal men were found buried in unmarked graves on the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelville2016-164">[157]</a> Up until June 2018, the former prison was being used as holiday accommodation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWynne2018-165">[158]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A.O._Neville,_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg/220px-A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg/330px-A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg/440px-A.O._Neville%2C_Australia%27s_Coloured_Minority_-_Assimilation_Policy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>The successive breeding out of "colour" in the Aboriginal population as part of assimilation policies, demonstrated here in <a href="/wiki/A._O._Neville" title="A. O. Neville">A. O. Neville</a>'s "Australia's coloured minority" book</figcaption></figure> From 1810, Aboriginal peoples were moved onto mission stations, run by churches and the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2018a-166">[159]</a> After this period of protectionist policies that aimed to segregate and control Aboriginal populations, in 1937 the Commonwealth government agreed to move towards assimilation policies. These policies aimed to integrate Aboriginal persons who were "not of full blood" into the white community in an effort to eliminate the "Aboriginal problem". As part of this, there was an increase in the number of children forcibly removed from their homes and placed with white people, either in institutions or foster homes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Face_the_Facts''2005-167">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frontier_wars_and_massacres">Frontier wars and massacres</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Frontier wars and massacres">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Australian frontier wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="List of massacres of Indigenous Australians">List of massacres of Indigenous Australians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg/220px-Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg/330px-Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg/440px-Mounted_police_and_blacks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>New South Wales Mounted Police killing Aboriginal warriors during the <a href="/wiki/Waterloo_Creek_massacre" title="Waterloo Creek massacre">Waterloo Creek massacre</a>, 1838</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png/220px-Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png/330px-Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png/440px-Aboriginal_slaves_Rottnest_1883.png 2x" data-file-width="1917" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal prisoners on <a href="/wiki/Rottnest_Island" title="Rottnest Island">Rottnest Island</a>, 1883</figcaption></figure> As part of the colonisation process, there were many conflicts and clashes between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people across the continent and islands. In Queensland, the killing of Aboriginal peoples was largely perpetrated by civilian "hunting" parties and the Native Police, armed groups of Aboriginal men who were recruited at gunpoint and led by government officers to eliminate Aboriginal resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards2014147–161-168">[161]</a> There is evidence that massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, which began with arrival of British colonists, continued until the 1930s. Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Newcastle_(Australia)" title="University of Newcastle (Australia)">University of Newcastle</a> under <a href="/wiki/Lyndall_Ryan" title="Lyndall Ryan">Lyndall Ryan</a> have been mapping the massacres.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_Newcastle2017b-169">[162]</a> as of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a> they have mapped almost 500 places where massacres happened, with 12,361 Aboriginal people killed and 204 Colonists killed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUoN-170">[163]</a> numbering at least 311 massacres over a period of about 140 years. After losing a significant number of their social unit in one blow, the survivors were left very vulnerable – with reduced ability to gather food, reproduce, or fulfill their ceremonial obligations, as well as defend themselves against further attack.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColonial_frontier_massacres_–_C21CH-171">[164]</a> Estimating the total number of deaths during the frontier wars is difficult due to lack of records and the fact that many massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander were kept secret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniversity_of_Newcastle2017b-169">[162]</a> It is often quoted that 20,000 Aboriginal Australians and 2000 colonists died in the frontier wars;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirst_encounters_and_frontier_conflict2015-172">[165]</a> however, recent research indicates at least 40,000 Aboriginal dead and 2,000 to 2,500 settlers dead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds2013121–134-173">[166]</a> Other research indicates a minimum of 65,000 Aboriginal peoples may have been killed in Queensland alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaley2014-174">[167]</a> There have been arguments over whether deaths of Aboriginal peoples, particularly in Tasmania, as well as the forcible removal of children from Aboriginal communities, constitutes <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarman2018Moses2017RogersBain201683–100-175">[168]</a> There has been broad range of historical research on the massacres and treatment of Aboriginal peoples, including by Lyndall Ryan at the Centre for 21st Century Humanities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2021-176">[169]</a> the Frontier Conflict Database,<a href="#cite_note-177">[170]</a> and the Australian Commonwealth government's Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children From their Families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1997275-178">[171]</a> According to the analysis of Justice Ronald Wilson in the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Report Australia's policy of forcible removal was genocidal in nature. Quoting Raphael Lemkin, Wilson defined genocide as "a coordinated plan of different actions aimed at the destruction of the essential foundations of the lives of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemkin194479-179">[172]</a> The objectives of which were "the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, the destruction of personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemkin194479-179">[172]</a> Wilson states that "Genocide can be committed by means other than actual physical extermination. It is committed by the forcible transfer of children, provided the other elements of the crime are established."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1997275-178">[171]</a> He points out that "Genocide is committed even when the destruction has not been carried out. A conspiracy to commit genocide and an attempt at genocide are both crimes which are committed whether or not any actual destruction occurred."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1997275-178">[171]</a> Further, Wilson found that "The debates at the time of the drafting of the Genocide Convention establish clearly that an act or policy is still genocidal when it is motivated by a number of objectives. To constitute an act of genocide the planned extermination of a group need not be solely motivated by animosity or hatred."...and that "reasonable foreseeability...is sufficient to establish the Convention's intent element."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1997275-178">[171]</a> He concluded that "The policy of forcible removal of children from Indigenous Australians to other groups for the purpose of raising them separately from and ignorant of their culture and people could properly be labelled 'genocidal' in breach of binding international law from at least 11 December 1946...The practice continued for almost another quarter of a century."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1997275-178">[171]</a> There are few memorials in Australia acknowledging the widespread massacres of Aboriginal Peoples, and no memorials describing it as genocide. However, the massacres were often recorded by Australians as place names, for example: <a href="/wiki/Murdering_Gully_massacre" title="Murdering Gully massacre">Murdering Gully</a> in Newcastle, Murdering Creek at Lake Weyba, Skull Pocket and Skeleton Creek near Cairns, Rifle Creek near Mt Molloy Qld, Skull Lagoon near Mt Carbine Qld, Skull Hole near Winton Qld, Battle Camp Road, Range and Station east of Laura Qld, Slaughterhouse Creek (Waterloo Creek) NSW.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronshaw2018Bottoms20131–208-180">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1871–1969:_Stolen_Generations">1871–1969: Stolen Generations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 1871–1969: Stolen Generations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border:2px solid #7E3517;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rights" title="Category:Rights">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none; font-size:150%; line-height:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Indalo_symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indalo symbol"><img alt="Indalo symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Indalo_symbol.svg/48px-Indalo_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Indalo_symbol.svg/72px-Indalo_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Indalo_symbol.svg/96px-Indalo_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="45" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> Rights</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_domain" title="Ancestral domain">Ancestral domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_rights" title="Cultural rights">Cultural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Water and sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_protectors" title="Water protectors">Protection</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> Governmental organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Commission_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights">ACHPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Labour_and_Social_Inclusion" title="Ministry of Labour and Social Inclusion">AID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">BIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Council of Indigenous Peoples">CIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown%E2%80%93Indigenous_Relations_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" title="Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada">CIRNAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Traditional_Affairs" title="Department of Traditional Affairs">DTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_dos_Povos_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Fundação Nacional dos Povos Indígenas">FUNAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="National Institute of Indigenous Peoples">INPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Orang_Asli_Development" title="Department of Orang Asli Development">JAKOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_on_Indigenous_Peoples_(Philippines)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines)">NCIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Australians_Agency" title="National Indigenous Australians Agency">NIAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_Affairs" title="Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs">MCHTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Puni_K%C5%8Dkiri" title="Te Puni Kōkiri">TPK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">UNPFII</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> initiatives</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_World%27s_Indigenous_Peoples" title="International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples">9 August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">UNPFII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Committee_on_Intellectual_Property_and_Genetic_Resources,_Traditional_Knowledge_and_Folklore" title="Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore">WIPO IGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="High Seas Treaty">BBNJ ABS Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Caucus" title="Indigenous Caucus">Indigenous Caucus</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> International Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Tribal_Populations_Convention,_1957" title="Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957">ILO 107</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Tribal_Peoples_Convention,_1989" title="Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989">ILO 169</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">United Nations Declaration (UNDRIP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property,_Genetic_Resources_and_Associated_Traditional_Knowledge" title="WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge">GRATK Anti-Biopiracy Treaty</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> NGOs and political groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">AFN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Conservation_Team" title="Amazon Conservation Team">Amazon Conservation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Watch" title="Amazon Watch">Amazon Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Congress of Aboriginal Peoples">CAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinator_of_Indigenous_Organizations_of_the_Amazon_River_Basin" title="Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin">COICA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CONAECDA" title="CONAECDA">CONAECDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_Indigenous_Nationalities_of_Ecuador" title="Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador">CONAIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Survival" title="Cultural Survival">Cultural Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">EZLN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rettet_die_Naturv%C3%B6lker" title="Rettet die Naturvölker">fPcN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_of_Africa_Co-ordinating_Committee" title="Indigenous Peoples of Africa Co-ordinating Committee">IPACC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism" title="Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism">IPCB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Work_Group_for_Indigenous_Affairs" title="International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs">IWGIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">NARF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Organization_of_Colombia" title="National Indigenous Organization of Colombia">ONIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_International" title="Survival International">Survival International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Red_Nation" title="The Red Nation">The Red Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization" title="Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization">UNPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KAFFED" title="KAFFED">KAFFED</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_rights_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous rights organizations">more ...</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> Issues</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">Aboriginal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">Civilizing mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-governance" title="Co-governance">Co-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">Discovery doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against indigenous peoples">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_decolonization" title="Indigenous decolonization">Indigenous decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lands_inhabited_by_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples">Inhabited lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_commission" title="Truth commission">Truth commissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">Uncontacted peoples</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:#FFBA00; padding:0;"> Countries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous rights in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background-color:#FFBA00; border-bottom:1px solid #7E3517;padding:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_rights" title="Category:Indigenous rights">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a></div> The Stolen Generations were those children of Australian Aboriginal and <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres Strait Islander">Torres Strait Islander</a> descent who were forcibly removed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFOCUS_Asia-Pacific1997-181">[174]</a> from their families by the Australian <a href="/wiki/Australian_Government" title="Australian Government">federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_states_and_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian states and territories">state</a> government agencies and <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">church missions</a> for the purpose of eradicating Aboriginal culture, under <a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">acts of their respective parliaments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[h]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringing_them_home_education_module-183">[175]</a> The forcible removal of these children occurred in the period between approximately 1871<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarten2002229-184">[176]</a> and 1969,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Museum2004-185">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERead1981-186">[178]</a> although in some places children were still being taken in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-187">[i]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> By 1900, the recorded Indigenous population of Australia had declined to approximately 93,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02002-17">[16]</a> However, this was only a partial count, as both Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders were poorly covered, with desert Aboriginal peoples not counted at all until the 1930s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the first half of the twentieth century, many Indigenous Australians worked as <a href="/wiki/Stockman_(Australia)" title="Stockman (Australia)">stockmen</a> on <a href="/wiki/Sheep_station" title="Sheep station">sheep stations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cattle_station" title="Cattle station">cattle stations</a> for extremely low wages. The Indigenous population continued to decline, reaching a low of 74,000 in 1933 before numbers began to recover. By 1995, population numbers had reached pre-colonisation levels, and in 2010 there were around 563,000 Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHugo2012-127">[122]</a> Although, as <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subjects</a>, all Indigenous Australians were nominally entitled to vote, generally only those who merged into mainstream society did so. Only Western Australia and Queensland specifically excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from the electoral rolls. Despite the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Franchise_Act_1902" title="Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902">Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902</a>, which excluded "Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and Pacific Islands except New Zealand" from voting unless they were on the roll before 1901, South Australia insisted that all voters enfranchised within its borders would remain eligible to vote in the Commonwealth, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continued to be added to their rolls, albeit haphazardly.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child,_South_Australia,_ca._1860.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg/180px-Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg/270px-Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg/360px-Aboriginal_woman_in_a_kangaroo_skin_cloak_carrying_a_child%2C_South_Australia%2C_ca._1860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal women carrying a child wrapped in <a href="/wiki/Possum-skin_cloak" title="Possum-skin cloak">pelt cloak</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1860</figcaption></figure> Despite efforts to bar their enlistment, over 1,000 Indigenous Australians fought for Australia in the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELondey-188">[179]</a> 1934 saw the first appeal to the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> by an Aboriginal Australian, and it succeeded. Dhakiyarr was found to have been wrongly convicted of the murder of a white policeman, for which he had been sentenced to death; the case focused national attention on <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Aboriginal rights</a> issues. Dhakiyarr disappeared upon release.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENAA_Uncommon_Lives2004-189">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustLII1934-190">[181]</a> In 1938, the 150th anniversary of the arrival of the British <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> was marked as a <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Mourning_(Australia)" title="Day of Mourning (Australia)">Day of Mourning</a> and Protest at an Aboriginal meeting in Sydney, and has since become marked around Australia as "Invasion Day" or "Survival Day" by Aboriginal protesters and their supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKooriweb.org1938-191">[182]</a> Hundreds of Indigenous Australians served in the Australian armed forces during World War Two – including with the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Light_Infantry_Battalion" title="Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion">Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion</a> and The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_Special_Reconnaissance_Unit" title="Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit">Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit</a>, which were established to guard <a href="/wiki/Northern_Australia" title="Northern Australia">Australia's North</a> against the threat of Japanese invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAWM-192">[183]</a> However, most were denied pension rights and military allotments, except in Victoria, where each case was judged individually, without a blanket denial of rights accruing from their service.<a href="#cite_note-193">[j]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Late 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Namatjira0384.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Namatjira0384.jpg/220px-Namatjira0384.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Namatjira0384.jpg/330px-Namatjira0384.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Namatjira0384.jpg/440px-Namatjira0384.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Picture of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Namatjira" title="Albert Namatjira">Albert Namatjira</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Namatjira_Gallery" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Namatjira Gallery">Albert Namatjira Gallery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alice_Springs,_Northern_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice Springs, Northern Territory">Alice Springs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal art">Aboriginal art</a> and artists became increasingly prominent in Australian cultural life during the second half of the 20th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum,_Evonne_Goolag_(3x4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg/180px-Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg/270px-Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg/360px-Internationale_tenniskampioenschappen_bij_Melkhuisje_te_Hilversum%2C_Evonne_Goolag_%283x4%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption>Australian tennis player <a href="/wiki/Evonne_Goolagong" class="mw-redirect" title="Evonne Goolagong">Evonne Goolagong</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights_in_Australia" title="Indigenous land rights in Australia">Indigenous land rights in Australia</a></div> The 1960s was a pivotal decade in the assertion of Aboriginal rights and a time of growing collaboration between Aboriginal activists and white Australian activists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_indigenous_rights-194">[184]</a> In 1962, Commonwealth legislation guaranteed Aboriginal people the right to vote in <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Australia" title="Elections in Australia">Commonwealth elections</a>, which had previously been denied to Indigenous people in Queensland and Western Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAEC_–_milestones-195">[185]</a> A group of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a> students organised a bus tour of western and coastal New South Wales towns in 1965 to raise awareness of the state of Aboriginal health and living conditions. This <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Ride_(Australia)" title="Freedom Ride (Australia)">Freedom Ride</a> also aimed to highlight the social discrimination faced by Aboriginal people and encourage Aboriginal people themselves to resist discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_Freedom_Ride-196">[186]</a> As mentioned above, Indigenous Australians received lower wages than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Queensland in particular had their income quarantined by the Protector and were allowed a minimal amount of their income.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ-159">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ2016-160">[153]</a> In 1966, <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Lingiari" title="Vincent Lingiari">Vincent Lingiari</a> led the famous <a href="/wiki/Wave_Hill_walk-off" title="Wave Hill walk-off">Wave Hill walk-off</a> (Gurindji strike) of Indigenous employees of <a href="/wiki/Wave_Hill_Station" title="Wave Hill Station">Wave Hill Station</a> in protest against poor pay and conditions<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_walk-off-197">[187]</a> (later the subject of the <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kelly_(Australian_musician)" title="Paul Kelly (Australian musician)">Paul Kelly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kev_Carmody" title="Kev Carmody">Kev Carmody</a> song "<a href="/wiki/From_Little_Things_Big_Things_Grow" title="From Little Things Big Things Grow">From Little Things Big Things Grow</a>").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2010-198">[188]</a> Since 1999, the <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Government" title="Queensland Government">Queensland Government</a>, under pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Queensland_Council_of_Unions" title="Queensland Council of Unions">Queensland Council of Unions</a>, has established a number of schemes to give any earned income not received at the time back to Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ-159">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoQ2016-160">[153]</a> The landmark <a href="/wiki/1967_Australian_referendum_(Aboriginals)" title="1967 Australian referendum (Aboriginals)">1967 referendum</a> called by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Holt" title="Harold Holt">Harold Holt</a> allowed the <a href="/wiki/Australian_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian federal government">Commonwealth</a> to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people by modifying <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxvi)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxvi) of the Australian Constitution">section 51(xxvi)</a> of the Constitution, and for Aboriginal people to be included when the country does a count to determine electoral representation by repealing <a href="/wiki/Section_127_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 127 of the Australian Constitution">section 127</a>. The referendum passed with 90.77% voter support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA1968-199">[189]</a> In the controversial 1971 <a href="/wiki/Gove_land_rights_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Gove land rights case">Gove land rights case</a>, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a> before British settlement, and that no concept of <a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">native title existed in Australian law</a>. Following the 1973 <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Commission" title="Aboriginal Land Rights Commission">Woodward commission</a>, in 1975 the federal government under <a href="/wiki/Gough_Whitlam" title="Gough Whitlam">Gough Whitlam</a> drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Bill. This was enacted the following year under the <a href="/wiki/Fraser_government" title="Fraser government">Fraser government</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Land_Rights_(Northern_Territory)_Act_1976" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976">Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976</a>, which recognised Aboriginal Australians' system of land rights in the Northern Territory, and established the basis upon which Aboriginal people in the NT could claim rights to land based on <a href="/wiki/Traditional_owner" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional owner">traditional occupation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFogartyDwyer2012-200">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoAD-201">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECentral_Land_Council-202">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawfordZillman2016-203">[193]</a> In 1985, the Australian government returned ownership of <a href="/wiki/Uluru" title="Uluru">Uluru</a> (Ayers Rock) to the <a href="/wiki/Pitjantjatjara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitjantjatjara people">Pitjantjatjara</a> Aboriginal people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS:_handback2015-204">[194]</a> In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a> reversed Justice Blackburn's ruling and handed down its decision in the <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)_(1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)">Mabo Case</a>, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid and confirming the existence of <a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">native title in Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Mabo_and_Native_title-205">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS:_Land_Rights2015-206">[196]</a> Indigenous Australians began to serve in parliaments from the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGobbett2017-207">[197]</a> In 1971, <a href="/wiki/Neville_Bonner" title="Neville Bonner">Neville Bonner</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate" title="Australian Senate">Australian Senate</a> as a Senator for Queensland for the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia" title="Liberal Party of Australia">Liberal Party</a>, becoming the first Indigenous Australian in the Federal Parliament. A year later, the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Tent_Embassy" title="Aboriginal Tent Embassy">Aboriginal Tent Embassy</a> was established on the steps of <a href="/wiki/Old_Parliament_House,_Canberra" title="Old Parliament House, Canberra">Parliament House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canberra" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>. In 1976, Sir <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Nicholls" title="Douglas Nicholls">Douglas Nicholls</a> was appointed as the 28th Governor of South Australia, the first Aboriginal person appointed to vice-regal office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECivics_and_Citizenship_Education2005-208">[198]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2010_Australian_federal_election" title="2010 Australian federal election">general election of 2010</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Wyatt" title="Ken Wyatt">Ken Wyatt</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia" title="Liberal Party of Australia">Liberal Party</a> became the first Indigenous Australian elected to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">Australian House of Representatives</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_federal_election" title="2016 Australian federal election">general election of 2016</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linda_Burney" title="Linda Burney">Linda Burney</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party" title="Australian Labor Party">Australian Labor Party</a> became the second Indigenous Australian, and the first Indigenous Australian woman, elected to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">Australian House of Representatives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2016b-209">[199]</a> She was immediately appointed <a href="/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow Cabinet of Australia">Shadow Minister</a> for Human Services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman2016-210">[200]</a> In sport <a href="/wiki/Evonne_Goolagong_Cawley" title="Evonne Goolagong Cawley">Evonne Goolagong Cawley</a> became the world number-one ranked tennis player in 1971 and won 14 Grand Slam titles during her career. In 1973 <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Beetson" title="Arthur Beetson">Arthur Beetson</a> became the first Indigenous Australian to captain his country in any sport when he first led the Australian National Rugby League team, <a href="/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_league_team" title="Australia national rugby league team">the Kangaroos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthur_Beetson_OAM-211">[201]</a> In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Ella" title="Mark Ella">Mark Ella</a> became captain of the <a href="/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team" title="Australia national rugby union team">Australia national rugby union team</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERugby_Hall_of_Fame2007-212">[202]</a> In 2000, Aboriginal sprinter <a href="/wiki/Cathy_Freeman" title="Cathy Freeman">Cathy Freeman</a> lit the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_flame" title="Olympic flame">Olympic flame</a> at the opening ceremony of the <a href="/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics" title="2000 Summer Olympics">2000 Summer Olympics</a> in Sydney, and went on to win the <a href="/wiki/400_metres" title="400 metres">400 metres</a> at the Games. In 2019, tennis player <a href="/wiki/Ashleigh_Barty" title="Ashleigh Barty">Ashleigh Barty</a> was ranked world number one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_News2019-213">[203]</a> In 1984, <a href="/wiki/Pintupi_Nine" title="Pintupi Nine">a group of</a> <a href="/wiki/Pintupi" title="Pintupi">Pintupi</a> people who were living a traditional <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the <a href="/wiki/Gibson_Desert" title="Gibson Desert">Gibson Desert</a> in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to have been the last <a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">uncontacted tribe</a> in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorley2006-214">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_contact-215">[205]</a> During this period, the federal government enacted a number of significant, but controversial, policy initiatives in relation to Indigenous Australians. A representative body, the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Commission" title="Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission">Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission</a> (ATSIC), was set up in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2003-216">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reconciliation">Reconciliation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reconciliation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_in_Australia" title="Reconciliation in Australia">Reconciliation in Australia</a></div> Reconciliation between non-Indigenous and Indigenous Australians became a significant issue in Australian politics in the late 20th century. In 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_Aboriginal_Reconciliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation">Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation</a> was established by the federal government to facilitate reconciliation. In 1998, a Constitutional Convention which selected a Republican model for a referendum included just six Indigenous participants, leading Monarchist delegate <a href="/wiki/Neville_Bonner" title="Neville Bonner">Neville Bonner</a> to end his contribution to the convention with his Jagera tribal "Sorry Chant" in sadness at the low number of Indigenous representatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKenna2000-217">[207]</a> An inquiry into the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> was launched in 1995 by the <a href="/wiki/Keating_government" title="Keating government">Keating government</a>, and the final report delivered in 1997 – the Bringing Them Home report – estimated that around 10% to 33% of all Aboriginal children had been separated from their families for the duration of the policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Stolen_Generations-218">[208]</a> The succeeding <a href="/wiki/Howard_government" title="Howard government">Howard government</a> largely ignored the recommendations provided by the report, one of which was a formal apology to Aboriginal Australians for the Stolen Generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Stolen_Generations-218">[208]</a> The republican model, as well as a proposal for a new Constitutional preamble which would have included the "honouring" of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, was put to <a href="/wiki/1999_Australian_republic_referendum" title="1999 Australian republic referendum">referendum</a> but did not succeed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKenna2000-217">[207]</a> In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed a <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_Reconciliation" title="Motion of Reconciliation">Motion of Reconciliation</a> drafted by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/John_Howard" title="John Howard">John Howard</a> in consultation with Aboriginal Senator <a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridgeway" title="Aden Ridgeway">Aden Ridgeway</a> naming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most "blemished chapter in our national history", although Howard refused to offer any formal apology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrennan2008-219">[209]</a> On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Rudd" title="Kevin Rudd">Kevin Rudd</a> issued a formal <a href="/wiki/Apology_to_Australia%27s_Indigenous_peoples" title="Apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples">apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples</a>, on behalf of the federal government of Australia, for the suffering caused by the Stolen Generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch2008-220">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> In 2001, the Federal Government dedicated <a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_Place" title="Reconciliation Place">Reconciliation Place</a> in Canberra. On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Rudd" title="Kevin Rudd">Kevin Rudd</a> reversed Howard's decision and issued a <a href="/wiki/Apology_to_Australia%27s_Indigenous_peoples" title="Apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples">public apology</a> to members of the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> on behalf of the Australian Government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoA2012-221">[211]</a> ATSIC was abolished by the Australian Government in 2004 amidst allegations of corruption.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt2003-216">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergency_Response/Stronger_Futures">Emergency Response/Stronger Futures</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Emergency Response/Stronger Futures">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response" title="Northern Territory National Emergency Response">Northern Territory National Emergency Response</a> (also known as the Intervention) was launched in 2007 by the government of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/John_Howard" title="John Howard">John Howard</a>, in response to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Children_are_Sacred" title="Little Children are Sacred">Little Children are Sacred</a> report into allegations of <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a> among Aboriginal communities in the NT. The government banned alcohol in prescribed communities in the Territory; quarantined a percentage of <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_Australia" title="Social security in Australia">welfare payments</a> for essential goods purchasing; dispatched additional police and medical personnel to the region; and suspended the permit system for access to Aboriginal communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibson2007-222">[212]</a> In addition to these measures, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">army</a> were released into communities<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCallumWaller201233–34-223">[213]</a> and there were increased police powers, which were later further increased with the so-called "paperless arrests" legislation.<a href="#cite_note-224">[214]</a> In 2010, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya found the Emergency Response to be racially discriminatory, and said that aspects of it represented a limitation on "individual autonomy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnaya2010-225">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirk2010-226">[216]</a> These findings were criticised by the government's Indigenous Affairs Minister <a href="/wiki/Jenny_Macklin" title="Jenny Macklin">Jenny Macklin</a>, the Opposition and Indigenous leaders like <a href="/wiki/Warren_Mundine" title="Warren Mundine">Warren Mundine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bess_Price" title="Bess Price">Bess Price</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawley2009-227">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2011-228">[218]</a> In 2011, the Australian government enacted legislation to implement the <a href="/wiki/Stronger_Futures_policy" title="Stronger Futures policy">Stronger Futures policy</a>, which is intended to address key issues that exist within Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory such as unemployment, school attendance and enrolment, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_abuse" title="Alcohol abuse">alcohol abuse</a>, community safety and child protection, food security and housing and land reforms. The policy has been criticised by organisations such as <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> and other groups, including on the basis that it maintains "racially-discriminatory" elements of the Emergency Response Act and continues control by the federal government over "Aboriginal people and their lands".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Stand_for_Freedom''2012-229">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constitutional_change_proposed">Constitutional change proposed</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Constitutional change proposed">edit</a>]</div> In 2010, the federal government appointed a panel comprising Indigenous leaders, other legal experts and some members of parliament (including Ken Wyatt) to provide advice on how best to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Constitution">federal Constitution</a>. The panel's recommendations, reported to the federal government in January 2012,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoA2012-221">[211]</a> included deletion of provisions of the Constitution referencing race (<a href="/wiki/Section_25_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 25 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 25</a> and <a href="/wiki/Section_51(xxvi)_of_the_Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Section 51(xxvi) of the Australian Constitution">Section 51(xxvi)</a>), and new provisions on meaningful recognition and further protection from discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-230">[k]</a> Subsequently, a <a href="/wiki/Proposed_2013_Australian_constitutional_referendum" title="Proposed 2013 Australian constitutional referendum">proposed referendum on Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians</a> was ultimately abandoned in 2013. The <a href="/wiki/Uluru_Statement_from_the_Heart" title="Uluru Statement from the Heart">Uluru Statement from the Heart</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart-231">[220]</a> was released 26 May 2017 by delegates to an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Convention, held near <a href="/wiki/Uluru" title="Uluru">Uluru</a> in Central Australia. The statement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission" to supervise a process of "agreement-making" and "truth-telling" between government and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement:_a_quick_guide-232">[221]</a> The statement references the <a href="/wiki/Australian_referendum,_1967_(Aboriginals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)">1967 referendum</a> which brought about changes to the Constitution to include Indigenous Australians. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Population">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population in Australia, 1971–2021<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2001-233">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2023-234">[223]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Census </th> <th>Population </th> <th>Percentage </th></tr> <tr> <td>1971 </td> <td>115,953 </td> <td>0.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1976 </td> <td>160,915 </td> <td>1.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1981 </td> <td>159,897 </td> <td>1.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1986 </td> <td>206,104 </td> <td>1.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1991 </td> <td>265,378 </td> <td>1.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1996 </td> <td>352,970 </td> <td>2.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2006 </td> <td>455,028 </td> <td>2.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2011 </td> <td>548,368 </td> <td>2.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_census" title="2016 Australian census">2016</a> </td> <td>649,171 </td> <td>2.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/2021_Australian_census" title="2021 Australian census">2021</a> </td> <td>812,728 </td> <td>3.2% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-colonisation">Pre-colonisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pre-colonisation">edit</a>]</div> It has been variously estimated that before the arrival of British settlers, the population of Indigenous (probably Aboriginal only) Australians was approximately 318,000–1,000,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGough2011-126">[121]</a> with the distribution being similar to that of the current Australian population, the majority living in the south-east, centred along the <a href="/wiki/Murray_River" title="Murray River">Murray River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPardoe20061–21-19">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_identity" title="Australian Aboriginal identity">Australian Aboriginal identity</a></div> Over time Australia has used various means to determine membership of ethnic groups such as <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(genetic)" title="Lineage (genetic)">lineage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">blood quantum</a>, birth and <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>. From 1869[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] until well into the 1970s, children under 12 years of age with 25% or less Aboriginal blood were considered "white" and were often <a href="/wiki/Stolen_generations" class="mw-redirect" title="Stolen generations">removed from their families</a> by the Australian <a href="/wiki/Australian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian government">Federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_states_and_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian states and territories">State</a> government agencies and <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">church missions</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">acts</a> of their respective parliaments in order that they would have "a reasonable chance of absorption into the white community to which they rightly belong".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBleakley192917-235">[224]</a> Grey areas in determination of ethnicity led to people of mixed ancestry being caught in the middle of divisive policies which often led to absurd situations:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer200633–34-236">[225]</a> <blockquote>In 1935, an Australian of part Indigenous descent left his home on a reserve to visit a nearby hotel where he was ejected for being Aboriginal. He returned home but was refused entry to the reserve because he was not Aboriginal. He attempted to remove his children from the reserve but was told he could not because they were Aboriginal. He then walked to the next town where he was arrested for being an Aboriginal vagrant and sent to the reserve there. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> he tried to enlist but was rejected because he was an Aborigine so he moved to another state where he enlisted as a non-Aborigine. After the end of the war he applied for a passport but was rejected as he was an Aborigine, he obtained an exemption under the Aborigines Protection Act but was now told he could no longer visit his relatives as he was not an Aborigine. He was later told he could not join the <a href="/wiki/Returned_and_Services_League_of_Australia" title="Returned and Services League of Australia">Returned Servicemens Club</a> because he was an Aborigine.</blockquote> In 1983 the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v_Tasmania" title="Commonwealth v Tasmania">Commonwealth v Tasmania</a> or "Tasmanian dam(s) case")<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustLII1983-237">[226]</a> defined an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as "a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives". The ruling was a three-part definition comprising descent, self-identification and community identification. The first part – descent – was genetic descent and unambiguous, but led to cases where a lack of records to prove ancestry excluded some. Self- and community identification were more problematic as they meant that an Indigenous person separated from his or her community due to a family dispute could no longer identify as Aboriginal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEALRC2010-238">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnell1998-239">[228]</a> As a result, there arose court cases throughout the 1990s where excluded people demanded that their Aboriginality be recognised. As a result, lower courts refined the High Court test when subsequently applying it. In 1995, Justice Drummond in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Court of Australia">Federal Court</a> held in Gibbs v Capewell "...either genuine self-identification as Aboriginal alone or Aboriginal communal recognition as such by itself may suffice, according to the circumstances." This contributed to an increase of 31% in the number of people identifying as Indigenous Australians in the 1996 census when compared to the 1991 census.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreg_Gardiner2002-240">[229]</a> In 1998 <a href="/wiki/Ron_Merkel" title="Ron Merkel">Justice Merkel</a> held in Shaw v Wolf that Aboriginal descent is "technical" rather than "real" – thereby eliminating a genetic requirement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnell1998-239">[228]</a> This decision established that anyone can classify him or herself legally as an Aboriginal, provided he or she is accepted as such by his or her community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEALRC2010-238">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Demography_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Demography of Australia">Demography of Australia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg/220px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg/330px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg/440px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0054_Indigenous_Persons_Total_Persons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1574" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Indigenous Australians as a percentage of the population, 2011</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg/220px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg/330px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg/440px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0045_Indigenous_Persons_Aboriginal_Persons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1574" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Aboriginal Australians as a percentage of the population, 2011</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/220px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/330px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/440px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0048_Indigenous_Persons_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1574" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Torres Strait Islanders as a percentage of the population, 2011</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/220px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/330px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg/440px-Australian_Census_2011_demographic_map_-_Australia_by_SLA_-_BCP_field_0051_Indigenous_Persons_Both_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Persons.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1574" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders as a percentage of the population, 2011</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inclusion_in_the_national_Census">Inclusion in the national Census</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Inclusion in the national Census">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg/220px-Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg/330px-Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg/440px-Aboriginal_boys_and_men_in_front_of_a_bush_shelter_-_NTL_PH0731-0022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal boys and men in front of a bush shelter, <a href="/wiki/Groote_Eylandt" title="Groote Eylandt">Groote Eylandt</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1933</figcaption></figure> Indigenous Australians have been counted in every census albeit only approximately and using inconsistent definitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012300-241">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199910-242">[231]</a> Section 127 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution</a>, which was repealed in 1967, had excluded "aboriginal natives" from being counted in the overall population statistics for each state and territory and nationally with the <a href="/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney-General for Australia">Attorney-General</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] providing a legal advice that a person was an "aboriginal native" if they were a "full-blood aboriginal".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012296,_301-243">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19996-244">[233]</a> As a consequence of section 127, Indigenous Australians in remote areas uninhabited by non-Indigenous Australians were not counted prior to 1967 in censuses and sometimes estimated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19996-244">[233]</a> Post 1967, Torres Strait Islanders were considered a separate Indigenous people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19995-245">[234]</a> Prior to 1947, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be Aboriginal in censuses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19995-245">[234]</a> In the 1947 census, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a> and in the 1954 and 1961 censuses were considered to be <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander" title="Pacific Islander">Pacific Islanders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19995-245">[234]</a> In the 1966 census, Torres Strait Islanders were considered to be Aboriginal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19995-245">[234]</a> A "Commonwealth working definition" for Indigenous Australians was developed from 1968 and endorsed by <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia" title="Cabinet of Australia">Cabinet</a> in 1978 which contains elements of descent, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_identity" title="Australian Aboriginal identity">self-identification</a> and community recognition in contrast to the earlier preponderance of Aboriginal blood definition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19993–4-246">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardiner-Garden2000-247">[236]</a> As there is no formal procedure for any community to record acceptance, the primary method of determining Indigenous population is from self-identification on census forms. The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Census">Australian Census</a> includes counts based on questions relating to individuals' self-identification as Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or of both origins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2016-248">[237]</a> Owing to various difficulties which lead to under-counting, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics" title="Australian Bureau of Statistics">Australian Bureau of Statistics</a> (ABS) follows a set method to estimate total numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_tech_note2018-249">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Distribution_and_growth">Distribution and growth</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Distribution and growth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_identity" title="Australian Aboriginal identity">Australian Aboriginal identity</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See Infobox above for Distribution by state & territory</div> The 2006 <a href="/wiki/Australian_census" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian census">Australian census</a> showed growth in the Indigenous population (recorded as 517,000) at twice the rate of overall population growth since 1996, when the Indigenous population stood at 283,000.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/2011_Australian_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Australian Census">2011 census</a>, there was a 20% rise in people who identify as Aboriginal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESBS2012-250">[239]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_census" title="2016 Australian census">2016 census</a>, there was another 18.4% rise on the 2011 figure. 590,056 respondents identified themselves as Aboriginal, 32,345 <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres Strait Islander">Torres Strait Islander</a>, and a further 26,767 both Aboriginal and <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_Census2017-57">[53]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2021_Australian_census" title="2021 Australian census">2021 Australian census</a>, 812,000 people identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander, representing 3.2% of the population. This was an increase from 2.8% in 2016 (i.e. about 25% increase<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsey-Sugg2022-251">[240]</a>), and 2.5% in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_population_summary2022-252">[241]</a> However, the net undercount of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was 17.4%,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_Census_over/undercount2021-253">[242]</a> and the estimated Indigenous population is around 952,000 to 1,000,000, or just under 4 per cent of the total population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsey-Sugg2022-251">[240]</a> Growth to 2016 was mainly in major cities and along the eastern coast of Australia. In 2018 the ABS published a report exploring the reasons for these findings, with some of the factors behind the increase being higher fertility rates of Indigenous women; people entering the population through migration; variation in census coverage and response rates; and people changing how they self-identify between census years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_increase2018-254">[243]</a> Another factor might be the children of mixed marriages: the proportion of Aboriginal adults married (de facto or <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a>) to non-Aboriginal spouses increased to 78.2% in the 2016 census,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.02018-255">[244]</a> (up from 74% in 2011,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.0-256">[245]</a> 64% in 1996, 51% in 1991 and 46% in 1986); it was reported in 2002 that up to 88% of the offspring of mixed marriages subsequently self-identify as Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreg_Gardiner2002-240">[229]</a> In the 2016, over 33% of the Indigenous population lived in major cities, compared with about 75% of the non-Indigenous population, with a further 24% in "inner regional" areas (compared with 18%), 20% in "outer regional" (8%), while nearly 18% lived in "remote" or "very remote" areas (2%).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_3238.02018-257">[246]</a> (Ten years earlier, 31% were living in major cities and 24% in remote areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_–_population2006-258">[247]</a>) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indigenous_Australians_by_state">Indigenous Australians by state</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Indigenous Australians by state">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Queensland">Queensland</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Queensland">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/110px-Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/165px-Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/220px-Queensland_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Indigenous status by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginals only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginals only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg/110px-Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg/165px-Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg/220px-Queensland_Aboriginals_by_ILOC_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginals only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The prevalent 1st response about ancestry of the Queensland people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population"><img alt="The prevalent 1st response about ancestry of the Queensland people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_Ancestry_by_SA1_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The prevalent 1st response about ancestry of the Queensland people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_ILOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Local Government Areas (LGA), according to the 2016 census"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Local Government Areas (LGA), according to the 2016 census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_LGA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by Local Government Areas (LGA), according to the 2016 census</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by State Suburbs (SSC), according to the 2016 census (uninhabited mesh blocks (MB) excluded)"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by State Suburbs (SSC), according to the 2016 census (uninhabited mesh blocks (MB) excluded)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_by_SSC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) by State Suburbs (SSC), according to the 2016 census (uninhabited mesh blocks (MB) excluded)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The languages most often spoken at home by people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population"><img alt="The languages most often spoken at home by people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_by_SA1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The languages most often spoken at home by people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of Indigenous population</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) and spoken at home on one of Indigenous Australian languages by Statistical Areas 1 (SA1)"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) and spoken at home on one of Indigenous Australian languages by Statistical Areas 1 (SA1)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_Languages_Percentage_by_SA1_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) and spoken at home on one of Indigenous Australian languages by Statistical Areas 1 (SA1)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The prevalent religious affiliation of the people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of self-identified Indigenous population"><img alt="The prevalent religious affiliation of the people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of self-identified Indigenous population" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg/110px-Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg/165px-Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg/220px-Queensland_Indigenous_Religions_by_SA1_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The prevalent religious affiliation of the people self-identified as having Indigenous status (Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islanders or both) in Statistical Areas 1 (SA1) with more than 5% of self-identified Indigenous population</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census"><img alt="Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/110px-Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/165px-Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg/220px-Queensland_Torres_Islanders_by_ILOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6752" data-file-height="9221" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geographical distribution of the Queensland population self-identified as having Indigenous status (Torres Strait Islanders only) by Indigenous Locations (ILOC), according to the 2016 census</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aboriginal_languages">Aboriginal languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Aboriginal languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Australian Aboriginal English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian Aboriginal languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sign_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal sign languages">Australian Aboriginal sign languages</a></div> According to the 2005 National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS), at the time the Australian continent was colonised, there were around 250 different Indigenous languages, with the larger language groups each having up to 100 related dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSISFATSIL2005-259">[248]</a> Some of these languages were only ever spoken by perhaps 50 to 100 people. Indigenous languages are divided into language groups with from ten to twenty-four language families identified.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2012-14">[13]</a> It is currently estimated that up to 145 Indigenous languages remain in use, of which fewer than 20 are considered to be strong in the sense that they are still spoken by all age groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2012-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckermann2009-260">[249]</a> All but 13 Indigenous languages are considered to be endangered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS2014-15">[14]</a> Several extinct Indigenous languages are being reconstructed. For example, the last fluent speaker of the <a href="/wiki/Ngarrindjeri_language" title="Ngarrindjeri language">Ngarrindjeri language</a> died in the late 1960s; using recordings and written records as a guide, a Ngarrindjeri dictionary was published in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniSA2008-261">[250]</a> and the Ngarrindjeri language is today spoken in complete sentences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2012-14">[13]</a> Linguists classify many of the mainland Australian languages into one large group, the <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a>. The rest are sometimes lumped under the term "non-Pama–Nyungan". The Pama–Nyungan languages form the majority, covering most of Australia, and are generally thought to be a family of related languages. In the north, stretching from the Western <a href="/wiki/Kimberley_region_of_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimberley region of Western Australia">Kimberley</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Carpentaria" title="Gulf of Carpentaria">Gulf of Carpentaria</a>, are found a number of non-Pama–Nyungan groups of languages which have not been shown to be related to the Pama–Nyungan family nor to each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003-262">[251]</a> While it has sometimes proven difficult to work out familial relationships within the Pama–Nyungan language family, many Australian linguists feel there has been substantial success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowernHarold2004-263">[252]</a> Against this, some linguists, such as <a href="/wiki/R._M._W._Dixon" class="mw-redirect" title="R. M. W. Dixon">R. M. W. Dixon</a>, suggest that the Pama–Nyungan group – and indeed the entire Australian linguistic area – is rather a <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a>, or group of languages having very long and intimate contact, rather than a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic (linguistics)">genetic</a> language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1997-264">[253]</a> It has been suggested that, given their long presence in Australia, Aboriginal languages form one specific sub-grouping. The position of Tasmanian languages is unknown, and it is also unknown whether they comprised one or more than one specific language family.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Nearly three quarters of Australian place names have origins in Aboriginal languages. However, the method of recording names used by early colonial surveyors was often unreliable. When a surveyor was seeking the name of a river, the Aboriginal responder might have given the word for "sand" or "water". Unless living speakers of the original languages remained when systematic research of Indigenous languages began in the 1930s, the meaning of many place names was therefore lost, or is now open to several interpretations.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyKennedy1992[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(December_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-16">[15]</a> The word "<a href="/wiki/Canberra" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>" was chosen for the national capital. It is popularly believed to mean "meeting place", but this is contested. According to the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Massola" title="Aldo Massola">Aldo Massola</a>, the name comes from the word nganbirra meaning "a camping place".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyKennedy199260-265">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cross-cultural_communications">Cross-cultural communications</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Cross-cultural communications">edit</a>]</div> Cross-cultural miscommunication can sometimes occur between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. According to Michael Walsh and <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>, Western conversational interaction is typically "<a href="/wiki/Dyad_(sociology)" title="Dyad (sociology)">dyadic</a>", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckermann;_et_al.201512-266">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh19977–9-267">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torres_Strait_Island_languages">Torres Strait Island languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Island languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Island_languages" title="Torres Strait Island languages">Torres Strait Island languages</a></div> There are three languages spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a>, two indigenous languages and an English-based creole. The indigenous language spoken mainly in the western and central islands is <a href="/wiki/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya" title="Kalaw Lagaw Ya">Kalaw Lagaw Ya</a>, a language related to the <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a> of the Australian mainland. The other indigenous language spoken mainly in the eastern islands is <a href="/wiki/Meriam_language" title="Meriam language">Meriam Mir</a>: a member of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly languages</a> spoken on the nearby south coast of New Guinea and the only <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan language</a> spoken on Australian territory. Both languages are <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a>; however Kalaw Lagaw Ya appears to be undergoing a transition into a <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensional</a> language while Meriam Mìr is more clearly agglutinative. <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Yumplatok</a>, or Torres Strait Creole, the third language, is a non-typical Pacific English Creole and is the main language of communication on the islands.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belief_systems">Belief systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Belief systems">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-William_BARAK_-_Wurundjeri_people_-_Corroboree_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4248" data-file-height="3296" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Corroboree" title="Corroboree">corroboree</a> by 19th century Indigenous activist <a href="/wiki/William_Barak" title="William Barak">William Barak</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_beliefs">Traditional beliefs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Traditional beliefs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aboriginal">Aboriginal</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Aboriginal">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology</a></div> In Aboriginal communities knowledge and decision making is shared between tribal elders. Travellers had to seek elder recognition and acknowledge local Elders – this is increasingly practiced in public events in Australia. Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as "<a href="/wiki/The_Dreaming" title="The Dreaming">the Dreaming</a>" or "the Dreamtime" stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, and naming as they went. Indigenous Australia's <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews2004424-268">[257]</a> The Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. Different language and cultural groups each had their own belief structures; these cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Major <a href="/wiki/Ancestral" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral">ancestral</a> spirits include the <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Serpent" title="Rainbow Serpent">Rainbow Serpent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baiame" title="Baiame">Baiame</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dirawong" title="Dirawong">Dirawong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bunjil" title="Bunjil">Bunjil</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Knowledge contained in the Dreaming has been passed down through different stories, <a href="/wiki/Songline" title="Songline">songlines</a>, dances and ceremonies, and even today provides a framework for ongoing relationships, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">kinship responsibilities</a> and looking after country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWVA_–_8_interesting_facts-269">[258]</a> Traditional healers (known as <a href="/wiki/Ngangkari" title="Ngangkari">Ngangkari</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_cultural_bloc" title="Western Desert cultural bloc">Western desert</a> areas of Central Australia) were highly respected men and women who not only acted as healers or doctors, but were generally also custodians of important Dreaming stories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETraditional_Healers201315–19-270">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torres_Strait_Islander">Torres Strait Islander</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Islander">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders#Religion_and_beliefs" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders § Religion and beliefs</a></div> Torres Strait Islander people have their own traditional belief systems. Stories of the Tagai represent Torres Strait Islanders as sea people, with a connection to the stars, as well as a system of order in which everything has its place in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWVA_–_8_interesting_facts-269">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQCAA2018-271">[260]</a> Some Torres Strait Islander people share beliefs similar to the Aboriginal peoples' Dreaming and "Everywhen" concepts, passed down in <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE'The_Dreaming'-272">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_colonisation">After colonisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: After colonisation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Australia#Indigenous_Australians_and_Christianity" title="Christianity in Australia">Christianity in Australia § Indigenous Australians and Christianity</a></div> Christianity and <a href="/wiki/European_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="European culture">European culture</a> have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians, their religion and their culture. As in many <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> situations, the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundine2005-273">[262]</a> In some cases, such as at <a href="/wiki/Hermannsburg,_Northern_Territory" title="Hermannsburg, Northern Territory">Hermannsburg, Northern Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piltawodli" class="mw-redirect" title="Piltawodli">Piltawodli</a> in Adelaide, the work of missionaries laid the foundations for later <a href="/wiki/Language_revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Language revival">language revival</a>. The German missionaries <a href="/wiki/Christian_Teichelmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Teichelmann">Christian Teichelmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clamor_Sch%C3%BCrmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Clamor Schürmann">Schürmann</a> went to <a href="/wiki/Adelaide" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a> and taught the local <a href="/wiki/Kaurna" title="Kaurna">Kaurna</a> people only in <a href="/wiki/Kaurna_language" title="Kaurna language">their own language</a> and created textbooks in the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockwood201765–81-274">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmeryn.d.-275">[264]</a> However, some <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a> taught only in English, and some <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian missions</a> were involved in the placement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children after they were removed from their parents upon orders of the government, and are therefore implicated in the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aboriginal_peoples_2">Aboriginal peoples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Aboriginal peoples">edit</a>]</div> The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundine2005-273">[262]</a> The Churches became involved in mission work among Aboriginal peoples in the 19th century as Europeans came to control much of the continent, and the majority of the population was eventually converted. Colonial clergy such as Sydney's first Catholic archbishop, <a href="/wiki/John_Bede_Polding" title="John Bede Polding">John Bede Polding</a>, strongly advocated for Aboriginal rights and dignity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Sullivann.d.-276">[265]</a> Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect Indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of Indigenous people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundine2005-273">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnglican_Church2005-277">[266]</a> A small minority of Aboriginal people are <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Australia#Aboriginal_Muslims" title="Islam in Australia">followers of Islam</a> as a result of intermarriage with <a href="/wiki/Afghan_cameleers_in_Australia" title="Afghan cameleers in Australia">"Afghan" camel drivers</a> brought to Australia in the late 19th and early 20th century to help explore and open up the interior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMercer2003-278">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torres_Strait_Islander_peoples">Torres Strait Islander peoples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Torres Strait Islander peoples">edit</a>]</div> From the 1870s, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> spread throughout the Torres Strait Islands, and it remains strong today among Torres Strait Islander people everywhere. The <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> mission led by Rev. Samuel Macfarlane arrived on <a href="/wiki/Darnley_Island,_Torres_Strait" class="mw-redirect" title="Darnley Island, Torres Strait">Erub (Darnley Island)</a> on 1 July 1871, establishing its first base in the region there. The Islanders refer to this as "The Coming of the Light", or "Coming of Light"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2019b-279">[268]</a> and all Island communities celebrate the occasion annually on 1 July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETSRA_–_history-142">[135]</a> However the coming of Christianity did not spell the end of the people's traditional beliefs; their culture informed their understanding of the new religion, as the <a href="/wiki/Christian_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian God">Christian God</a> was welcomed and the new religion was integrated into every aspect of their everyday lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2019b-279">[268]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_census_figures">Recent census figures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Recent census figures">edit</a>]</div> In the 2016 Census, Australia's Indigenous and non-Indigenous population were broadly similar with 54% (vs 55%) reporting a <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Australia" title="Christianity in Australia">Christian</a> affiliation, while less than 2% reported traditional beliefs as their religion, and 36% reported no religion. The proportion of Indigenous people who reported no religion has increased gradually since 2001, standing at 36% in 2016. According to "Table 8: Religious Affiliation by Indigenous Status", 347,572 Indigenous people (out of the total 649,171 in Australia) declared an affiliation to some form of Christianity, with a higher proportion of Torres Strait Islander than Aboriginal people in this number. 7,773 reported traditional beliefs; 1,511 Islam; other religions numbered less than 1,000 each. However the question is optional; 48,670 did not respond, and in addition, nearly 4,000 were reported as "inadequately described".<a href="#cite_note-280">[l]</a> (In the 2006 census, 73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4713.02010a-281">[269]</a>) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_culture" title="Australian Aboriginal culture">Australian Aboriginal culture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Blak_culture">Indigenous Australians § Blak culture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg/220px-Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg/330px-Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg/440px-Bradshaw_rock_paintings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kimberley_(Western_Australia)" title="Kimberley (Western Australia)">Kimberley region</a> of Western Australia</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Namundja.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glen_Namundja.jpg/220px-Glen_Namundja.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glen_Namundja.jpg/330px-Glen_Namundja.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glen_Namundja.jpg/440px-Glen_Namundja.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="849" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a> artist Glen Namundja painting at <a href="/wiki/Injalak_Arts" title="Injalak Arts">Injalak Arts</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg/220px-Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg/330px-Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg/440px-Aboriginal_hollow_log_tombs02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Memorial" title="Aboriginal Memorial">Aboriginal Memorial</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia" title="National Gallery of Australia">National Gallery of Australia</a></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Indigenous Australian art</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders#Art" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders § Art</a></div> Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being Australian rock art and <a href="/wiki/Bark_painting" title="Bark painting">bark painting</a>. Evidence of Aboriginal art can be traced back at least 30,000 years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulture_Portal2007-282">[270]</a> with examples of ancient rock art throughout the continent. Some of these are in national parks such as those of the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> listed sites at <a href="/wiki/Uluru" title="Uluru">Uluru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kakadu_National_Park" title="Kakadu National Park">Kakadu National Park</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a>, but examples can also within protected parks in urban areas such as at <a href="/wiki/Ku-ring-gai_Chase_National_Park" title="Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park">Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park</a> in Sydney.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(1)-283">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(2)-284">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENSW_NPWS-285">[273]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sydney_rock_engravings" title="Sydney rock engravings">Sydney rock engravings</a> are between 5000 and 200 years old. <a href="/wiki/Murujuga" title="Murujuga">Murujuga</a> in Western Australia was heritage listed in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_–_Pilbara_Rock_Art-286">[274]</a> In terms of age and abundance, <a href="/wiki/Cave_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave art">cave art</a> in Australia is comparable to that of <a href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Altamira" title="Cave of Altamira">Altamira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> sites in Europe),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Museum2011-287">[275]</a> and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENGoV-288">[276]</a> There are three major regional styles: the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria, known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found in <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>; and the complex figurative style found in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Kimberley" class="mw-redirect" title="The Kimberley">the Kimberley</a>. These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of the <a href="/wiki/Dreamtime" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreamtime">Dreamtime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulture_Portal2007-282">[270]</a> Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made from <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERurenga2017-289">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Art_Online2008-290">[278]</a> Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the <a href="/wiki/Watercolour" class="mw-redirect" title="Watercolour">watercolour</a> paintings of the <a href="/wiki/Hermannsburg_School" title="Hermannsburg School">Hermannsburg School</a> and the acrylic <a href="/wiki/Papunya_Tula" title="Papunya Tula">Papunya Tula</a> "dot art" movement. Some notable Aboriginal artists include <a href="/wiki/William_Barak" title="William Barak">William Barak</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1824–1903) and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Namatjira" title="Albert Namatjira">Albert Namatjira</a> (1902–1959). Since the 1970s, Indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints – with styles such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Art_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert Art Movement">Western Desert Art Movement</a> becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements. The <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Australia" title="National Gallery of Australia">National Gallery of Australia</a> exhibits a great many Indigenous art works, including those of the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a> who are known for their traditional sculpture and headgear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENGA_–_ATSI-291">[279]</a> Aboriginal art has influenced many non-Indigenous artists, such as <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Preston" title="Margaret Preston">Margaret Preston</a> (1875–1963) and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Durack" title="Elizabeth Durack">Elizabeth Durack</a> (1915–2000). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music,_dance_and_ceremony">Music, dance and ceremony</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Music, dance and ceremony">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Australia" title="Indigenous music of Australia">Indigenous music of Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_dance_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous dance of Australia">Indigenous dance of Australia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Didgeridoo_(Imagicity_1070).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg/220px-Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg/330px-Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg/440px-Didgeridoo_%28Imagicity_1070%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3951" data-file-height="2624" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Didgeridoo" title="Didgeridoo">Didgeridoo</a> player Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with <a href="/wiki/East_Journey" title="East Journey">East Journey</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraves2017-292">[280]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg/220px-1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg/330px-1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg/440px-1981_event_Australian_aboriginals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal dancers in 1981</figcaption></figure> Music and dance have formed an integral part of the <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">social</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_culture#Ceremonies_and_sacred_objects" title="Australian Aboriginal culture">ceremonial observances</a> of people through the millennia of the individual and collective histories of Australian Indigenous peoples to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELPP2001-293">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiona2007-294">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton199093–101-295">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunbar-HallGibson200045–73-296">[284]</a> Around 1950, the first research into Aboriginal music was undertaken by the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/A._P._Elkin" title="A. P. Elkin">A. P. Elkin</a>, who recorded Aboriginal music in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehmann1997-297">[285]</a> The various Aboriginal peoples developed unique musical instruments and styles. The <a href="/wiki/Didgeridoo" title="Didgeridoo">didgeridoo</a>, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, was traditionally played by Aboriginal men of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Kimberley_(Western_Australia)" title="Kimberley (Western Australia)">Kimberley</a> region and <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a> (such as the Yolngu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Arts-298">[286]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bullroarer" title="Bullroarer">Bullroarers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clapsticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Clapsticks">clapsticks</a> were used across Australia. <a href="/wiki/Songline" title="Songline">Songlines</a> relate to the <a href="/wiki/Dreamtime" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreamtime">Dreamtime</a> in Aboriginal culture, overlapping with <a href="/wiki/Oral_lore" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral lore">oral lore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground:_Songlines-299">[287]</a> <a href="/wiki/Corroboree" title="Corroboree">Corroboree</a> is a generic word to explain different genres of performance, embracing songs, dances, rallies and meetings of various kinds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESweeney2008-300">[288]</a> Indigenous musicians have been prominent in various contemporary styles of music, including creating a <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rock#Australia" title="Indigenous rock">sub-genre of rock music</a> as well as participating in <a href="/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop</a> and other mainstream styles. <a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip hop music">Hip hop music</a> is helping preserve some Indigenous languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Age''2006-301">[289]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Centre_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts">Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brisbane" title="Brisbane">Brisbane</a> teaches acting, music and dance, and the <a href="/wiki/Bangarra_Dance_Theatre" title="Bangarra Dance Theatre">Bangarra Dance Theatre</a> is an acclaimed contemporary dance company. For <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders#Music_and_dance" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islander people, singing and dancing</a> is their "literature" – "the most important aspect of Torres Strait lifestyle. The Torres Strait Islanders preserve and present their oral history through songs and dances;... the dances act as illustrative material and, of course, the dancer himself is the storyteller" (Ephraim Bani, 1979).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltshire2017-302">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_literature" title="Indigenous Australian literature">Indigenous Australian literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Unaipon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/David_Unaipon.jpg/170px-David_Unaipon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/David_Unaipon.jpg/255px-David_Unaipon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/David_Unaipon.jpg/340px-David_Unaipon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="1072" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/David_Unaipon" title="David Unaipon">David Unaipon</a>, the first Aboriginal published author</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:156px;max-width:156px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg/154px-Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg/231px-Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg/308px-Noel_Pearson_8Feb10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="500" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Aboriginal lawyer, activist and essayist <a href="/wiki/Noel_Pearson" title="Noel Pearson">Noel Pearson</a></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is missing information about oral traditions. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Indigenous_Australians" title="Talk:Indigenous Australians">talk page</a>. (November 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> There was no written form of the many languages spoken by Indigenous peoples before colonisation. A letter to Governor <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Phillip" title="Arthur Phillip">Arthur Phillip</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Bennelong" title="Bennelong">Bennelong</a> in 1796 is the first known work written in English by an Aboriginal person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaher2013-303">[291]</a> The historic <a href="/wiki/Yirrkala_bark_petitions" title="Yirrkala bark petitions">Yirrkala bark petitions</a> of 1963 are the first traditional Aboriginal documents recognised by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Parliament">Australian Parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENAA_–_DaD-304">[292]</a> In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/David_Unaipon" title="David Unaipon">David Unaipon</a> (1872–1967), known as the first Aboriginal author, is credited for providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal person, in his Legendary Tales of the Aborigines (1924–1925). <a href="/wiki/Oodgeroo_Noonuccal" title="Oodgeroo Noonuccal">Oodgeroo Noonuccal</a> (1920–1995) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist, credited with publishing the first book of verse by an Aboriginal author, We Are Going (1964).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEModern_Australian_poetry-305">[293]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sally_Morgan_(artist)" title="Sally Morgan (artist)">Sally Morgan</a>'s novel <a href="/wiki/My_Place_(book)" title="My Place (book)">My Place</a> (1987) was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing Indigenous stories to a wider audience. The talents of playwrights <a href="/wiki/Jack_Davis_(playwright)" title="Jack Davis (playwright)">Jack Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Gilbert_(author)" title="Kevin Gilbert (author)">Kevin Gilbert</a> were recognised. <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a> by Indigenous poets, including traditional song-poetry – ranging from sacred to everyday – has been published since the late 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-306">[m]</a> Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Wright" title="Alexis Wright">Alexis Wright</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kim_Scott" title="Kim Scott">Kim Scott</a> (twice winner of the <a href="/wiki/Miles_Franklin_Award" title="Miles Franklin Award">Miles Franklin Award</a>); <a href="/wiki/Tara_June_Winch" title="Tara June Winch">Tara June Winch</a>; <a href="/wiki/Melissa_Lucashenko" title="Melissa Lucashenko">Melissa Lucashenko</a>; playwright and comedy writer <a href="/wiki/Nakkiah_Lui" title="Nakkiah Lui">Nakkiah Lui</a>; in poetry <a href="/wiki/Yvette_Holt" title="Yvette Holt">Yvette Holt</a>; and in popular fiction <a href="/wiki/Anita_Heiss" title="Anita Heiss">Anita Heiss</a>. Leading activists <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Langton" title="Marcia Langton">Marcia Langton</a>, who wrote <a href="/wiki/First_Australians" title="First Australians">First Australians</a> (2008) and <a href="/wiki/Noel_Pearson" title="Noel Pearson">Noel Pearson</a> (Up From the Mission, 2009) are as of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a> active contemporary contributors to Australian literature. Journalist <a href="/wiki/Stan_Grant_(journalist)" title="Stan Grant (journalist)">Stan Grant</a> has written several non-fiction works on what it means to be Aboriginal in contemporary Australia, and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Pascoe" title="Bruce Pascoe">Bruce Pascoe</a> has written both fiction and non-fiction works. <a href="/wiki/AustLit" class="mw-redirect" title="AustLit">AustLit</a>'s BlackWords project provides a comprehensive listing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Writers and Storytellers. The <a href="/wiki/Living_Archive_of_Aboriginal_Languages" title="Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages">Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages</a> contains stories written in traditional languages of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film_and_television">Film and television</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Film and television">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this section be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> out into another article titled <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians_in_the_performing_arts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indigenous Australians in the performing arts (page does not exist)">Indigenous Australians in the performing arts</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Indigenous_Australians" title="Talk:Indigenous Australians">Discuss</a>) (January 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australian_mass_media" title="Category:Indigenous Australian mass media">Category:Indigenous Australian mass media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_Aboriginal_Australians" title="Category:Films about Aboriginal Australians">Category:Films about Aboriginal Australians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Australia" title="Cinema of Australia">Cinema of Australia</a></div> Australian cinema has a long history, and the ceremonies of Indigenous Australians were among the first subjects to be filmed in Australia – notably a film of Aboriginal dancers in Central Australia, shot by the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baldwin_Spencer" title="Walter Baldwin Spencer">Baldwin Spencer</a> and <a href="/wiki/F.J._Gillen" class="mw-redirect" title="F.J. Gillen">F.J. Gillen</a> in 1900–1903.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney1990-307">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jedda" title="Jedda">Jedda</a> (1955) was the first Australian feature film to be shot in <a href="/wiki/Colour_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour film">colour film</a>, the first to star Aboriginal actors in lead roles (<a href="/wiki/Ngarla_Kunoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngarla Kunoth">Ngarla Kunoth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Tudawali" title="Robert Tudawali">Robert Tudawali</a>), and the first to be entered at the <a href="/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival" title="Cannes Film Festival">Cannes Film Festival</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2011-308">[295]</a> 1971's <a href="/wiki/Walkabout_(film)" title="Walkabout (film)">Walkabout</a> was a British film set in Australia; it was a forerunner to many Australian films related to indigenous themes and introduced <a href="/wiki/David_Gulpilil" title="David Gulpilil">David Gulpilil</a> to cinematic audiences. <a href="/wiki/The_Chant_of_Jimmie_Blacksmith_(film)" title="The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (film)">Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith</a> (1976), directed by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Schepisi" title="Fred Schepisi">Fred Schepisi</a>, was an award-winning historical drama from a book by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Keneally" title="Thomas Keneally">Thomas Keneally</a>, about the tragic story of an Aboriginal <a href="/wiki/Bushranger" title="Bushranger">bushranger</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Weir" title="Peter Weir">Peter Weir</a>'s 1977 mystery drama <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Wave" title="The Last Wave">The Last Wave</a>, also starring Gulpilil and featuring elements of Aboriginal beliefs and culture, won several <a href="/wiki/AACTA_Awards" title="AACTA Awards">AACTA Awards</a>. The canon of films related to Indigenous Australians increased from the 1990s, with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nick_Parson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nick Parson (page does not exist)">Nick Parson</a>'s film <a href="/wiki/Dead_Heart_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead Heart (film)">Dead Heart</a> (1996) featuring <a href="/wiki/Ernie_Dingo" title="Ernie Dingo">Ernie Dingo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bryan_Brown" title="Bryan Brown">Bryan Brown</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Dead_Heart-309">[296]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rolf_de_Heer" title="Rolf de Heer">Rolf de Heer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Tracker_(2002_film)" title="The Tracker (2002 film)">The Tracker</a> (2002), starring <a href="/wiki/Gary_Sweet" title="Gary Sweet">Gary Sweet</a> and David Gulpilil;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_The_Tracker-310">[297]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Noyce" title="Phillip Noyce">Phillip Noyce</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rabbit-Proof_Fence_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbit-Proof Fence (film)">Rabbit-Proof Fence</a> (2002).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Rabbit-Proof_Fence-311">[298]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soundtrack" title="Soundtrack">soundtrack</a> of the 2006 film <a href="/wiki/Ten_Canoes" title="Ten Canoes">Ten Canoes</a> directed by <a href="/wiki/Rolf_de_Heer" title="Rolf de Heer">Rolf de Heer</a> was filmed entirely in dialects of the <a href="/wiki/Yol%C5%8Bu_Matha" class="mw-redirect" title="Yolŋu Matha">Yolŋu Matha</a> language group, with the main version featuring subtitles and English narration by David Gulpilil. The film won the <a href="/wiki/Un_Certain_Regard" title="Un Certain Regard">Un Certain Regard</a> Special Jury Prize at the <a href="/wiki/2006_Cannes_Film_Festival" title="2006 Cannes Film Festival">2006 Cannes Film Festival</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddoxAAP2006-312">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2006-313">[300]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Straits" title="The Straits">The Straits</a>, a 2012 drama series for TV based on an idea by Torres Strait Islander actor <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Fa%27aoso" title="Aaron Fa'aoso">Aaron Fa'aoso</a>, was partly filmed in the Torres Strait Islands and starred Fa'aoso and <a href="/wiki/Jimi_Bani" title="Jimi Bani">Jimi Bani</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Mabuiag_Island" title="Mabuiag Island">Mabuiag Island</a>), as well as <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinean</a> actors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwift2011-314">[301]</a> The documentary TV series <a href="/wiki/Blue_Water_Empire" title="Blue Water Empire">Blue Water Empire</a> (aired 2019), featuring Fa'aoso and Bani, tells the story of Torres Strait Islands from <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonisation of Australia">pre-colonial era</a> up to contemporary times. Many Indigenous actors, directors, producers and others have been involved in the production of film and <a href="/wiki/TV_series" class="mw-redirect" title="TV series">TV series</a> in the 21st century: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sen" title="Ivan Sen">Ivan Sen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Perkins" title="Rachel Perkins">Rachel Perkins</a> (with her company <a href="/wiki/Blackfella_Films" title="Blackfella Films">Blackfella Films</a>), <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Pedersen" title="Aaron Pedersen">Aaron Pedersen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Mailman" title="Deborah Mailman">Deborah Mailman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Thornton" title="Warwick Thornton">Warwick Thornton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leah_Purcell" title="Leah Purcell">Leah Purcell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shari_Sebbens" title="Shari Sebbens">Shari Sebbens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sally_Riley_(producer)" title="Sally Riley (producer)">Sally Riley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luke_Carroll" title="Luke Carroll">Luke Carroll</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miranda_Tapsell" title="Miranda Tapsell">Miranda Tapsell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Blair_(director)" title="Wayne Blair (director)">Wayne Blair</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trisha_Morton-Thomas" title="Trisha Morton-Thomas">Trisha Morton-Thomas</a>, among others, with many of them well-represented in award nominations and wins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScreen_Australia2018-315">[302]</a> The films <a href="/wiki/Sweet_Country_(2017_film)" title="Sweet Country (2017 film)">Sweet Country</a> (2017), <a href="/wiki/Top_End_Wedding" title="Top End Wedding">Top End Wedding</a> (2019) and TV series <a href="/wiki/Cleverman_(TV_series)" title="Cleverman (TV series)">Cleverman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Total_Control_(TV_series)" title="Total Control (TV series)">Total Control</a> (2019), all made by Aboriginal film-makers and featuring Aboriginal themes, were well-received and in some cases won awards. The third series of the <a href="/wiki/Sketch_comedy" title="Sketch comedy">sketch comedy</a> TV series <a href="/wiki/Black_Comedy_(TV_series)" title="Black Comedy (TV series)">Black Comedy</a>, co-written by <a href="/wiki/Nakkiah_Lui" title="Nakkiah Lui">Nakkiah Lui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Briggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam Briggs">Adam Briggs</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steven_Oliver_(Australian_actor)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steven Oliver (Australian actor) (page does not exist)">Steven Oliver</a> and others, and featuring many Indigenous actors, began to air in January 2020.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack_Comedy-316">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre">Theatre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Theatre">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Australia#Indigenous_theatre" title="Theatre of Australia">Theatre of Australia § Indigenous theatre</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recreation_and_sport">Recreation and sport</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Recreation and sport">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_sport" title="Indigenous Australian sport">Indigenous Australian sport</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marn_grook_illustration_1857_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Marn_grook_illustration_1857_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>1857 depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Jarijari" title="Jarijari">Jarijari</a> (Nyeri Nyeri) at <a href="/wiki/Mondellimin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondellimin">Mondellimin</a> engaged in recreational activities, including a type of Aboriginal football from the <a href="/wiki/Blandowski_expedition" title="Blandowski expedition">Blandowski expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandowski1862-317">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWDL_–_Blandowski1862-318">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilferti201079-319">[306]</a></figcaption></figure> Though lost to history, many traditional forms of recreation were played and while these varied from tribe to tribe, there were often similarities. Ball games were quite popular and played by tribes across Australia, as were games based on use of weapons. There is extensive documented evidence of traditional football games being played. Perhaps the most documented is a game popularly played by tribes in western <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria, Australia">Victorian</a> regions of the <a href="/wiki/Wimmera" class="mw-redirect" title="Wimmera">Wimmera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mallee_(Victoria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mallee (Victoria)">Mallee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Millewa" title="Millewa">Millewa</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Djab_wurrung" class="mw-redirect" title="Djab wurrung">Djab wurrung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jardwadjali" title="Jardwadjali">Jardwadjali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jarijari" title="Jarijari">Jarijari</a> people. Known as <a href="/wiki/Marn_Grook" title="Marn Grook">Marn Grook</a>, it was a type of kick and catch football game played with a ball made of <a href="/wiki/Phalangeridae" title="Phalangeridae">possum</a> hide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarnsworth2007-320">[307]</a> According to some accounts, it was played as far away as the <a href="/wiki/Yarra_Valley" title="Yarra Valley">Yarra Valley</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Wurundjeri" title="Wurundjeri">Wurundjeri</a> people,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllenderChristiansen200145-321">[308]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gippsland" title="Gippsland">Gippsland</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Gunai_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunai people">Gunai</a> people, and the <a href="/wiki/Riverina" title="Riverina">Riverina</a> in south-western <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>. Some historians claim that Marn Grook had a role in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football" title="Australian rules football">Australian rules football</a>, and many Aboriginal people, from children in remote communities to professional players at the highest level, the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Football_League" title="Australian Football League">Australian Football League</a>, play the modern game. Well-known players include <a href="/wiki/Graham_Farmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Graham Farmer">Graham Farmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Wanganeen" title="Gavin Wanganeen">Gavin Wanganeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Goodes" title="Adam Goodes">Adam Goodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lance_Franklin" title="Lance Franklin">Lance Franklin</a>. Goodes was also the <a href="/wiki/Australian_of_the_Year" title="Australian of the Year">Australian of the Year</a> for 2014. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg/220px-Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg/330px-Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg/440px-Aboriginal_cricket_team_at_MCG_in_1867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2445" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Aboriginal cricket team with <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wills" title="Tom Wills">Tom Wills</a> (coach and captain), <a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Cricket_Ground" title="Melbourne Cricket Ground">Melbourne Cricket Ground</a>, December 1866</figcaption></figure> A team of Aboriginal cricketers from the Western District of Victoria <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_cricket_team_in_England_in_1868" title="Australian Aboriginal cricket team in England in 1868">toured England in 1868</a>, making it the first Australian sports team to travel overseas. Cricketer and <a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football" title="Australian rules football">Australian rules football</a> pioneer <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wills" title="Tom Wills">Tom Wills</a> coached the team in an Aboriginal language he learnt as a child, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lawrence_(cricketer)" title="Charles Lawrence (cricketer)">Charles Lawrence</a> accompanied them to England. <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Mullagh" title="Johnny Mullagh">Johnny Mullagh</a>, the team's star player, was regarded as one of the era's finest batsmen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_cricket-322">[309]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evonne_Goolagong" class="mw-redirect" title="Evonne Goolagong">Evonne Goolagong</a> became the world number-one ranked female <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a> player, with 14 <a href="/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">major tennis</a> titles. <a href="/wiki/Ashleigh_Barty" title="Ashleigh Barty">Ashleigh Barty</a>, inspired by Goolagong, also reached number-one and won three major singles titles. Sprinter <a href="/wiki/Cathy_Freeman" title="Cathy Freeman">Cathy Freeman</a> earned gold medals in the <a href="/wiki/Olympics" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympics">Olympics</a>, World Championships, and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Games" title="Commonwealth Games">Commonwealth Games</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Rose" title="Lionel Rose">Lionel Rose</a> earned a world title in <a href="/wiki/Boxing" title="Boxing">boxing</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Beetson" title="Arthur Beetson">Arthur Beetson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laurie_Daley" title="Laurie Daley">Laurie Daley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorden_Tallis" title="Gorden Tallis">Gorden Tallis</a> captained Australia in <a href="/wiki/Rugby_league" title="Rugby league">rugby league</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Mark_Ella" title="Mark Ella">Mark Ella</a> captained Australia in <a href="/wiki/Rugby_union" title="Rugby union">rugby union</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Jawai" title="Nathan Jawai">Nathan Jawai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patty_Mills" title="Patty Mills">Patty Mills</a> have played in the <a href="/wiki/National_Basketball_Association" title="National Basketball Association">National Basketball Association</a>. Sporting teams include the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_All-Stars_(Australian_football)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous All-Stars (Australian football)">Indigenous All-Stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flying_Boomerangs" title="Flying Boomerangs">Flying Boomerangs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Team_of_the_Century" title="Indigenous Team of the Century">Indigenous Team of the Century</a> in Australian rules football, and the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_All_Stars_(rugby_league)" title="Indigenous All Stars (rugby league)">Indigenous All Stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/NSW_Koori_Knockout" title="NSW Koori Knockout">NSW Koori Knockout</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Murri_Rugby_League_Team" title="Murri Rugby League Team">Murri Rugby League Team</a> in rugby league. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Contemporary issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closing_the_Gap">Closing the Gap</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Closing the Gap">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Closing_the_Gap" title="Closing the Gap">Closing the Gap</a></div> To this day, the forced removal of children known as the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> has had a huge impact on the psyche, health and well-being of Indigenous Australians; it has seriously impacted not only the children removed and their parents, but their descendants as well. Not only were many of the <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">children abused</a> – <a href="/wiki/Psychological_abuse" title="Psychological abuse">psychologically</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_abuse" title="Physical abuse">physically</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexually</a> – after being removed and while living in group homes or adoptive families, but were also deprived of their culture alongside their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Stolen_Generations-218">[208]</a> This has resulted in the disruption of <a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">oral culture</a>, as parents were unable to communicate their knowledge to their children, and thus much has been lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Stolen_Generations-218">[208]</a> There are many issues facing Indigenous people in Australia today when compared with the non-Indigenous population, despite some improvements. Several of these are interrelated, and include health (including shorter <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> and higher rates of <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a>), lower levels of education and employment, inter-generational trauma, high <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians_and_crime" title="Indigenous Australians and crime">imprisonment rates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> and lack of political representation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">[310]</a> Some demographic facts are related to these issues, as cause and/or result: <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 Australian Census">2016 Australian Census</a>, over 33% of the Indigenous population lived in major cities, compared with about 75% of the non-Indigenous population, with a further 24% in "inner regional" areas (compared with 18%), 20% in "outer regional" (8%), while nearly 18% lived in "remote" or "very remote" areas (2%).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_3238.02018-257">[246]</a></li> <li>The Indigenous population of Australia is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, with an estimated <a href="/wiki/Median_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Median age">median age</a> of 21 years (37 years for non-Indigenous), due to higher rates of birth and death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4704.02008-324">[311]</a> For this reason, <a href="/wiki/Age_adjustment" title="Age adjustment">age standardisation</a> is often used when comparing Indigenous and non-Indigenous statistics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02005a-325">[312]</a></li></ul> The federal government's <a href="/wiki/Closing_the_Gap" title="Closing the Gap">Closing the Gap</a> strategy, created in 2008 and coordinated by the <a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Australians_Agency" title="National Indigenous Australians Agency">National Indigenous Australians Agency</a> since July 2019, aims to address multiple areas to improve the lives of Indigenous peoples. Draft targets for 2019 were created by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Australian_Governments" title="Council of Australian Governments">Council of Australian Governments</a> (COAG) in December 2018. These were in the following areas:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENIAA2018-326">[313]</a> <ul><li>families, children and youth</li> <li>health</li> <li>education</li> <li>economic development</li> <li>housing</li> <li>justice (including <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_detention_in_the_Northern_Territory" title="Juvenile detention in the Northern Territory">youth justice</a>)</li> <li>land and water, "where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' land, water and cultural rights are realised"</li> <li>cross-system priorities, which "addresses racism, discrimination and social inclusion, healing and trauma, and the promotion of culture and language for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Health">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_health_in_Australia" title="Indigenous health in Australia">Indigenous health in Australia</a></div> Social and cultural determinants such as <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">discrimination</a>, lack of education or employment (and therefore <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>), and cultural disconnection can impact both physical and mental health, and contemporary disadvantage is related to colonisation and its ongoing impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019-327">[314]</a> Successive censuses have shown, that (after adjusting for demographic structures) Indigenous Australians experience greater rates of <a href="/wiki/Renal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal disease">renal disease</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Communicable diseases">communicable diseases</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus" title="Hepatitis C virus">hepatitis C virus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>, poor <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> and other illnesses than the general population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019-327">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02005a-325">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Life_expectancy">Life expectancy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Life expectancy">edit</a>]</div> The life expectancy of Indigenous Australians is difficult to quantify accurately. Indigenous deaths are poorly identified, and the official figures for the size of the population at risk include large adjustment factors. Two estimates of Indigenous life expectancy in 2008 differed by as much as five years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''National_Indigenous_Times''2008-328">[315]</a> The ABS introduced a new method in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_3302.0.55.003_–_Life_Tables2009-329">[316]</a> but problems remained. A 2013 study, referring to the national Indigenous reform policy, Closing the Gap, looked at the difficulties in interpreting the extent of the gap because of differing methods of estimating life expectancy between 2007 and 2012.<a href="#cite_note-330">[n]</a> The 2019 report by the Close the Gap campaign reported that the gap in life expectancy was "widening rather than closing".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHRC2019-331">[317]</a> Life expectancy for Aboriginals and Torres Strait islanders was 71.6 for men and 75.6 for women as of 2016-17. Infant mortality (ages 0–4) was twice as high as for non-Indigenous children in 2014–6.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Mental health">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-harm" title="Self-harm">self-harm</a> remain major concerns, with the suicide rate being double that of the non-Indigenous population in 2015, and young people experiencing rising rates of mental health difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">[310]</a> There are high incidences of <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, <a href="/wiki/PTSD" class="mw-redirect" title="PTSD">PTSD</a> and suicide amongst the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a>, with this resulting in unstable parenting and family situations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Substance_abuse">Substance abuse</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Substance abuse">edit</a>]</div> Many Indigenous communities suffer from a range of health, social and legal problems associated with <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> of both legal and illegal drugs, including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_abuse" title="Alcohol abuse">alcohol abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrol_sniffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol sniffing">petrol sniffing</a>, the use of illegal drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_tobacco" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking tobacco">smoking tobacco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019-327">[314]</a> Tobacco use has been estimated to be the "greatest contributor (23%) to the gap in the disease burden between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians", with Indigenous people 2.5 times more likely to smoke daily than non-Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAG.DoH2017-332">[318]</a> Indigenous Australians were 1.6 times as likely to <a href="/wiki/Teetotaller" class="mw-redirect" title="Teetotaller">abstain completely from alcohol</a> than non-Indigenous people in 2012–3. <a href="/wiki/Foetal_alcohol_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetal alcohol syndrome">Foetal alcohol syndrome</a> has been a problem, but the rate of pregnant women drinking had halved between 2008 and 2015 (from 20% to 10%).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019-327">[314]</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrol_sniffing_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol sniffing in Australia">Petrol sniffing</a> has been a problem among some remote communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELAoNT2004-333">[319]</a> A 2018 <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">longitudinal study</a> by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Queensland" title="University of Queensland">University of Queensland</a> (UQ), commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Australians_Agency" title="National Indigenous Australians Agency">National Indigenous Australians Agency</a>,<a href="#cite_note-334">[o]</a> reported that the number of people sniffing petrol in the 25 communities studied had declined by 95.2%, from 453 to just 22, related to the distribution of a new, low aromatic petrol, <a href="/wiki/Opal_(fuel)" title="Opal (fuel)">Opal</a>, in NT in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Government2006b-335">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDovetail2019-336">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'AbbsGillickHodsonKavanagh2019-337">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinisters_Media_Centre2019c-338">[323]</a> The 2018 UQ study also reported that alcohol and cannabis were the drugs causing most concern. Ice was reported present in 8 of the 25 communities, but nearly all only occasional use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'AbbsGillickHodsonKavanagh2019-337">[322]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Closing_the_Gap" title="Closing the Gap">Closing the Gap</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Sorry_Day#Close_the_Gap" title="National Sorry Day">National Sorry Day § Close the Gap</a></div> There is a significant gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in educational attainment. This presents significant issues for employment. As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a>, Indigenous students or adults, when compared with non-Indigenous peers:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECtG_Report2019-339">[324]</a> <ul><li>Have a lower school attendance rate, with these rates at 82% and 93% respectively (in remote areas, as low as 63%)</li> <li>Have lower literacy and numeracy, although rates had improved significantly on some <a href="/wiki/NAPLAN" title="NAPLAN">NAPLAN</a> (standardised school testing) measures</li> <li>Reach <a href="/wiki/Year_12" title="Year 12">Year 12</a> at a lower rate, with improvement from 59% to 74% between 2006 and 2016, with the gap at 24% in 2016</li> <li>Are underrepresented in <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> and have lower completion rates</li></ul> Closing the Gap has focused on improving education for Indigenous people, with some success. Attainment of Year 12 or equivalent for ages 20–24 has increased from 47.4% in 2006 to 65.3% in 2016. This has led to more Indigenous people undertaking higher or <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a> courses. According to the Closing the Gap report, Indigenous students in higher education award courses more than doubled in number over the decade from 2006 (9,329) to 2017 (19,237).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECtG_Report2019-339">[324]</a> However, most of the Closing the Gap targets for education are not on track. In general, the gaps have improved (such as in NAPLAN results) or not devolved (school attendance rate remaining stable for several years) have not met targets. Remoteness seems to be a factor; students in isolated or remote communities do not perform or attend as well as students in urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOPMC_Closing_the_Gap-340">[325]</a> The Closing the Gap Report 2019 reported that of the seven targets, only two – early childhood education and Year 12 attainment – had been met. Only Year 9 numeracy was on track in all states and territories, with variations among them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECtG_Report2019-339">[324]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Centre_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts">Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts</a> was established as a training centre by the state and federal governments in 1997. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Employment">Employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Employment">edit</a>]</div> Compared to the national average, Indigenous people experience high unemployment and poverty rates. As of the 2018 Closing the Gap Report, the Indigenous employment rate had decreased from 48% to 46.6% between 2006 and 2016, while the non-Indigenous employment rate remained steady at around 72% (a 25.4% gap). The employment rate for Indigenous women, however, increased from 39% to 44.8% in the same period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAA2018-341">[326]</a> The Racial Discrimination Act was introduced in 1975, and the Anti-Discrimination Act, in 1977. Legal action alone cannot prevent all forms of racism, however, these Acts were put into law to place checks on the system.<a href="#cite_note-342">[327]</a> A 2016 ABS report on labour force characteristics show low employment rates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4714.02016-343">[328]</a> An analysis of the figures suggested significant barriers to Indigenous people gaining employment, possibly including job location, employer discrimination, and lack of education and others. A big factor is education. Those with a <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degree</a> had an employment probability of 85% (for males) and 74% (for females) for gaining employment, decreasing along with qualifications, so that those who have completed Year 9 and below have a 43% (male) and 32% (female) probability of gaining employment. Other factors, unlike education, are not covered by government policy, such as discrimination and unfair treatment. Employed Indigenous Australians were more likely to experience discrimination than those who are unemployed, and it has been found that the second most common source of unfair treatment (after members of the public) is at work or applying for work. There was also a significant lack of consultation with Indigenous peoples on the methods they think best to tackle issues like unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiddleHunterYapGray-344">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crime">Crime</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Crime">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians_and_crime" title="Indigenous Australians and crime">Indigenous Australians and crime</a></div> Indigenous Australians are over-represented in Australia's criminal justice system. As of September 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a>, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander prisoners represented 28% of the total adult prisoner population,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2019-345">[330]</a> while accounting for 3.3% of the general population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2016-248">[237]</a> In May 2018, Indigenous women made up 34% of all women imprisoned in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHRC2018-346">[331]</a> A 2017–2018 report into youth justice undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare" title="Australian Institute of Health and Welfare">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a> reported that about half (a total of 2,339) of the young people aged 10–17 under supervision in 2016–17 were Indigenous, although of that age group, Indigenous youth represent 5% of the general population. It concludes from the data that there is a clear issue occurring not only within Australia's <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal justice system">criminal justice system</a>, but within communities as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIHW_Youth_Justice2018-347">[332]</a> Explanations given for this over-representation include the economic position of Indigenous Australians, the knock-on effects of the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">stolen generations</a> and disconnection from land, the effects of their health and housing situations, their ability to access an economic base such as land and employment, their education, and the use of alcohol and other drugs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEALRC:_incarceration_rate2018-348">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2021b-349">[334]</a> Indigenous Australians are also over-represented as <a href="/wiki/Victims_of_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Victims of crime">victims of crime</a>, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>. Indigenous women are highly over-represented in this figure, accounting for a higher proportion of assault victims than the non-Indigenous category.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4510.02017-350">[335]</a> In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_Government" title="Northern Territory Government">Northern Territory Government</a> commissioned a <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Inquiry">Board of Inquiry</a> into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse, which produced a report known as the <a href="/wiki/Little_Children_are_Sacred" title="Little Children are Sacred">Little Children are Sacred</a> report. This suggested, based largely on <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a>, that children in remote Aboriginal communities in NT were suffering from widespread <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmpe_Akelyernemane_Meke_Mekarle2007-351">[336]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Australian Human Rights Commission">Australian Human Rights Commission</a>'s Social Justice Report 2008 said that the 2005–2006 ABS statistics did not appear to support the "allegations of endemic child abuse... that was the rationale for the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response" title="Northern Territory National Emergency Response">NTER</a>" ("The Intervention" by the <a href="/wiki/Howard_government" title="Howard government">Howard government</a>) that followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAHRC2008-352">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_violence">Family violence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Family violence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Australia#Indigenous_Australians" title="Domestic violence in Australia">Domestic violence in Australia § Indigenous Australians</a></div> The rate of family violence in Indigenous Australian communities, especially in the Northern Territory, has been high for many years, and under-reported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare2006-353">[338]</a> It has been estimated to be around 34 times greater than the national rate, and, in the worst areas, up to 80 times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinney2016-354">[339]</a> There is no single cause for this high rate, but several probable causes or aggravating factors have been suggested by various researchers and stakeholders, including: dispossession of land and subsequent displacement of communities; childhood abuse experienced by the <a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergenerational trauma">intergenerational trauma</a>; economic <a href="/wiki/Disadvantage" title="Disadvantage">disadvantage</a>; violent family environments; poor health; inadequate housing; <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">racism</a>; loss of <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Australian identity">Aboriginal identity</a>; and many others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2022-355">[340]</a> An AIHW survey covering eight years to 2019, published in December 2021, revealed that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people accounted for 28 per cent of all hospitalisations due to family violence, despite only making up 3.3% of the total population. Various reasons were suggested by experts, including Aboriginal men's control of decision-making, and limited independence for women owing to economic factors; barriers in access to services; racism by some police and other services; and lack of enough Aboriginal-run organisations providing culturally safe services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConvery2021-356">[341]</a> As the federal government, upon being urged by experts to create the means to halt the violence in 2021,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaydar2021-357">[342]</a> announced an extra A$10.7 million "to boost frontline services in the Northern Territory... and to work towards our <a href="/wiki/Closing_the_Gap" title="Closing the Gap">Closing the Gap</a> commitments", in addition to other funding already committed to the states and NT under the National Partnership on Family, Domestic and Sexual Violence Responses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoSSM2022-358">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efforts_towards_recognition_and_reparations">Efforts towards recognition and reparations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Efforts towards recognition and reparations">edit</a>]</div> In 2021, Australia's government, led by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Scott_Morrison" title="Scott Morrison">Scott Morrison</a>, announced the creation of a reparations fund for members of the Stolen Generations—Indigenous Australians who were forcibly removed from their homes as children. This policy of forced assimilation, which continued into the 1970s, has had lasting impacts on Indigenous communities. The reparations fund includes one-off payments of 75,000 Australian dollars to victims, as part of a broader initiative to address the serious disadvantages faced by Australia's Indigenous population.<a href="#cite_note-359">[344]</a> In addition, there's an emerging solidarity between Black and Indigenous communities for finding land justice and reparations. Initiatives like the Indigenous-led Land Back movement and various Black community organizations are working towards reclaiming land and advocating for financial restitution for civil and human rights violations. These movements utilize cooperative structures to advance land justice, emphasizing the importance of communal wealth and regenerative systems that are not extractive of people or the planet.<a href="#cite_note-360">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_issues">Political issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Political issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this section be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> out into another article titled <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Australian politics">Indigenous Australian politics</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Indigenous_Australians" title="Talk:Indigenous Australians">Discuss</a>) (January 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> Since the 20th century there have been a number of individuals and organisations who have instigated significant events in the struggle for political representation, land rights and other political issues affecting the lives of Indigenous Australians:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrysanthos2019-361">[346]</a> <ul><li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Yorta_Yorta" title="Yorta Yorta">Yorta Yorta</a> man <a href="/wiki/William_Cooper_(Aboriginal_Australian)" title="William Cooper (Aboriginal Australian)">William Cooper</a> collects 1800 signatures to petition <a href="/wiki/King_George_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="King George VI">King George VI</a> for representation of the original occupants of Australia in federal Parliament.</li> <li>26 January (<a href="/wiki/Australia_Day" title="Australia Day">Australia Day</a>) 1938: The <a href="/wiki/Aborigines_Progressive_Association" title="Aborigines Progressive Association">Aborigines Progressive Association</a> holds a <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Mourning_(Australia)" title="Day of Mourning (Australia)">Day of Mourning</a>, to protest 150 years of callous treatment and the seizure of land.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_representation">Political representation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Political representation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Uluru_Statement_from_the_Heart" title="Uluru Statement from the Heart">Uluru Statement from the Heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_politicians" title="List of Indigenous Australian politicians">List of Indigenous Australian politicians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australians_in_politics_and_public_service" title="List of Indigenous Australians in politics and public service">List of Indigenous Australians in politics and public service</a></div> Under Section 41 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Australian Constitution</a>, Aboriginal Australians always had the legal right to vote in Australian Commonwealth elections if their State granted them that right. This meant that all Aboriginal peoples outside Queensland and Western Australia had a legal right to vote. The right of Indigenous ex-servicemen to vote was affirmed in 1949 and all Indigenous Australians gained the unqualified right to vote in Federal elections in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAEC_–_milestones-195">[185]</a> Unlike other Australians, however, voting was not made compulsory for Indigenous people, and it was not until the repeal of <a href="/wiki/Section_127_of_the_Constitution_of_Australia" title="Section 127 of the Constitution of Australia">Section 127 of the Constitution of Australia</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1967_Australian_referendum_(Aboriginals)" title="1967 Australian referendum (Aboriginals)">1967 referendum</a> that Indigenous Australians were counted in the population for the purposes of distribution of electoral seats.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As of January 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a>, six Indigenous Australians have been elected to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Senate" title="Australian Senate">Australian Senate</a>: <a href="/wiki/Neville_Bonner" title="Neville Bonner">Neville Bonner</a> (Liberal, 1971–1983), <a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridgeway" title="Aden Ridgeway">Aden Ridgeway</a> (Democrat, 1999–2005), <a href="/wiki/Nova_Peris" title="Nova Peris">Nova Peris</a> (Labor, 2013–2016), <a href="/wiki/Jacqui_Lambie" title="Jacqui Lambie">Jacqui Lambie</a> (2014–2017, 2019–incumbent), <a href="/wiki/Pat_Dodson" title="Pat Dodson">Pat Dodson</a> (Labor, 2016–incumbent), and former <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> MLA <a href="/wiki/Malarndirri_McCarthy" title="Malarndirri McCarthy">Malarndirri McCarthy</a> (Labor, 2016–incumbent). Following the <a href="/wiki/2010_Australian_Federal_Election" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 Australian Federal Election">2010 Australian Federal Election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Wyatt" title="Ken Wyatt">Ken Wyatt</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia" title="Liberal Party of Australia">Liberal Party</a> won the Western Australian seat of Hasluck, becoming the first Indigenous person elected to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives" title="Australian House of Representatives">Australian House of Representatives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKer2010-362">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC2010-363">[348]</a> His nephew, <a href="/wiki/Ben_Wyatt_(politician)" title="Ben Wyatt (politician)">Ben Wyatt</a>, was concurrently serving as Shadow Treasurer in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Australian Parliament">Western Australian Parliament</a> and in 2011 considered a challenge for the Labor Party leadership in that state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2011-364">[349]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linda_Burney" title="Linda Burney">Linda Burney</a> became the second Indigenous person, and the first woman, to serve in the federal House of Representatives. In March 2013, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Giles" title="Adam Giles">Adam Giles</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Country_Liberal_Party" title="Country Liberal Party">Country Liberal Party</a> (CLP) became <a href="/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="Chief Minister of the Northern Territory">Chief Minister of the Northern Territory</a> – the first Indigenous Australian to become head of government in a state or territory of Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_News2013-365">[350]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyacinth_Tungutalum" title="Hyacinth Tungutalum">Hyacinth Tungutalum</a>, also of the CLP, was the first Indigenous person elected to any Australian <a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">(state or territory</a>) parliament. A <a href="/wiki/Tiwi_people" title="Tiwi people">Tiwi man</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bathurst_Island_(Northern_Territory)" title="Bathurst Island (Northern Territory)">Bathurst Island</a>, he was elected to the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in October 1974 as the member for <a href="/wiki/Electoral_division_of_Tiwi" title="Electoral division of Tiwi">Tiwi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC:_death_of_Tungutalum2009-366">[351]</a> A number of Indigenous people represent electorates at state and territory level, and <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> has had an Aboriginal Governor, Sir <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Nicholls" title="Douglas Nicholls">Douglas Nicholls</a>. The first Indigenous Australian to serve as a minister in any government was <a href="/wiki/Ernie_Bridge" title="Ernie Bridge">Ernie Bridge</a>, who entered the Western Australian Parliament in 1980. <a href="/wiki/Carol_Martin_(politician)" title="Carol Martin (politician)">Carol Martin</a> was the first Aboriginal woman elected to a State parliament in Australia (the <a href="/wiki/Western_Australian_Legislative_Assembly" title="Western Australian Legislative Assembly">Western Australian Legislative Assembly</a>) in 2001, and the first woman minister was <a href="/wiki/Marion_Scrymgour" title="Marion Scrymgour">Marion Scrymgour</a>, who was appointed to the Northern Territory ministry in 2002 (she became Deputy Chief Minister in 2008).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAEC_–_milestones-195">[185]</a> Representation in the Northern Territory has been relatively high, reflecting the high proportion of Aboriginal voters. The 2012 Territory election saw large swings to the conservative CLP in remote Territory electorates, and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly, along with one Labor candidate, in a chamber of 25 members. Among those elected for the CLP were high-profile activists <a href="/wiki/Bess_Price" title="Bess Price">Bess Price</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alison_Anderson" title="Alison Anderson">Alison Anderson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Australian''2012-367">[352]</a> Forty people identifying as being of Indigenous Australian ancestry have been members of the ten Australian legislatures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGobbett2017-207">[197]</a> Of these, 22 have been in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_Legislative_Assembly" title="Northern Territory Legislative Assembly">Northern Territory Legislative Assembly</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> has an exceptionally high Indigenous proportion (about one third) of its population. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Giles" title="Adam Giles">Adam Giles</a>, who was <a href="/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="Chief Minister of the Northern Territory">Chief Minister of the Northern Territory</a> from 2013 to 2016, was the first Indigenous head of government in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_News2013-365">[350]</a> In 1974, <a href="/wiki/1974_Northern_Territory_general_election" title="1974 Northern Territory general election">the year of its creation</a>, the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was also the first Australian parliament to have an Indigenous member elected to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaensch1994-368">[353]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2022_Australian_federal_election" title="2022 Australian federal election">2022 election</a> featured the largest number of Indigenous candidates in Australian history, with four running for the Coalition, eleven for Labor, and seventeen for the Greens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollard2022-369">[354]</a> The Greens Victorian senate ticket were all Aboriginal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicol2022-370">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorre2022-371">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeuniewic2022-372">[357]</a> As of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit">[update]</a>, Indigenous Australians members of the senate represent 10.5% of the 76 Senate seats, and 1.9% in the House. The total representation is at 4.8%, far above the national population of 3.3%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaunmayr2022-373">[358]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_government_initiatives">Federal government initiatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Federal government initiatives">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Commission" title="Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission">Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission</a> (ATSIC) was set up as a representative body in 1990 under the <a href="/wiki/Bob_Hawke" title="Bob Hawke">Hawke</a> government. In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Howard_government" title="Howard government">Howard government</a> disbanded ATSIC and replaced it and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Services (ATSIS) Regional and State Offices<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEATNS_–_ICC-374">[359]</a> with an appointed network of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Coordination_Centres" title="Indigenous Coordination Centres">Indigenous Coordination Centres</a> (ICC) that administer Shared Responsibility Agreements and Regional Partnership Agreements with Aboriginal communities at a local level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOIPC2006-375">[360]</a> ICCs operate as whole-of-government centres, housing staff from a number of departments to deliver services to Indigenous Australians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEATNS_–_ICC-374">[359]</a> Major political parties in Australia have tried to increase Indigenous representation within their parties. One suggestion for achieving this is to introduce <a href="/wiki/Reserved_political_positions" title="Reserved political positions">seat quotas</a>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Maori_electorates" class="mw-redirect" title="Maori electorates">Maori electorates</a> in New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd2009-376">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Sullivan2017-377">[362]</a> In October 2007, just before the calling of a <a href="/wiki/2007_Australian_general_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2007 Australian general election">federal election</a>, the then Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/John_Howard" title="John Howard">John Howard</a>, revisited the idea of bringing a referendum to seek recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution (his government having previously sought to include recognition of Indigenous peoples in the <a href="/wiki/Preamble" title="Preamble">Preamble</a> to the Constitution in the <a href="/wiki/1999_Australian_republic_referendum" title="1999 Australian republic referendum">1999 Australian republic referendum</a>). His announcement was seen by some as a surprising adoption of the importance of the symbolic aspects of the reconciliation process, and reaction was mixed. The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party" title="Australian Labor Party">Australian Labor Party</a> initially supported the idea; however <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Rudd" title="Kevin Rudd">Kevin Rudd</a> withdrew this support just before the election, earning a rebuke from activist <a href="/wiki/Noel_Pearson" title="Noel Pearson">Noel Pearson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Australian''2007-378">[363]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gillard_government" title="Gillard government">Gillard government</a> (2010–2013), with <a href="/wiki/Bi-partisan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bi-partisan">bi-partisan</a> support, convened an <a href="/wiki/Expert_Panel_on_Recognising_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Peoples_in_the_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Expert Panel on Recognising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in the Constitution">Expert Panel</a> to consider changes to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Constitution">Australian Constitution</a> that would see recognition for Indigenous Australians, who delivered their report, which included five recommendations for changes to the Constitution as well as recommendations for the referendum process, in January 2012.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEANTaR2012-379">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEALII:_Summary_report2012-380">[365]</a> The Government promised to hold a referendum on the constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians on or before the federal election due for 2013.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarvelas2012-381">[366]</a> The plan was abandoned in September 2012, with Minister <a href="/wiki/Jenny_Macklin" title="Jenny Macklin">Jenny Macklin</a> citing insufficient community awareness for the decision.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In December 2015, the 16-member Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Council was jointly appointed by the Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Turnbull" title="Malcolm Turnbull">Malcolm Turnbull</a>, and Leader of the Opposition, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Shorten" title="Bill Shorten">Bill Shorten</a>. After six months of consultation, the First Nations National Constitutional Convention met over four days from 23 to 26 May 2017, and ratified the <a href="/wiki/Uluru_Statement_from_the_Heart" title="Uluru Statement from the Heart">Uluru Statement from the Heart</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Standing_ovation" title="Standing ovation">standing ovation</a> from the gathering of 250 Indigenous leaders. The Statement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrysanthos2019-361">[346]</a> (Makarrata is a <a href="/wiki/Yolngu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yolngu language">Yolngu</a> word "describing a process of conflict resolution, peacemaking and justice").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2017-382">[367]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2019:_Indigenous_voice_to_government">2019: Indigenous voice to government</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: 2019: Indigenous voice to government">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_voice_to_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous voice to government">Indigenous voice to government</a></div> In May 2019, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Scott_Morrison" title="Scott Morrison">Scott Morrison</a> created the position of <a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Indigenous_Australians" title="Minister for Indigenous Australians">Minister for Indigenous Australians</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia" title="Cabinet of Australia">Cabinet</a> portfolio in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Morrison_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Morrison Ministry">Second Morrison Ministry</a>, with Ken Wyatt as the inaugural officebearer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENine_News2019-383">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENunnMao2019-384">[369]</a> On 30 October 2019, Wyatt announced the commencement of a "co-design process" aimed at providing an Indigenous voice to Parliament. The Senior Advisory Group is co-chaired by Professor <a href="/wiki/Tom_Calma" title="Tom Calma">Tom Calma</a> <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Officer of the Order of Australia">AO</a>, Chancellor of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Canberra" title="University of Canberra">University of Canberra</a>, and Professor Dr <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Langton" title="Marcia Langton">Marcia Langton</a>, Associate Provost at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>, and comprises a total of 20 leaders and experts from across the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinisters_Media_Centre2019a-385">[370]</a> The other members are Father <a href="/wiki/Frank_Brennan_(priest)" title="Frank Brennan (priest)">Frank Brennan</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Buckskin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Buckskin (page does not exist)">Peter Buckskin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josephine_Cashman" title="Josephine Cashman">Josephine Cashman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Ella-Duncan" title="Marcia Ella-Duncan">Marcia Ella-Duncan</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joanne_Farrell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joanne Farrell (page does not exist)">Joanne Farrell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mick_Gooda" title="Mick Gooda">Mick Gooda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chris_Kenny" title="Chris Kenny">Chris Kenny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vonda_Malone" title="Vonda Malone">Vonda Malone</a>, <a href="/wiki/June_Oscar" title="June Oscar">June Oscar</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alison_Page&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alison Page (page does not exist)">Alison Page</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noel_Pearson" title="Noel Pearson">Noel Pearson</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benson_Saulo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benson Saulo (page does not exist)">Benson Saulo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pat_Turner_(Aboriginal_activist)" title="Pat Turner (Aboriginal activist)">Pat Turner</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maggie_Walter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maggie Walter (page does not exist)">Maggie Walter</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tony_Wurramarrba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tony Wurramarrba (page does not exist)">Tony Wurramarrba</a>, Peter Yu, and Dr <a href="/wiki/Galarrwuy_Yunupingu" title="Galarrwuy Yunupingu">Galarrwuy Yunupingu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinisters_Media_Centre2019b-386">[371]</a> The first meeting of the group was held in Canberra on 13 November 2019.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWellington2019-387">[372]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_title,_sovereignty_and_treaties">Native title, sovereignty and treaties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Native title, sovereignty and treaties">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">Native title in Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_land_rights_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal land rights in Australia">Aboriginal land rights in Australia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_treaties_in_Australia" title="Indigenous treaties in Australia">Indigenous treaties in Australia</a></div> About 22% of land in Northern Australia (<a href="/wiki/Kimberley_(Western_Australia)" title="Kimberley (Western Australia)">Kimberley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Top_End" title="Top End">Top End</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_Peninsula" title="Cape York Peninsula">Cape York</a>) is now Aboriginal-owned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnviroNorthn.d.-388">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEG2012-389">[374]</a> In the last decade, nearly 200 native title claims covering 1.3 million km2 of land – approximately 18% of the Australian continent – have been approved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeubauer2013-390">[375]</a> In 1992, in <a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No._2)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mabo v Queensland (No. 2)">Mabo v Queensland</a>, the High Court of Australia recognised native title in Australia for the first time. The majority in the High Court rejected the doctrine of terra nullius, in favour of the concept of native title.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEALII1992-391">[376]</a> In 2013, an Indigenous group describing itself as the <a href="/wiki/Murrawarri_Republic" title="Murrawarri Republic">Murrawarri Republic</a> declared independence from Australia, claiming territory straddling the border between the states of New South Wales and Queensland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeubauer2013-390">[375]</a> Australia's Attorney General's Department indicated it did not consider the declaration to have any meaning in law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeubauer2013-390">[375]</a> In 2014, another Indigenous group describing itself as the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Yidindji_Government" title="Sovereign Yidindji Government">Sovereign Yidindji Government</a> declared independence from Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowden2015-392">[377]</a> Unlike in other parts of the former <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> in New Zealand, no treaty has ever been concluded between Indigenous Australians and an Australian government. However, although there is still no move toward a treaty at federal level, it is contended that the <a href="/wiki/Noongar" title="Noongar">Noongar</a> Settlement (<a href="/wiki/South_West_Native_Title_Settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="South West Native Title Settlement">South West Native Title Settlement</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> in 2016 constitutes a treaty, and at the state and territory levels there are currently (early 2018) other negotiations and preparatory legislation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobbsWilliams2018-393">[378]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, however, following the <a href="/wiki/2018_South_Australian_state_election" title="2018 South Australian state election">2018 state election</a> negotiations have been "paused".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWahlquist2018-394">[379]</a> In June 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Victoria" title="Parliament of Victoria">Parliament of Victoria</a> passed a bill to advance the process of establishing a treaty with Aboriginal Victorians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOffer2018-395">[380]</a> The Victorian <a href="/wiki/First_Peoples%27_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="First Peoples' Assembly">First Peoples' Assembly</a> was elected in November 2019 and sat for the first time on 10 December 2019.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunstan2019-396">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostaDunstan2019-397">[382]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prominent_Indigenous_Australians">Prominent Indigenous Australians</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Prominent Indigenous Australians">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Lists of Indigenous Australians">Lists of Indigenous Australians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg/220px-Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg/330px-Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg/440px-Cathy400_mediafrenzy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Freeman" title="Cathy Freeman">Cathy Freeman</a> surrounded by world media and carrying the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal flag">Aboriginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australian_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian flag">Australian flags</a> following her victory in the 400 m final of the <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Olympics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney Olympics">Sydney Olympics</a>, 2000</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv/220px--ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="244" data-mwtitle="ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="512" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="512" data-height="288" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b4/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv/ABC_Sydney_Olympics_Freeman.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">ABC</a> footage and interviews of Australians celebrating Freeman's Olympics win – many noting how it brought the country together "as one"</figcaption></figure> After the arrival of European settlers in New South Wales, some Indigenous Australians became translators and go-betweens; the best-known was <a href="/wiki/Bennelong" title="Bennelong">Bennelong</a>, who eventually adopted European dress and customs and travelled to England where he was reportedly presented to <a href="/wiki/King_George_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King George III">King George III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Canberra_Times''19884-398">[383]</a> Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Pemulwuy" title="Pemulwuy">Pemulwuy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yagan" title="Yagan">Yagan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Windradyne" title="Windradyne">Windradyne</a>, became famous for armed resistance to the European settlers. During the twentieth century, as social attitudes shifted and interest in Indigenous culture increased, there were more opportunities for Indigenous Australians to gain recognition. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Namatjira" title="Albert Namatjira">Albert Namatjira</a> became a painter, and actors such as <a href="/wiki/David_Gulpilil" title="David Gulpilil">David Gulpilil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernie_Dingo" title="Ernie Dingo">Ernie Dingo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Mailman" title="Deborah Mailman">Deborah Mailman</a> became well known. Bands such as <a href="/wiki/Yothu_Yindi" title="Yothu Yindi">Yothu Yindi</a>, and singers <a href="/wiki/Christine_Anu" title="Christine Anu">Christine Anu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jessica_Mauboy" title="Jessica Mauboy">Jessica Mauboy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Gurrumul_Yunupingu" title="Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu">Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu</a>, have combined Indigenous musical styles and instruments with pop/rock, gaining appreciation amongst non-Indigenous audiences. Polymath <a href="/wiki/David_Unaipon" title="David Unaipon">David Unaipon</a> is commemorated on the <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Australian_dollar" title="Banknotes of the Australian dollar">Australian $50 note</a>. While relatively few <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_politicians" title="List of Indigenous Australian politicians">Indigenous Australians have been elected to political office</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neville_Bonner" title="Neville Bonner">Neville Bonner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridgeway" title="Aden Ridgeway">Aden Ridgeway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ken_Wyatt" title="Ken Wyatt">Ken Wyatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Peris" title="Nova Peris">Nova Peris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacqui_Lambie" title="Jacqui Lambie">Jacqui Lambie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linda_Burney" title="Linda Burney">Linda Burney</a> remain the only Indigenous Australians to have been elected to the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Federal_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Federal Parliament">Australian Federal Parliament</a>), Aboriginal rights campaigner Sir <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Nicholls" title="Douglas Nicholls">Douglas Nicholls</a> was appointed Governor of the State of <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> in 1976, and many others have become famous through political activism – for instance, <a href="/wiki/Charles_N._Perkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles N. Perkins">Charles Perkins</a>' involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Ride_(Australia)" title="Freedom Ride (Australia)">Freedom Ride</a> of 1965 and subsequent work; or Torres Strait Islander <a href="/wiki/Eddie_Mabo" title="Eddie Mabo">Eddie Mabo</a>'s part in the landmark <a href="/wiki/Native_title" class="mw-redirect" title="Native title">native title</a> decision that bears his name. The voices of Cape York activists <a href="/wiki/Noel_Pearson" title="Noel Pearson">Noel Pearson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Aileen_Little" title="Jean Aileen Little">Jean Little</a>, and academics <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Langton" title="Marcia Langton">Marcia Langton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mick_Dodson" title="Mick Dodson">Mick Dodson</a>, today loom large in national debates. Some Indigenous people who initially became famous in other spheres – for instance, poet <a href="/wiki/Oodgeroo_Noonuccal" title="Oodgeroo Noonuccal">Oodgeroo Noonuccal</a> – have used their celebrity to draw attention to Indigenous issues. In health services, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin_Kong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kelvin Kong (page does not exist)">Kelvin Kong</a> became the first Indigenous surgeon in 2006 and is an advocate of Indigenous health issues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Australian''2008-399">[384]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2008-400">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2003-401">[386]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Sydney_Morning_Herald''2003-402">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Australia" title="Portal:Australia">Australia portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_deaths_in_custody" title="Aboriginal deaths in custody">Aboriginal deaths in custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_sites_of_New_South_Wales" title="Aboriginal sites of New South Wales">Aboriginal sites of New South Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Management_in_Rural_and_Remote_Indigenous_Communities" title="Animal Management in Rural and Remote Indigenous Communities">Animal Management in Rural and Remote Indigenous Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sacred_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal sacred sites">Australian Aboriginal sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet" title="Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet">Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_outback_literature_of_the_20th_century" title="Australian outback literature of the 20th century">Australian outback literature of the 20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australo-Melanesian" title="Australo-Melanesian">Australo-Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Customary law in Australia">Customary law in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Australia#Indigenous_Australians" title="Domestic violence in Australia">Domestic violence in Australia#Indigenous Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Protected_Area" title="Indigenous Protected Area">Indigenous Protected Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IndigenousX" title="IndigenousX">IndigenousX</a>, media platform</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_firsts" title="List of Indigenous Australian firsts">List of Indigenous Australian firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laws_concerning_Indigenous_Australians" title="List of laws concerning Indigenous Australians">List of laws concerning Indigenous Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAIDOC_Week" title="NAIDOC Week">NAIDOC Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation_and_reburial_of_human_remains" title="Repatriation and reburial of human remains">Repatriation and reburial of human remains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Slavery in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welcome_to_Country" title="Welcome to Country">Welcome to Country</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> The use of the term Indigenous or Indigenous Australian is discouraged by many for being too generic and/or dehumanising.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders generally prefer more specific terms for their unique cultural origins or "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSIS2015-9">[9]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Rhys Jones: 3,000–5,000, N. J. B. Plomley: 4,000–6,000, Henry Reynolds: 5,000–7,000, Colin Pardoe: 12,000+ and David Davies: 15,000. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> For discussion of the Truganini claim, and the other candidates, Suke and Fanny Cochrane Smith, see <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2008">Taylor 2008</a>, pp. 140ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRyan1996">Ryan 1996</a>, p. 220 denies Truganini was the last "full-blood", and makes a case for Suke (d. circa 1888). </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa, Vallini et al. 2022 (4 April 2022) Quote: "Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 ka (the date of the deepest population splits estimated by Malaspinas et al. 2016), it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38 ka, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities." </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Neil Thomson argues that the likely aboriginal population of Australia in 1788 was around 750,000 or even over a million (<a href="#CITEREFThomson2001">Thomson 2001</a>, p. 153). </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen for Frontier History Revisited (Brisbane 2011), page 10-11 & 15. Column one is the distribution percentage calculated on the estimates gathered and publicised in 1930 (Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia XXIII, 1930, pp672, 687–696) by the social anthropologist Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown. The percentage in column two was calculated on the basis of N.G. Butlin: Our Original Aggression and "others", by M. D. Prentis for his book A Study in Black and White (2 revised edition, Redfern NSW 1988, page 41). Column three however, is calculated on the basis of the "Aboriginal Australia" map, published by Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), Canberra 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Bringing them Home, The general principle that came to be followed was that those who were identified as purely Aboriginal were left alone, because it was assumed that they would die out in a few generations, but part-Aboriginal people were "rescued" so that they could be brought up like white children. A few may have benefited from this, but for a majority of them separation from their families was distressing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010113010900/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen62.html">Appendices listing and interpretation of state acts regarding "Aborigines"</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000817181808/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen63.html">Appendix 1.1 NSW</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000817181819/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen64.html">Appendix 1.2 ACT</a>; [www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen65.html Appendix 2 Victoria][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]; [www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen66.html Appendix 3 Queensland][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000817181842/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen67.html">Tasmania</a>; [www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen68.html Appendix 5 Western Australia][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]; [www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen69.html Appendix 6 South Australia][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]; [www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen70.html Appendix 7 Northern Territory] [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> In its submission to the Bringing Them Home report, the Victorian government stated that "despite the apparent recognition in government reports that the interests of Indigenous children were best served by keeping them in their own communities, the number of Aboriginal children forcibly removed continued to increase, rising from 220 in 1973 to 350 in 1976" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000817181344/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/stolen10.html">Bringing Them Home: "Victoria".</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Indigenous people across Australia and other colonist societies – Canada, New Zealand and South Africa – did not gain equal access to their repatriation benefits and military wages. In contrast to other Australian states, Aboriginal authorities in Victoria did not systematically deny Aboriginal people military allotments and pensions, but judged each case on its "merits" (<a href="#CITEREFHorton2015">Horton 2015</a>, p. 205). </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> For a discussion of the recommendations, see: <a href="#CITEREFWood2012">Wood 2012</a>, p. 156 </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> "[Include 'Religion' table download from this page, 'Table 8 Religious Affiliation by Indigenous Status, Count of persons(a)']" (<a href="#CITEREFABS_2017.02017">ABS 2017.0 2017</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> Ronald M. Berndt has published traditional Aboriginal song-poetry in his book "Three Faces of Love", Nelson 1976. R.M.W. Dixon and M. Duwell have published two books dealing with sacred and everyday poetry: "The Honey Ant Men's Love Song" and "Little Eva at Moonlight Creek", University of Queensland Press, 1994. </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> "A specific estimate of the life expectancy gap has not been established among stakeholders in Indigenous health. Agreement on the magnitude of the gap is arguably needed in order to evaluate strategies aimed at improving health outcomes for Indigenous Australians. Moreover, measuring progress towards 'closing the gap' depends on the availability of comparable estimates, using the same techniques of measurement to assess changes over time." (<a href="#CITEREFRosenstockMukandiZwiHill2013">Rosenstock et al. 2013</a>:356–64) </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> On 1 July 2019 the Indigenous Affairs portfolio was moved through a Machinery of Government change to form the National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2021-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2021_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS2021">ABS 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStats_NZ2018-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStats_NZ2018_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStats_NZ2018">Stats NZ 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2021a-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorff2021a_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorff2021a_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKorff2021a">Korff 2021a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStyle_Manual2021-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStyle_Manual2021_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStyle_Manual2021">Style Manual 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2022-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2022_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2022_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS2022">ABS 2022</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-6"><a href="#cite_ref-auto1_6-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3238.0.55.001">"Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics" title="Australian Bureau of Statistics">Australian Bureau of Statistics</a>. 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href="#CITEREFAHRC:_Nulungu_Reconciliation_Lecture2014">AHRC: Nulungu Reconciliation Lecture 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrier2015-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrier2015_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFerrier2015">Ferrier 2015</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGregor2016-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGregor2016_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGregor2016">McGregor 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2017-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2017_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarper2017">Harper 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETourism_Australia2020-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETourism_Australia2020_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTourism_Australia2020">Tourism Australia 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Australian_Art_&_Culturen.d.-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Australian_Art_&_Culturen.d._74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAboriginal_Australian_Art_&_Culturen.d.">Aboriginal Australian Art & Culture n.d</a>. </li> <li 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070905080624/https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/paa227/">"Police Administration Act"</a>. Northern Territory Consolidated Acts. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/paa227/">the original</a> on 5 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Northern+Territory+Consolidated+Acts&rft.atitle=Police+Administration+Act&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Flegis%2Fnt%2Fconsol_act%2Fpaa227%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnaya2010-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnaya2010_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnaya2010">Anaya 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirk2010-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirk2010_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirk2010">Kirk 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawley2009-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawley2009_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHawley2009">Hawley 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC2011-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC2011_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABC2011">ABC 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Stand_for_Freedom''2012-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Stand_for_Freedom''2012_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStand_for_Freedom2012">Stand for Freedom 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart">Uluru Statement from the Heart</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement:_a_quick_guide-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUluru_Statement:_a_quick_guide_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFUluru_Statement:_a_quick_guide">Uluru Statement: a quick guide</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2001-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2001_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS2001">ABS 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2023-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2023_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS2023">ABS 2023</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBleakley192917-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBleakley192917_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBleakley1929">Bleakley 1929</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer200633–34-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpencer200633–34_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpencer2006">Spencer 2006</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustLII1983-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustLII1983_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustLII1983">AustLII 1983</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEALRC2010-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEALRC2010_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEALRC2010_238-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFALRC2010">ALRC 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnell1998-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnell1998_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConnell1998_239-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConnell1998">Connell 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreg_Gardiner2002-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreg_Gardiner2002_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreg_Gardiner2002_240-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreg_Gardiner2002">Greg Gardiner 2002</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012300-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012300_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArcioni2012">Arcioni 2012</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199910-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss199910_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012296,_301-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArcioni2012296,_301_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArcioni2012">Arcioni 2012</a>, pp. 296, 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19996-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19996_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19996_244-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19995-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19995_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19995_245-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19995_245-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19995_245-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19993–4-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss19993–4_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardiner-Garden2000-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGardiner-Garden2000_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGardiner-Garden2000">Gardiner-Garden 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS2016-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2016_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS2016_248-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS2016">ABS 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_tech_note2018-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_tech_note2018_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_tech_note2018">ABS tech note 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESBS2012-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESBS2012_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSBS2012">SBS 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelsey-Sugg2022-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelsey-Sugg2022_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelsey-Sugg2022_251-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKelsey-Sugg2022">Kelsey-Sugg 2022</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_population_summary2022-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS:_population_summary2022_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS:_population_summary2022">ABS: population summary 2022</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS:_Census_over/undercount2021-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS:_Census_over/undercount2021_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS:_Census_over/undercount2021">ABS: Census over/undercount 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_increase2018-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_increase2018_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_increase2018">ABS increase 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.02018-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.02018_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_2077.02018">ABS 2077.0 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.0-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_2077.0_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_2077.0">ABS 2077.0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_3238.02018-257">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_3238.02018_257-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_3238.02018_257-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_3238.02018">ABS 3238.0 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_–_population2006-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_–_population2006_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_–_population2006">ABS – population 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAIATSISFATSIL2005-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAIATSISFATSIL2005_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAIATSISFATSIL2005">AIATSIS & FATSIL 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckermann2009-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuckermann2009_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuckermann2009">Zuckermann 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUniSA2008-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUniSA2008_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFUniSA2008">UniSA 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans2003-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans2003_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvans2003">Evans 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowernHarold2004-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowernHarold2004_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowernHarold2004">Bowern & Harold 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon1997-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon1997_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDixon1997">Dixon 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedyKennedy199260-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedyKennedy199260_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedyKennedy1992">Kennedy & Kennedy 1992</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckermann;_et_al.201512-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZuckermann;_et_al.201512_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZuckermann;_et_al.2015">Zuckermann; et al. 2015</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalsh19977–9-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalsh19977–9_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalsh1997">Walsh 1997</a>, pp. 7–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrews2004424-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrews2004424_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndrews2004">Andrews 2004</a>, p. 424. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWVA_–_8_interesting_facts-269">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWVA_–_8_interesting_facts_269-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWVA_–_8_interesting_facts_269-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWVA_–_8_interesting_facts">WVA – 8 interesting facts</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETraditional_Healers201315–19-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETraditional_Healers201315–19_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTraditional_Healers2013">Traditional Healers 2013</a>, pp. 15–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQCAA2018-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQCAA2018_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFQCAA2018">QCAA 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE'The_Dreaming'-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE'The_Dreaming'_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF'The_Dreaming'">'The Dreaming'</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundine2005-273">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMundine2005_273-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMundine2005_273-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMundine2005_273-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMundine2005">Mundine 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockwood201765–81-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockwood201765–81_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLockwood2017">Lockwood 2017</a>, pp. 65–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmeryn.d.-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmeryn.d._275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmeryn.d.">Amery n.d</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Sullivann.d.-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Sullivann.d._276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Sullivann.d.">O'Sullivan n.d</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnglican_Church2005-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnglican_Church2005_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnglican_Church2005">Anglican Church 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMercer2003-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMercer2003_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMercer2003">Mercer 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorff2019b-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorff2019b_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorff2019b_279-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKorff2019b">Korff 2019b</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4713.02010a-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_4713.02010a_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_4713.02010a">ABS 4713.0 2010a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulture_Portal2007-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulture_Portal2007_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulture_Portal2007_282-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulture_Portal2007">Culture Portal 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(1)-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(1)_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParks_Australia_(1)">Parks Australia (1)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(2)-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParks_Australia_(2)_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParks_Australia_(2)">Parks Australia (2)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENSW_NPWS-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENSW_NPWS_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNSW_NPWS">NSW NPWS</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABC_–_Pilbara_Rock_Art-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABC_–_Pilbara_Rock_Art_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABC_–_Pilbara_Rock_Art">ABC – Pilbara Rock Art</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Museum2011-287"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Museum2011_287-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralian_Museum2011">Australian Museum 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENGoV-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENGoV_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNGoV">NGoV</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERurenga2017-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERurenga2017_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRurenga2017">Rurenga 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Art_Online2008-290"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Art_Online2008_290-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAboriginal_Art_Online2008">Aboriginal Art Online 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENGA_–_ATSI-291"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENGA_–_ATSI_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNGA_–_ATSI">NGA – ATSI</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraves2017-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraves2017_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGraves2017">Graves 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELPP2001-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELPP2001_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLPP2001">LPP 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiona2007-294"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiona2007_294-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFiona2007">Fiona 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton199093–101-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton199093–101_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewton1990">Newton 1990</a>, pp. 93–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunbar-HallGibson200045–73-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunbar-HallGibson200045–73_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunbar-HallGibson2000">Dunbar-Hall & Gibson 2000</a>, pp. 45–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELehmann1997-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehmann1997_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLehmann1997">Lehmann 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Arts-298"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAboriginal_Arts_298-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAboriginal_Arts">Aboriginal Arts</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground:_Songlines-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommon_Ground:_Songlines_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCommon_Ground:_Songlines">Common Ground: Songlines</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESweeney2008-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESweeney2008_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSweeney2008">Sweeney 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Age''2006-301"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Age''2006_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Age2006">The Age 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltshire2017-302"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiltshire2017_302-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiltshire2017">Wiltshire 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaher2013-303"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaher2013_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaher2013">Maher 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENAA_–_DaD-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENAA_–_DaD_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNAA_–_DaD">NAA – DaD</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEModern_Australian_poetry-305"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEModern_Australian_poetry_305-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFModern_Australian_poetry">Modern Australian poetry</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulvaney1990-307"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulvaney1990_307-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMulvaney1990">Mulvaney 1990</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2011-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2011_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFestival_de_Cannes2011">Festival de Cannes 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Dead_Heart-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Dead_Heart_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFASO_–_Dead_Heart">ASO – Dead Heart</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_The_Tracker-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEASO_–_The_Tracker_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFASO_–_The_Tracker">ASO – The Tracker</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Rabbit-Proof_Fence-311"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEASO_–_Rabbit-Proof_Fence_311-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFASO_–_Rabbit-Proof_Fence">ASO – Rabbit-Proof Fence</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddoxAAP2006-312"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddoxAAP2006_312-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaddoxAAP2006">Maddox & AAP 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2006-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFestival_de_Cannes2006_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFestival_de_Cannes2006">Festival de Cannes 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwift2011-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwift2011_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSwift2011">Swift 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScreen_Australia2018-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScreen_Australia2018_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFScreen_Australia2018">Screen Australia 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack_Comedy-316"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlack_Comedy_316-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlack_Comedy">Black Comedy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlandowski1862-317"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlandowski1862_317-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlandowski1862">Blandowski 1862</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWDL_–_Blandowski1862-318"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWDL_–_Blandowski1862_318-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWDL_–_Blandowski1862">WDL – Blandowski 1862</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilferti201079-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilferti201079_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHilferti2010">Hilferti 2010</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarnsworth2007-320"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarnsworth2007_320-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFarnsworth2007">Farnsworth 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllenderChristiansen200145-321"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllenderChristiansen200145_321-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllenderChristiansen2001">Ellender & Christiansen 2001</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_cricket-322"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENMoA_–_cricket_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNMoA_–_cricket">NMoA – cricket</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage-323">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage_323-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage_323-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage_323-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage_323-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage_323-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage">Australians Together: Indigenous disadvantage</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_4704.02008-324"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_4704.02008_324-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_4704.02008">ABS 4704.0 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02005a-325">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02005a_325-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEABS_1301.02005a_325-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFABS_1301.02005a">ABS 1301.0 2005a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENIAA2018-326"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENIAA2018_326-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNIAA2018">NIAA 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019-327">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019_327-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019_327-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019_327-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019_327-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019">Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet 2019</a>. </li> <li 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Retrieved 15 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Face+the+Facts%3A+Questions+and+Answers+about+Aboriginal+%26+Torres+Strait+Islander+Peoples&rft.pub=Australian+Human+Rights+Commission&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Fpublications%2Fquestions-and-answers-about-aboriginal-torres-strait-islander-peoples&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare2006" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/family-violence-indigenous-peoples/summary">Family violence among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, Summary</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare" title="Australian Institute of Health and Welfare">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>. 1 November 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74024-620-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74024-620-0"><bdi>978-1-74024-620-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+violence+among+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+peoples%2C+Summary&rft.pub=Australian+Institute+of+Health+and+Welfare&rft.date=2006-11-01&rft.isbn=978-1-74024-620-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aihw.gov.au%2Freports%2Findigenous-australians%2Ffamily-violence-indigenous-peoples%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"><a href="/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/50px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/75px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/100px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="88" data-file-height="31" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0">Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)</a> licence.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2007" class="citation news cs1">Farnsworth, Sarah (21 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/09/21/2039577.htm?section=australia">"Kids play "kick to kick" −1850s style"</a>. ABC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kids+play+%22kick+to+kick%22+%E2%88%921850s+style&rft.date=2007-09-21&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabc.net.au%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F2007%2F09%2F21%2F2039577.htm%3Fsection%3Daustralia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrier2015" class="citation book cs1">Ferrier, Åsa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p331441/html/ch01.xhtml?referer=1763&page=7">"Chapter 1. Research Framework"</a>. Journeys into the rainforest: Archaeology of culture change and continuity on the Evelyn Tableland, North Queensland. Terra australis 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-192502288-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-192502288-9"><bdi>978-192502288-9</bdi></a> – via ANU.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1.+Research+Framework&rft.btitle=Journeys+into+the+rainforest%3A+Archaeology+of+culture+change+and+continuity+on+the+Evelyn+Tableland%2C+North+Queensland&rft.series=Terra+australis+43&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-192502288-9&rft.aulast=Ferrier&rft.aufirst=%C3%85sa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-files.anu.edu.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpress%2Fp331441%2Fhtml%2Fch01.xhtml%3Freferer%3D1763%26page%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFestival_de_Cannes2006" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/4360076/year/2006.html">"Festival de Cannes: Ten Canoes"</a>. 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Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4072-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4072-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-4072-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soundscapes+of+Australia%3A+Music%2C+Place+And+Spirituality&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4072-1&rft.aulast=Fiona&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQKdEMNzz-t4C%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFABC:_death_of_Tungutalum2009" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-04-07/first-aboriginal-politician-in-nt-dies/1644244">"First Aboriginal politician in NT dies"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">ABC</a>. 7 April 2009. 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"The First Aboriginal Land Rights Case". In Sykes, Helen (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.futureleaders.com.au/book_chapters/pdf/More-or-Less/John-Fogarty_Jacinta-Dwyer.pdf">More or less: democracy & new media</a> (PDF). 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London: Routledge. pp. 33–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-26639-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-26639-5"><bdi>978-1-134-26639-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Ethnicity%3A+Culture%2C+identity+and+representation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-26639-5&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinney2016" class="citation web cs1">Spinney, Angela (4 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/factcheck-qanda-are-indigenous-women-34-80-times-more-likely-than-average-to-experience-violence-61809">"FactCheck Q&A: are Indigenous women 34–80 times more likely than average to experience violence?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>. 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The Rangeland Journal. 32 (3): 329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1071%2FRJ10009">10.1071/RJ10009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Rangeland+Journal&rft.atitle=Origins+of+Travelling+Stock+Routes.+1.+Connections+to+Indigenous+traditional+pathways&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=329&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1071%2FRJ10009&rft.aulast=Spooner&rft.aufirst=P.+G.&rft.au=Firman%2C+M.&rft.au=Yalmambirra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Museum" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/">"The spread of people to Australia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Museum" title="Australian Museum">Australian Museum</a>. Retrieved 26 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+spread+of+people+to+Australia&rft.pub=Australian+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faustralian.museum%2Flearn%2Fscience%2Fhuman-evolution%2Fthe-spread-of-people-to-australia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Museum2011" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/">"The spread of people to Australia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Museum" title="Australian Museum">Australian Museum</a>. 26 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+spread+of+people+to+Australia&rft.pub=Australian+Museum&rft.date=2011-05-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faustralian.museum%2Flearn%2Fscience%2Fhuman-evolution%2Fthe-spread-of-people-to-australia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHRC2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/statistical-overview-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-australia-social">"A statistical overview of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia: Social Justice Report 2008"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Australian Human Rights Commission">Australian Human Rights Commission</a>. 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+statistical+overview+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+peoples+in+Australia%3A+Social+Justice+Report+2008&rft.pub=Australian+Human+Rights+Commission&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Fpublications%2Fstatistical-overview-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-australia-social&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/healthinfonet/getContent.php?linkid=621156&title=Summary+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+health+status+2018&contentid=36479_1">Summary of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health status 2018</a>. Mount Lawley, WA: Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. 2019. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6485071-2-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6485071-2-3"><bdi>978-0-6485071-2-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Summary+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+health+status+2018&rft.place=Mount+Lawley%2C+WA&rft.pub=Australian+Indigenous+HealthInfoNet&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-6485071-2-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealthinfonet.ecu.edu.au%2Fhealthinfonet%2FgetContent.php%3Flinkid%3D621156%26title%3DSummary%2Bof%2BAboriginal%2Band%2BTorres%2BStrait%2BIslander%2Bhealth%2Bstatus%2B2018%26contentid%3D36479_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweeney2008" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Sweeney, Dominique (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/en/prizes/masked-corroborees-of-the-northwest-moscow-ethnographic-film-fest">Masked Corroborees of the Northwest</a> (film).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Masked+Corroborees+of+the+Northwest&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Sweeney&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchoutput.csu.edu.au%2Fen%2Fprizes%2Fmasked-corroborees-of-the-northwest-moscow-ethnographic-film-fest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"> 47 min. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation thesis cs1">Sweeney, D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212142617/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/110183">Masked corroborees of the northwest 'stand up in my head'</a> (PhD). Australian National University. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25911%2F5D51468201AAE">10.25911/5D51468201AAE</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164778361">164778361</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mediaring.com.au/industry-jobs/sydney-opera-house-producer-first-nations-programming/">the original</a> on 27 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sydney+Opera+House+%E2%80%93+Producer%2C+First+Nations+Programming&rft.pub=Media+RING&rft.date=2018-09-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediaring.com.au%2Findustry-jobs%2Fsydney-opera-house-producer-first-nations-programming%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaufikTeixeiraLlamasSudoyo2022" class="citation journal cs1">Taufik, Leonard; Teixeira, João C.; Llamas, Bastien; Sudoyo, Herawati; Tobler, Raymond; Purnomo, Gludhug A. 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Genes. 13 (12): 2373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgenes13122373">10.3390/genes13122373</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2440%2F137331">2440/137331</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2073-4425">2073-4425</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9778601">9778601</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36553640">36553640</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genes&rft.atitle=Human+Genetic+Research+in+Wallacea+and+Sahul%3A+Recent+Findings+and+Future+Prospects&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2373&rft.date=2022-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2440%2F137331&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fgenes13122373&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36553640&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9778601%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2073-4425&rft.aulast=Taufik&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft.au=Teixeira%2C+Jo%C3%A3o+C.&rft.au=Llamas%2C+Bastien&rft.au=Sudoyo%2C+Herawati&rft.au=Tobler%2C+Raymond&rft.au=Purnomo%2C+Gludhug+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9778601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2008" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Rebe (2008) [First published 2004]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gnxF-LE2grgC">Unearthed: the Aboriginal Tasmanians of Kangaroo Island</a>. 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ABC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Two+Queensland+mountains+to+be+renamed+to+rid+them+of+racist+connotations&rft.date=2018-05-15&rft.aulast=Terzon&rft.aufirst=Emilia&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2018-05-15%2Fmount-jim-crow-and-mount-wheeler-to-be-renamed%2F9762114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson2001" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Neil (2001). "Indigenous Australia: Indigenous Health". In Jupp, James (ed.). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people and their Origins. 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Retrieved 29 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Colliding+worlds%3A+first+contact+in+the+western+desert%2C+1932%E2%80%931984&rft.pub=reCollections.nma.gov.au&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Thorley&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frecollections.nma.gov.au%2Fissues%2Fvol_1_no_2%2Fexhibition_reviews%2Fcolliding_worlds%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNMoA1968" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510053048/http://indigenousrights.net.au/timeline.asp?startyear=1960&1=1">"Timeline: 1960–69: 1967, 27 May referendum"</a>. National Museum of Australia. 13 July 1968. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indigenousrights.net.au/timeline.asp?startyear=1960&1=1">the original</a> on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Timeline%3A+1960%E2%80%9369%3A+1967%2C+27+May+referendum&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Australia&rft.date=1968-07-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findigenousrights.net.au%2Ftimeline.asp%3Fstartyear%3D1960%261%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTindale1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Tindale" title="Norman Tindale">Tindale, Norman Barnett</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/114913/2/b13565965.pdf">Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/ANU_Press" title="ANU Press">Australian National University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-708-10741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-708-10741-6"><bdi>978-0-708-10741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Tribes+of+Australia%3A+Their+Terrain%2C+Environmental+Controls%2C+Distribution%2C+Limits%2C+and+Proper+Names&rft.pub=Australian+National+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-708-10741-6&rft.aulast=Tindale&rft.aufirst=Norman+Barnett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearch-repository.anu.edu.au%2Fbitstream%2F1885%2F114913%2F2%2Fb13565965.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorre2022" class="citation web cs1">Torre, Giovanni (6 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nit.com.au/breaking-historic-all-indigenous-senate-ticket-announced-by-greens-for-victoria/">"Victorian Greens reveal all-Indigenous senate ticket for Federal election"</a>. NIT.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIT&rft.atitle=Victorian+Greens+reveal+all-Indigenous+senate+ticket+for+Federal+election&rft.date=2022-03-06&rft.aulast=Torre&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnit.com.au%2Fbreaking-historic-all-indigenous-senate-ticket-announced-by-greens-for-victoria%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorres_Strait_history" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tsirc.qld.gov.au/our-communities/torres-strait-history">"Torres Strait history"</a>. Torres Strait Council Regional Council. Retrieved 2 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Torres+Strait+history&rft.pub=Torres+Strait+Council+Regional+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tsirc.qld.gov.au%2Four-communities%2Ftorres-strait-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFASO_–_The_Tracker" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aso.gov.au/titles/features/tracker/">"The Tracker (2002) on ASO – Australia's audio and visual heritage online"</a>. australianscreen. Retrieved 2 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=australianscreen&rft.atitle=The+Tracker+%282002%29+on+ASO+%E2%80%93+Australia%27s+audio+and+visual+heritage+online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faso.gov.au%2Ftitles%2Ffeatures%2Ftracker%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="CITEREFAustLII1934"><a href="/wiki/Tuckiar_v_The_King" title="Tuckiar v The King">Tuckiar v The King</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1934/49.html">[1934] HCA 49</a>, (1934) 52 <abbr title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</abbr> 335, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia)</cite>. Dhakiyarr is named "Tuckiar" in the proceedings and is referred to in the main judgment as "a completely uncivilised aboriginal native". The decision was unanimous and strongly criticised the conduct of the trial.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFABS2023" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/understanding-change-counts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians-census/latest-release">"Understanding change in counts of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians: Census"</a>. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4 April 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+change+in+counts+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+Australians%3A+Census&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Statistics&rft.date=2023-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abs.gov.au%2Fstatistics%2Fpeople%2Faboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples%2Funderstanding-change-counts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians-census%2Flatest-release&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.referendumcouncil.org.au/final-report.html#toc-anchor-ulurustatement-from-the-heart">"Uluru Statement from the Heart"</a>. 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Australian Parliamentary Library. Retrieved 3 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Uluru+Statement%3A+a+quick+guide&rft.pub=Australian+Parliamentary+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FAbout_Parliament%2FParliamentary_Departments%2FParliamentary_Library%2Fpubs%2Frp%2Frp1617%2FQuick_Guides%2FUluruStatement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParks_Australia_(2)" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/people-place/rock-art.html">"Uluru-Kata Tjuta: Rock art"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parks_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parks Australia">Parks Australia</a>. Retrieved 29 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Uluru-Kata+Tjuta%3A+Rock+art&rft.pub=Parks+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fparksaustralia.gov.au%2Fuluru%2Fpeople-place%2Frock-art.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinesHope1994" class="citation report cs1">Vines, Gary; Hope, Jeannette (May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1803046">Brewarrina Aboriginal fisheries conservation plan</a> (Report). Brewarrina Aboriginal Cultural Museum – via Academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Brewarrina+Aboriginal+fisheries+conservation+plan&rft.pub=Brewarrina+Aboriginal+Cultural+Museum&rft.date=1994-05&rft.aulast=Vines&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Hope%2C+Jeannette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1803046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinisters_Media_Centre2019b" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ministers.pmc.gov.au/wyatt/2019/voice-co-design-senior-advisory-group">"Voice Co-Design Senior Advisory Group"</a>. Ministers Media Centre. Australian Government: Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 8 November 2019b. Retrieved 24 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ministers+Media+Centre&rft.atitle=Voice+Co-Design+Senior+Advisory+Group&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fministers.pmc.gov.au%2Fwyatt%2F2019%2Fvoice-co-design-senior-advisory-group&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinisters_Media_Centre2019a" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ministers.pmc.gov.au/wyatt/2019/voice-indigenous-australians">"A voice for Indigenous Australians"</a>. Ministers Media Centre. Australian Government: Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 30 October 2019a. Retrieved 24 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ministers+Media+Centre&rft.atitle=A+voice+for+Indigenous+Australians&rft.date=2019-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fministers.pmc.gov.au%2Fwyatt%2F2019%2Fvoice-indigenous-australians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWahlquist2018" class="citation news cs1">Wahlquist, Calla (30 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/apr/30/south-australia-halts-indigenous-treaty-talks-as-premier-says-he-has-other-priorities">"South Australia halts Indigenous treaty talks as premier says he has 'other priorities'"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved 30 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=South+Australia+halts+Indigenous+treaty+talks+as+premier+says+he+has+%27other+priorities%27&rft.date=2018-04-30&rft.aulast=Wahlquist&rft.aufirst=Calla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Faustralia-news%2F2018%2Fapr%2F30%2Fsouth-australia-halts-indigenous-treaty-talks-as-premier-says-he-has-other-priorities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh1997" class="citation cs2">Walsh, Michael (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/47329">Cross cultural communication problems in Aboriginal Australia</a>, Australian National University, North Australia Research Unit, pp. 7–9, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-073152874-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-073152874-5"><bdi>978-073152874-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross+cultural+communication+problems+in+Aboriginal+Australia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=Australian+National+University%2C+North+Australia+Research+Unit&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-073152874-5&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.anu.edu.au%2Fhandle%2F1885%2F47329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Service2014" class="citation journal cs1">Warren, Christopher (March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rusinsw.org.au/Papers/2014AU05.pdf">"Surgeon John White"</a> (PDF). Letters. United Service. 65 (1). The Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies NSW: 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+Service&rft.atitle=Surgeon+John+White&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2014-03&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rusinsw.org.au%2FPapers%2F2014AU05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelch2008" class="citation news cs1">Welch, Dylan (13 February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/kevin-rudd-says-sorry-20080214-gds0vu.html">"Kevin Rudd says sorry"</a>. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 30 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Kevin+Rudd+says+sorry&rft.date=2008-02-13&rft.aulast=Welch&rft.aufirst=Dylan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Fnational%2Fkevin-rudd-says-sorry-20080214-gds0vu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellington2019" class="citation web cs1">Wellington, Shahni (13 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/2019/11/13/first-meeting-held-senior-body-indigenous-voice-government">"First meeting held by senior body for Indigenous Voice to government"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special_Broadcasting_Service" title="Special Broadcasting Service">Special Broadcasting Service</a>. Retrieved 24 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+meeting+held+by+senior+body+for+Indigenous+Voice+to+government&rft.pub=Special+Broadcasting+Service&rft.date=2019-11-13&rft.aulast=Wellington&rft.aufirst=Shahni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.com.au%2Fnitv%2Farticle%2F2019%2F11%2F13%2Ffirst-meeting-held-senior-body-indigenous-voice-government&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmpe_Akelyernemane_Meke_Mekarle2007" class="citation book cs1">Wild, Rex; Anderson, Patricia (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inquirysaac.nt.gov.au/pdf/bipacsa_final_report.pdf">Ampe Akelyernemane Meke Mekarle: "Little Children are Sacred"</a> (PDF). Northern Territory Government. Board of Inquiry into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9803874-1-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9803874-1-4"><bdi>978-0-9803874-1-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ampe+Akelyernemane+Meke+Mekarle%3A+%22Little+Children+are+Sacred%22&rft.pub=Northern+Territory+Government.+Board+of+Inquiry+into+the+Protection+of+Aboriginal+Children+from+Sexual+Abuse&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-9803874-1-4&rft.aulast=Wild&rft.aufirst=Rex&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Patricia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inquirysaac.nt.gov.au%2Fpdf%2Fbipacsa_final_report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam2013" class="citation journal cs1">William, Alan (24 April 2013). "A new population curve for prehistoric Australia". Proceedings of the Royal Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=A+new+population+curve+for+prehistoric+Australia&rft.date=2013-04-24&rft.aulast=William&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1997" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Ronald (1997). Bringing them home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families. Sydney: Commonwealth of Australia. p. 275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-064226954-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-064226954-6"><bdi>978-064226954-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bringing+them+home%3A+Report+of+the+National+Inquiry+into+the+Separation+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+Children+from+their+Families&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pages=275&rft.pub=Commonwealth+of+Australia&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-064226954-6&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiltshire2017" class="citation news cs1">Wiltshire, Kelly (27 October 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200321154735/https://aiatsis.gov.au/news-and-events/blog/audiovisual-heritage-torres-strait-singing-and-dancing">"Audiovisual Heritage of Torres Strait Singing and Dancing"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">AIATSIS</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aiatsis.gov.au/news-and-events/blog/audiovisual-heritage-torres-strait-singing-and-dancing">the original</a> on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Audiovisual+Heritage+of+Torres+Strait+Singing+and+Dancing&rft.date=2017-10-27&rft.aulast=Wiltshire&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faiatsis.gov.au%2Fnews-and-events%2Fblog%2Faudiovisual-heritage-torres-strait-singing-and-dancing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Asmi (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210319065441/https://www.altlj.org/publications/back-issues/2012-vol-37/product/775-constitutional-reform-2013-what-are-we-trying-to-achieve/category_pathway-108">"Constitutional Reform 2013: What are we trying to achieve?"</a>. Alternative Law Journal. 37 (3): 156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1037969X1203700303">10.1177/1037969X1203700303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146744619">146744619</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.altlj.org/publications/back-issues/2012-vol-37/product/775-constitutional-reform-2013-what-are-we-trying-to-achieve/category_pathway-108">the original</a> on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alternative+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Reform+2013%3A+What+are+we+trying+to+achieve%3F&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=156&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1037969X1203700303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146744619%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Asmi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.altlj.org%2Fpublications%2Fback-issues%2F2012-vol-37%2Fproduct%2F775-constitutional-reform-2013-what-are-we-trying-to-achieve%2Fcategory_pathway-108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2017" class="citation news cs1">Wright, Tony (20 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/technology/sci-tech/aboriginal-archaeological-discovery-in-kakadu-rewrites-the-history-of-australia-20170719-gxe3qy.html">"Aboriginal archaeological discovery in Kakadu rewrites the history of Australia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Aboriginal+archaeological+discovery+in+Kakadu+rewrites+the+history+of+Australia&rft.date=2017-07-20&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Ftechnology%2Fsci-tech%2Faboriginal-archaeological-discovery-in-kakadu-rewrites-the-history-of-australia-20170719-gxe3qy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynne2018" class="citation news cs1">Wynne, Emma (30 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-30/rottnest-aboriginal-prison-closed-as-holiday-accommodation/9815882">"Former Aboriginal prison on Rottnest Island closed for tourist lodging"</a>. ABC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Former+Aboriginal+prison+on+Rottnest+Island+closed+for+tourist+lodging&rft.date=2018-05-30&rft.aulast=Wynne&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2018-05-30%2Frottnest-aboriginal-prison-closed-as-holiday-accommodation%2F9815882&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html">"A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia"</a>. Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2 (1): 1–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.47248%2Fhpgg2202010001">10.47248/hpgg2202010001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2770-5005">2770-5005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Population+Genetics+and+Genomics&rft.atitle=A+genetic+history+of+migration%2C+diversification%2C+and+admixture+in+Asia&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=2022-01-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.47248%2Fhpgg2202010001&rft.issn=2770-5005&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Melinda+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pivotscipub.com%2Fhpgg%2F2%2F1%2F0001%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFindigenous.gov.au2013" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indigenous.gov.au/yirrkala-bark-petitions-50-years-on">"Yirrkala Bark Petitions – 50 Years On"</a>. indigenous.gov.au. Government of Australia. 12 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=indigenous.gov.au&rft.atitle=Yirrkala+Bark+Petitions+%E2%80%93+50+Years+On&rft.date=2013-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indigenous.gov.au%2Fyirrkala-bark-petitions-50-years-on&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAIHW_Youth_Justice2018" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/19707990-1719-4600-8fce-f0af9d61331c/aihw-juv-116.pdf.aspx?inline=true">Youth justice in Australia 2016–17</a>. Cat. no. JUV 116. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare" title="Australian Institute of Health and Welfare">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare</a>. 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-76054-339-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-76054-339-6"><bdi>978-1-76054-339-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2205-5010">2205-5010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Youth+justice+in+Australia+2016%E2%80%9317&rft.series=Cat.+no.+JUV+116&rft.pub=Australian+Institute+of+Health+and+Welfare&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=2205-5010&rft.isbn=978-1-76054-339-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aihw.gov.au%2Fgetmedia%2F19707990-1719-4600-8fce-f0af9d61331c%2Faihw-juv-116.pdf.aspx%3Finline%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaunmayr2022" class="citation web cs1">Zaunmayr, Tom (23 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nit.com.au/23-07-2022/3135/full-list-record-number-of-indigenous-mps-voted-in-to-serve-the-australian-people">"FULL LIST: Record number of Indigenous MPs voted in to serve the Australian people"</a>. NIT.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIT&rft.atitle=FULL+LIST%3A+Record+number+of+Indigenous+MPs+voted+in+to+serve+the+Australian+people&rft.date=2022-07-23&rft.aulast=Zaunmayr&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnit.com.au%2F23-07-2022%2F3135%2Ffull-list-record-number-of-indigenous-mps-voted-in-to-serve-the-australian-people&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckermann2009" class="citation news cs1">Zuckermann, Ghilad (26 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923233756/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25980525-25192,00.html">"Aboriginal languages deserve revival"</a>. Higher Education. The Australian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25980525-25192,00.html">the original</a> on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 4 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Australian&rft.atitle=Aboriginal+languages+deserve+revival&rft.date=2009-08-26&rft.aulast=Zuckermann&rft.aufirst=Ghilad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.news.com.au%2Fstory%2F0%2C25197%2C25980525-25192%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckermann;_et_al.2015" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a>; et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160330114112/http://arts.adelaide.edu.au/linguistics/guide.pdf">ENGAGING – a Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property</a> (PDF) (Report). Australian Government: Indigenous Culture Support. p. 12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arts.adelaide.edu.au/linguistics/guide.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 30 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=ENGAGING+%E2%80%93+a+Guide+to+Interacting+Respectfully+and+Reciprocally+with+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+People%2C+and+their+Arts+Practices+and+Intellectual+Property&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Australian+Government%3A+Indigenous+Culture+Support&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Zuckermann&rft.aufirst=Ghil%27ad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farts.adelaide.edu.au%2Flinguistics%2Fguide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> Web sources <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220312060433/https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum">"Aboriginal Australia – Referendums and Recognition: The 1967 Referendum"</a>. State Library of South Australia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum">the original</a> on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Australia+%E2%80%93+Referendums+and+Recognition%3A+The+1967+Referendum&rft.pub=State+Library+of+South+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.slsa.sa.gov.au%2FReferendum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"> Includes concise summary of referendum, plus detailed section on Legislative Background, starting with the 1891 National Australasian Convention. Tabs to other pages include: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200104024628/https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum/Resources">"Aboriginal Australia - Referendums and Recognition: 1967 Resources"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum/Resources">the original</a> on 4 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Australia+-+Referendums+and+Recognition%3A+1967+Resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.slsa.sa.gov.au%2FReferendum%2FResources&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200104025848/https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum/Recognition">"Aboriginal Australia - Referendums and Recognition: Constitutional recognition campaign"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.slsa.sa.gov.au/Referendum/Recognition">the original</a> on 4 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+Australia+-+Referendums+and+Recognition%3A+Constitutional+recognition+campaign&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.slsa.sa.gov.au%2FReferendum%2FRecognition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slwa.wa.gov.au/dead_reckoning/private_archives/a-f/aboriginal_people">"Aboriginal People"</a>. Dead Reckoning: How to find your way in the genealogical jungle of Western Australia. State Library of Western Australia. 23 December 2015. 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Rare Historical Photos. 28 December 2015 [Updated: 12 July 2022].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rare+Historical+Photos&rft.atitle=Australian+Aborigines+in+chains+at+Wyndham+prison%2C+1902&rft.date=2015-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frarehistoricalphotos.com%2Faustralian-aborigines-chains-1902%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121128200610/http://cms.curriculum.edu.au/anr2004/ch10_literacy.htm">"Chapter 10: Indigenous education"</a>. MCEETYA. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.curriculum.edu.au/anr2004/ch10_literacy.htm">the original</a> on 28 November 2012. 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Australian Bureau of Statistics. 18 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summary+Commentary%3A+Estimates+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+Australians&rft.pub=Australian+Bureau+of+Statistics&rft.date=2018-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abs.gov.au%2Fstatistics%2Fpeople%2Faboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples%2Festimates-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-australians%2Flatest-release&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"> NOTE: Updates to 798,400 people, or 3.3% of the population, includes reasons for 19% increase in the population estimate on 30 June 2011.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111113239/https://sites.google.com/site/australianblakhistorymonth/extra-credit">"Why Blak not black?"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/bocsar/ll_bocsar.nsf/vwfiles/bb17.pdf/$file/bb17.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 October 2010. Retrieved 28 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Crime+and+Jusstice+Statistics&rft.atitle=Aboriginal+victimisation+and+offending%3A+the+picture+from+police+records&rft.date=2001-12&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft.au=Weatherburn%2C+Don&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawlink.nsw.gov.au%2Flawlink%2Fbocsar%2Fll_bocsar.nsf%2Fvwfiles%2Fbb17.pdf%2F%24file%2Fbb17.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarde" class="citation web cs1">Garde, Murray. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.njamed.com/">"bininj"</a>. 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Retrieved 16 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kava+ban+%27sparks+black+market+boom%27&rft.date=2007-08-23&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Marsh%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2007-08-23%2Fkava-ban-sparks-black-market-boom%2F647810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Oscar, June (8 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/about/news/failure-close-gap-healthcare-puts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-increased">"Failure to close the gap in healthcare puts Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people at increased risk"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Australian Human Rights Commission">Australian Human Rights Commission</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200411202255/https://www.humanrights.gov.au/about/news/failure-close-gap-healthcare-puts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-increased">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Failure+to+close+the+gap+in+healthcare+puts+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+people+at+increased+risk&rft.pub=Australian+Human+Rights+Commission&rft.date=2020-04-08&rft.aulast=Oscar&rft.aufirst=June&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Ffailure-close-gap-healthcare-puts-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-increased&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerche2019" class="citation news cs1">Perche, Diana (10 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/more-first-nations-people-in-parliament-matters-heres-why-115633">"More First Nations people in parliament matters. Here's why"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>. Retrieved 6 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=More+First+Nations+people+in+parliament+matters.+Here%27s+why&rft.date=2019-05-10&rft.aulast=Perche&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fmore-first-nations-people-in-parliament-matters-heres-why-115633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Tindale, Norman B. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-233295897/view">"Tribal Boundaries in Aboriginal Australia"</a> (Zoomable map). Australian National University Press. Retrieved 26 March 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Trove" title="Trove">Trove</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Australia" title="National Library of Australia">National Library of Australia</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tribal+Boundaries+in+Aboriginal+Australia&rft.pub=Australian+National+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Tindale&rft.aufirst=Norman+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.obj-233295897%2Fview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> Books <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevene2005" class="citation book cs1">Levene, Mark (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3PsLXeDflfMC&q=tasmania+genocide+Reynolds&pg=PA344">Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: The rise of the West and the coming of genocide</a>. I. B. Tauris. p. 344 n.105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-057-4"><bdi>978-1-84511-057-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+in+the+Age+of+the+Nation+State%3A+The+rise+of+the+West+and+the+coming+of+genocide&rft.pages=344+n.105&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-057-4&rft.aulast=Levene&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3PsLXeDflfMC%26q%3Dtasmania%2Bgenocide%2BReynolds%26pg%3DPA344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukin_Watson2004" class="citation book cs1">Lukin Watson, Pamela (2004). "Passed Away?: The Fate of the Karuwali". 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Nature. 596 (7873): 543–547. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.596..543C">2021Natur.596..543C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03823-6">10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8387238">8387238</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34433944">34433944</a>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/QpGraph" class="mw-redirect" title="QpGraph">qpGraph</a> analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genome+of+a+middle+Holocene+hunter-gatherer+from+Wallacea&rft.volume=596&rft.issue=7873&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E543-%3C%2Fspan%3E547&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8387238%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.596..543C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34433944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03823-6&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft.aulast=Carlhoff&rft.aufirst=Selina&rft.au=Duli%2C+Akin&rft.au=N%C3%A4gele%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=Nur%2C+Muhammad&rft.au=Skov%2C+Laurits&rft.au=Sumantri%2C+Iwan&rft.au=Oktaviana%2C+Adhi+Agus&rft.au=Hakim%2C+Budianto&rft.au=Burhan%2C+Basran&rft.au=Syahdar%2C+Fardi+Ali&rft.au=McGahan%2C+David+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8387238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuxley1870" class="citation journal cs1">Huxley, Thomas (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html">"On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind"</a>. 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May 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7347-3542-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7347-3542-1"><bdi>0-7347-3542-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/aboriginal/Publications/pub-terminology.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Communicating+Positively%3A+A+guide+to+appropriate+Aboriginal+terminology&rft.pub=NSW+Department+of+Health&rft.date=2004-05&rft.isbn=0-7347-3542-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.health.nsw.gov.au%2Faboriginal%2FPublications%2Fpub-terminology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProtsyk2010" class="citation report cs1">Protsyk, Oleh (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.ipu.org/splz-e/chiapas10/overview.pdf">The representation of minorities and indigenous peoples in parliament: A global overview</a> (PDF) (Report). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aic.gov.au/crc/reports/tatz/">the original</a> on 7 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+suicide+is+different%3A+Aboriginal+youth+suicide+in+New+South+Wales%2C+the+Australian+Capital+Territory+and+New+Zealand%3A+towards+a+model+of+explanation+and+alleviation&rft.series=CRC+funded+reports&rft.pub=Australian+Institute+of+Criminology&rft.date=1999-07-14&rft.aulast=Tatz&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faic.gov.au%2Fcrc%2Freports%2Ftatz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_Australians&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Indigenous+Australians">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-social-justice">"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Australian Human Rights Commission">Australian Human Rights Commission</a>. 31 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+Social+Justice&rft.pub=Australian+Human+Rights+Commission&rft.date=2023-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Four-work%2Faboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-social-justice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100715073410/http://www.indigenousviolence.org/">"Australian Database of Indigenous Violence"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indigenousviolence.org/">the original</a> on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Australian+Database+of+Indigenous+Violence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indigenousviolence.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aiatsis.gov.au/">"Home page"</a>. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Retrieved 26 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home+page&rft.pub=Australian+Institute+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+Studies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faiatsis.gov.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indigenous.gov.au/">"Home page"</a>. Indigenous.gov.au. Australian Government. Retrieved 26 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Indigenous.gov.au&rft.atitle=Home+page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indigenous.gov.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nit.com.au/">"Home page"</a>. National Indigenous Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Indigenous+Times&rft.atitle=Home+page&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnit.com.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/">"Home page"</a>. Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. 15 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Indigenous+HealthInfoNet&rft.atitle=Home+page&rft.date=2018-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealthinfonet.ecu.edu.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www6.austlii.edu.au/au/other/IndigLRes/">"Indigenous Law Resources"</a>. Australasian Legal Information Institute (austlii). 20 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Law+Resources&rft.pub=Australasian+Legal+Information+Institute+%28austlii%29&rft.date=2017-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww6.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fother%2FIndigLRes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/key-resources/health-professionals/health-workers/map-of-aboriginal-and-islander-healthmedical-services/">"Map of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health/medical services"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet" title="Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet">Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet</a>. Retrieved 26 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Indigenous+HealthInfoNet&rft.atitle=Map+of+Aboriginal+and+Torres+Strait+Islander+health%2Fmedical+services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhealthinfonet.ecu.edu.au%2Fkey-resources%2Fhealth-professionals%2Fhealth-workers%2Fmap-of-aboriginal-and-islander-healthmedical-services%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndigenous+Australians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Australia_articles726" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Australia-related_articles" title="Index of Australia-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Australian_history" title="Timeline of Australian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Australian_history" title="Bibliography of Australian history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Australia" title="Archaeology of Australia">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_land_exploration_of_Australia" title="European land exploration of Australia">European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Australia" title="Territorial evolution of Australia">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)" title="History of Australia (1788–1850)">1788–1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1851%E2%80%931900)" title="History of Australia (1851–1900)">1851–1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1901%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Australia (1901–1945)">1901–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Australia (1945–present)">Since 1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Australians" title="History of Asian Australians">Asian Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Australia" title="Constitutional history of Australia">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_Australia" title="Diplomatic history of Australia">Diplomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Australia" title="Economic history of Australia">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Australia" title="Federation of Australia">Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_history_of_Australia" title="Immigration history of Australia">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="History of Indigenous Australians">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia" title="Military history of Australia">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_monarchy_in_Australia" title="History of monarchy in Australia">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Australia" title="History of rail transport in Australia">Railway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Australia" title="Geography of Australia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Australia" title="Climate of Australia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Continent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_of_Australia" title="Deserts of Australia">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Australia" title="Environment of Australia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Australia" title="Environmental issues in Australia">issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Australia" title="List of earthquakes in Australia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Australia" title="Flora of Australia">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Australia" title="Fauna of Australia">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Australia" title="Forests of Australia">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Australia" title="Geology of Australia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Australia" title="List of islands of Australia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Australia" title="List of mountains in Australia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Australia" title="List of regions of Australia">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reserve_System" title="National Reserve System">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Australia" title="List of rivers of Australia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Australia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Australia">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Australia">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">States and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_capital_cities" title="List of Australian capital cities">Capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Australia" title="List of cities in Australia">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Australia" title="Politics of Australia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asylum_in_Australia" title="Asylum in Australia">Asylum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_court_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian court hierarchy">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Australia" title="Elections in Australia">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_funding_in_Australia" title="Political funding in Australia">Donations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system_of_Australia" title="Electoral system of Australia">Electoral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Australia" title="List of political parties in Australia">Parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_federal_budget" title="Australian federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Australia" title="Foreign relations of Australia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Australia" title="Human rights in Australia">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Australia" title="Intersex rights in Australia">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Australia" title="LGBTQ rights in Australia">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Australia" title="Transgender rights in Australia">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Intelligence_Community" title="Australian Intelligence Community">Intelligence and security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_legal_system" title="Australian legal system">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_constitutional_law" title="Australian constitutional law">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Australia" title="Judiciary of Australia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Australia" title="Law enforcement in Australia">Enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force" title="Australian Defence Force">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_government_debt" title="Australian government debt">National debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Australia#Ideology_in_Australian_politics" title="Politics of Australia">Political ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_politics_in_Australia" title="Christian politics in Australia">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Australia" title="Far-right politics in Australia">Far-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationalism" title="Australian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Australia" title="Socialism in Australia">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Public_Service" title="Australian Public Service">Public Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_government_in_Australia" title="Women and government in Australia">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_heads_of_government_in_Australia" title="List of female heads of government in Australia">Government leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_cabinet_ministers_of_Australia" title="List of female cabinet ministers of Australia">Government ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_(Australia)" title="Opposition (Australia)">Shadow Cabinet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Government" title="Australian Government">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Australia" title="Cabinet of Australia">Cabinet of Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_ministries" title="List of Australian ministries">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_Australia" title="Governor-General of Australia">Governor-General</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_Australia" title="List of governors-general of Australia">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="List of prime ministers of Australia">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Australia" title="Economy of Australia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Australia" title="Agriculture in Australia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_dollar" title="Australian dollar">Dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Australia" title="Energy in Australia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_states_and_territories_by_gross_state_product" title="List of Australian states and territories by gross state product">Gross state product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_ownership_in_Australia" title="Home ownership in Australia">Home ownership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Australia" title="Public housing in Australia">Public housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_household_income_in_Australia_and_New_Zealand" title="Median household income in Australia and New Zealand">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_Australia" title="Manufacturing in Australia">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Australia" title="Mass media in Australia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Australia" title="Mining in Australia">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Australia" title="Poverty in Australia">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_Australia" title="Reserve Bank of Australia">Reserve Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Securities_Exchange" title="Australian Securities Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superannuation_in_Australia" title="Superannuation in Australia">Superannuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Australia" title="Taxation in Australia">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Australia" title="Tourism in Australia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Australia" title="Transport in Australia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_Australia" title="Social security in Australia">Welfare system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Australia" title="Category:Society of Australia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Australia" title="Abortion in Australia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aged_care_in_Australia" title="Aged care in Australia">Aged care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Australia" title="Censorship in Australia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationality_law" title="Australian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Australia" title="Crime in Australia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_dying_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Assisted dying in Australia">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Australia" title="Health care in Australia">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Australia" title="Homelessness in Australia">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Australia" title="Immigration to Australia">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Australia" title="Irreligion in Australia">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Australia" title="Languages of Australia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Australian states by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australians" title="Australians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Australia" title="Demographics of Australia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Australia" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Australia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indigenous Australians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Australia" title="Prostitution in Australia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Australia" title="Squatting in Australia">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Australia" title="Waste management in Australia">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Australia" title="Women in Australia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Australia" title="Culture of Australia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Australia" title="Architecture of Australia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_art" title="Australian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_Australia" title="Arts in Australia">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Australia" title="Cinema of Australia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_cuisine" title="Australian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Australia" title="Dance in Australia">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Australia" title="Music of Australia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Australia" title="Public holidays in Australia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Australia" title="List of radio stations in Australia">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Australia" title="Sport in Australia">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Australia" title="National symbols of Australia">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Australia" title="Television in Australia">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Australia" title="Theatre of Australia">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_studies" title="Australian studies">Australian studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Australia" title="Outline of Australia">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Australia-related_articles" title="Index of Australia-related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Australian_history" title="Bibliography of Australian history">Bibliography</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australia" title="Category:Australia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Australia" title="Portal:Australia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Culture_of_indigenous_Oceania597" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Oceania" title="Template:Culture of Oceania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Oceania" title="Template talk:Culture of Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Oceania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Oceania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Culture_of_indigenous_Oceania597" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples#Oceania" title="List of Indigenous peoples">Culture of indigenous Oceania</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>List of resources about traditional arts and culture of Oceania</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_art" title="Oceanian art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Island#Ahu" title="Easter Island">Ahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Arts" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapa" title="Kapa">kapa (Hawaiʻi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lei_(garland)" title="Lei (garland)">Lei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magimagi" title="Magimagi">magimagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">moai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_art" title="New Zealand art">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:M%C4%81ori_art" title="Category:Māori art">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguzu_nguzu" title="Nguzu nguzu">nguzu nguzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_art" title="Oceanian art">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinean_art" title="Papua New Guinean art">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reimiro" title="Reimiro">reimiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81_moko" title="Tā moko">tā moko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabua" title="Tabua">tabua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BBovala" title="Taʻovala">taʻovala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_cloth" title="Tapa cloth">tapa ["masi" (Fiji), "ngatu" (Tonga), "siapo" (Sāmoa), " ʻuha" (Rotuma)]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattoo" title="Tattoo">tattoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%93fui" title="Tēfui">tēfui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivaevae" title="Tivaevae">tivaevae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Broad culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areca_nut" title="Areca nut">areca nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">"yaqona" (Fiji), or "sakau" (Pohnpei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kava_culture" title="Kava culture">Kava culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_culture" title="Māori culture">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_culture" title="Polynesian culture">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoa_%27ava_ceremony" class="mw-redirect" title="Samoa 'ava ceremony">Sāmoa 'ava ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wood_carving#Aboriginal" title="History of wood carving">Wood carving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geo-specific, general</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Culture">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal astronomy</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Culture" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands#People_and_culture" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>, -<a href="/wiki/Pwo" title="Pwo">Pwo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori#Revival_of_culture" title="Moriori">Chatham Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands#Culture" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Island#Culture" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Fiji" title="Culture of Fiji">Fiji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lau_Islands#Culture_and_economy" title="Lau Islands">Lau Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_traditions_and_ceremonies" title="Fijian traditions and ceremonies">traditions and ceremonies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guam#Culture" title="Guam">Guam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lomilomi_massage" title="Lomilomi massage">Lomilomi massage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Kiribati" title="Culture of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Marquesas_Islands" title="Culture of the Marquesas Islands">French Polynesia's Marquesas Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia#Culture" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Nauru" title="Culture of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia#Culture" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_New_Zealand" title="Culture of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_culture" title="Māori culture">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niue#Culture" title="Niue">Niue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island#Culture" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palau#Culture" title="Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Culture of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands#Culture_and_religion" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Samoan culture">Sāmoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Culture of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Tonga" title="Culture of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders#Culture" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvalu#Culture" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Vanuatu" title="Culture of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna#Culture" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesian Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshallese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshallese culture">Marshall Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Stick charts of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yap#Culture" title="Yap">Yap</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yap#Navigation_(sailing)" title="Yap">navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weriyeng" title="Weriyeng">Weriyeng navigation school</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canoes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_dugout_canoe" title="Aboriginal dugout canoe">Aboriginal dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drua" title="Drua">Drua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(boat)#Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugout (boat)">Dugout (boat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaep" title="Kaep">Kaep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakoa" title="Karakoa">Karakoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_migration_canoes" title="Māori migration canoes">Māori migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_canoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Outrigger canoe">Outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paopao_(canoe)" title="Paopao (canoe)"> Paopao (Tuvalu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraw" title="Paraw">Paraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_sailing#Polynesian_sailing_canoes" title="Canoe sailing">Polynesian sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proa" title="Proa">Proa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinta" title="Vinta">Vinta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waka_(canoe)" title="Waka (canoe)">Waka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_M%C4%81ori_waka" title="List of Māori waka">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walap" title="Walap">Walap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BBAparima" title="ʻAparima">ʻAparima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cibi" title="Cibi">cibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fara_(Rotuman_festivity)" title="Fara (Rotuman festivity)">fara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_performance" title="Fire performance">fire dancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewalking" title="Firewalking">firewalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haka" title="Haka">haka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hivinau" title="Hivinau">hivinau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hula" title="Hula">hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kailao" title="Kailao">kailao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapa_haka" title="Kapa haka">kapa haka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Kiribati" title="Dance in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meke" title="Meke">meke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27ote%27a" title="'ote'a">'ote'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa%27o%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Pa'o'a">pa'o'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poi_(performance_art)" title="Poi (performance art)">poi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_Rotuma" title="Dance in Rotuma">Rotuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_culture#Dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Samoan culture">siva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dances_of_Tahiti" title="Category:Dances of Tahiti">Tahiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamure" title="Tamure">tāmūrē</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tautoga" title="Tautoga">tautoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dances_of_Tonga" title="Category:Dances of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tuvalu" title="Music of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27upa%27upa" title="'upa'upa">'upa'upa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Australia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garma_Festival_of_Traditional_Cultures" title="Garma Festival of Traditional Cultures">Garma Festival</a></li></ul></li> <li>Hawaiʻi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aloha_Festivals" title="Aloha Festivals">Aloha Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrie_Monarch_Festival" title="Merrie Monarch Festival">Merrie Monarch Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Invitational_Hula_Festival" title="World Invitational Hula Festival">World Invitational Hula Festival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Fiji" title="List of festivals in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li>New Zealand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasifika_Festival" title="Pasifika Festival">Pasifika Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Matatini" title="Te Matatini">Te Matatini</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Community" title="Pacific Community">Pacific Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Festival_of_Pacific_Arts" title="Festival of Pacific Arts">Festival of Pacific Arts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Category:Festivals in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_languages" title="Oceanic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by area</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Oceania115" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">Languages of Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Australia" title="Languages of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Fiji" title="Languages of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" title="Languages of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nauru" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_New_Zealand" title="Languages of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Languages of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Timor-Leste" title="Languages of Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Vanuatu" title="Languages of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Cook_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Niue" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_New_Caledonia" title="Languages of New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Norfolk_Island" title="Languages of Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tokelau" title="Languages of Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wallis_and_Futuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by category</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Oceania" title="Category:Languages of Oceania">Languages of Oceania</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_literature" title="Oceanian literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Literature_of_Oceania116" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Oceania">Literature of Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Federated States of Micronesia (page does not exist)">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Kiribati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Kiribati (page does not exist)">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Marshall_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Marshall Islands (page does not exist)">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Nauru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Nauru (page does not exist)">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Palau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Palau (page does not exist)">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Timor-Leste" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Tuvalu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Tuvalu (page does not exist)">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Vanuatu" title="Literature of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_the_Cook_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Niue" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of American Samoa (page does not exist)">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_French_Polynesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of French Polynesia (page does not exist)">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Guam (page does not exist)">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_New_Caledonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature_of_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature of Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Austral_Islands" title="Music of the Austral Islands">Austral Islands (French Polynesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Australia" title="Indigenous music of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Music" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Cook_Islands" title="Music of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Easter_Island" title="Music of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Fiji" title="Music of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Guam" title="Music of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Kiribati" title="Music of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lali_(drum)" title="Lali (drum)">Lali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Melanesia" title="Music of Melanesia">Melanesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nauru" title="Music of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_New_Caledonia" title="Music of New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_New_Zealand" title="Music of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_music" title="Māori music">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Niue" title="Music of Niue">Niue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Music of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Palau" title="Music of Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Music of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Polynesia" title="Music of Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Samoa" title="Music of Samoa">Sāmoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slit_drum" title="Slit drum">Slit drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Solomon_Islands" title="Music of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tahiti" title="Music of Tahiti">Tahiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tokelau" title="Music of Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tonga" title="Music of Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tuvalu" title="Music of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Vanuatu" title="Music of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Polynesia" title="Music of Polynesia">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal mythology">Australian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fijian_mythology" title="Category:Fijian mythology">Fijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangarevan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangarevan mythology">Mangarevan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahiti_and_Society_Islands_mythology" title="Tahiti and Society Islands mythology">Maohi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology" title="Māori mythology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menehune" title="Menehune">Menehune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanian_legendary_creatures" title="Category:Oceanian legendary creatures">Oceanian legendary creatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_mythology" title="Samoan mythology">Samoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvaluan_mythology" title="Tuvaluan mythology">Tuvaluan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vanuatu_mythology" title="Category:Vanuatu mythology">Vanuatuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_American_and_Pacific_Islander_Policy_Research_Consortium" title="Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium">Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indigenous Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sama-Bajau" title="Sama-Bajau">Sama-Bajau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamorro_people" title="Chamorro people">Chamorro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori" title="Moriori">Chatham Islander (Moriori or Rekohu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijians" title="Fijians">Fijian (iTaukei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_people" title="Ilocano people">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igorot" class="mw-redirect" title="Igorot">Igorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivatan_people" title="Ivatan people">Ivatans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumad" title="Lumad">Lumad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Demographics of the Marshall Islands">Marshallese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negrito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Islanders" title="Norfolk Islanders">Norfolk Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_New_Guinea" title="Indigenous people of New Guinea">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maohi" title="Maohi">Indigenous Polynesian (Mā’ohi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_people" title="Rapa Nui people">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotumans" title="Rotumans">Rotuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoans" title="Samoans">Samoan (Tagata Māo‘i)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_people" title="Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahitians" title="Tahitians">Tahitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese aborigines">Taiwanese aborigines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokelauans" title="Tokelauans">Tokelauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongans" title="Tongans">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visayans" title="Visayans">Visayans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yami people">Yami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion_in_Oceania114" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Religion in Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Timor-Leste" title="Religion in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Religion in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niue" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Religion_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Religion in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Religion_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Religion in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Caledonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norfolk_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tokelau" title="Religion in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wallis_and_Futuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>For other topics including Oceanian <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinema of Oceania">cinema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shell_money_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell money in Oceania">indigenous currency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Oceanian_clothing" title="Category:History of Oceanian clothing">dress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanian_folklore" title="Category:Oceanian folklore">folklore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanian_cuisine" title="Category:Oceanian cuisine">cuisine</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_Oceania" title="Category:Culture of Oceania">Category:Culture of Oceania</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islanders485" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_Australians" title="Template:Indigenous Australians"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_Australians" title="Template talk:Indigenous Australians"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_Australians" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous Australians"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islanders485" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_Australia" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of Australia">Peoples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australian_communities" title="Category:Indigenous Australian communities">Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_Aboriginal_group_names" title="List of Australian Aboriginal group names">Aboriginal groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Tasmanians" title="Aboriginal Tasmanians">Tasmanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Victorians" title="Aboriginal Victorians">Victorians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australians_from_Western_Australia" title="Category:Indigenous Australians from Western Australia">Western Australians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Lists of Indigenous Australians">Individuals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_indigenous_rights_activists" title="Category:Australian indigenous rights activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_musicians" title="List of Indigenous Australian musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australians_in_politics_and_public_service" title="List of Indigenous Australians in politics and public service">People from politics and public service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_performing_artists" title="List of Indigenous Australian performing artists">Performing artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_sportspeople" title="List of Indigenous Australian sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_visual_artists" title="List of Indigenous Australian visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_writers" title="List of Indigenous Australian writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_culture" title="Australian Aboriginal culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora_(Australian)" title="Bora (Australian)">Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corroboree" title="Corroboree">Corroboree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_(Indigenous_Australians)" title="Country (Indigenous Australians)">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadly_Awards" title="Deadly Awards">Deadly Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_Aboriginal_deities" title="Category:Australian Aboriginal deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dreaming" title="The Dreaming">The Dreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_enumeration" title="Australian Aboriginal enumeration">Enumeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_elder" title="Australian Aboriginal elder">Elders</a></li> <li>Flags <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_flag" title="Australian Aboriginal flag">Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander_flag" title="Torres Strait Islander flag">Torres Strait Islander</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdaitcha" title="Kurdaitcha">Kurdaitcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_literature" title="Indigenous Australian literature">Literature of Indigenous Australians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marn_Grook" title="Marn Grook">Marn Grook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Message_stick" title="Message stick">Message stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAIDOC_Week" title="NAIDOC Week">NAIDOC Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Human_Rights_Awards" title="National Indigenous Human Rights Awards">National Indigenous Human Rights Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outstation_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Outstation movement">Outstation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Religion and mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riji" title="Riji">Riji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_seasons" title="Indigenous Australian seasons">Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sacred_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal sacred sites">Sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_ceremony" title="Smoking ceremony">Smoking ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songline" title="Songline">Songlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_traditional_custodianship" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Australian traditional custodianship">Traditional custodianship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjurunga" title="Tjurunga">Tjurunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_the_Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Category:Culture of the Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Language(s)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avoidance_speech" title="Avoidance speech">Avoidance speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Australian Aboriginal English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Macro-Gunwinyguan languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Kriol language">Australian Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_group_names" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indigenous Australian group names">Language groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Australian_Aboriginal_origin" title="List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin">Loanwords into English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_languages" title="Tasmanian languages">Palawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_place_names_of_Aboriginal_origin" title="List of Australian place names of Aboriginal origin">Placenames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sign_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal sign languages">Sign languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taboo_on_the_dead" title="Taboo on the dead">Taboo on the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_English" title="Torres Strait English">Torres Strait English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Island_languages" title="Torres Strait Island languages">Torres Strait Island languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organisations_serving_Indigenous_Australians" title="Category:Organisations serving Indigenous Australians">Organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Commission" title="Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission">ATSIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Medical_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Medical Service">Aboriginal Medical Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aborigines_Advancement_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Aborigines Advancement League">Aborigines Advancement League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aborigines_Progressive_Association" title="Aborigines Progressive Association">Aborigines Progressive Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">AIATSIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_Progressive_Association" title="Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association">Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aborigines%27_League" title="Australian Aborigines' League">Australian Aborigines' League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australian_mass_media" title="Category:Indigenous Australian mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Australia%27s_First_Peoples" title="National Congress of Australia's First Peoples">National Congress of Australia's First Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Council" title="National Indigenous Council">National Indigenous Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Registrar_of_Indigenous_Corporations" title="Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations">Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australian_politics" title="Category:Indigenous Australian politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registered_Aboriginal_Party" title="Registered Aboriginal Party">Registered Aboriginal Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_Australia" title="Reconciliation Australia">Reconciliation Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_Week" title="National Reconciliation Week">National Reconciliation Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Sorry_Day" title="National Sorry Day">Sorry Day</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Regional_Authority" title="Torres Strait Regional Authority">TSRA</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Land_councils17" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land_council" title="Land council">Land councils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Land_Council" title="Central Land Council">Central Land Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberley_Land_Council" title="Kimberley Land Council">Kimberley Land Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maralinga_Tjarutja" title="Maralinga Tjarutja">Maralinga Tjarutja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Local_Aboriginal_Land_Council" title="Metropolitan Local Aboriginal Land Council">Metropolitan Local Aboriginal Land Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSW_Aboriginal_Land_Council" title="NSW Aboriginal Land Council">NSW Aboriginal Land Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Land_Council" title="Northern Land Council">Northern Land Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Aboriginal_Land_and_Sea_Council" title="South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council">South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_Land_Council" title="Tiwi Land Council">Tiwi Land Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_Aboriginal_bushcraft" title="Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft">Bushcraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buka_cloak" title="Buka cloak">Buka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_bread" title="Bush bread">Bush bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_tucker" title="Bush tucker">Bush tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_medicine" title="Bush medicine">Bush medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolamon_(vessel)" title="Coolamon (vessel)">Coolamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_dugout_canoe" title="Aboriginal dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_fibrecraft" title="Australian Aboriginal fibrecraft">Fibrecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">Fire-stick farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_food_groups" title="Indigenous Australian food groups">Food groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humpy" title="Humpy">Humpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possum-skin_cloak" title="Possum-skin cloak">Possum-skin cloak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarred_tree" title="Scarred tree">Scarred tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soakage_(source_of_water)" title="Soakage (source of water)">Soaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinifex_resin" title="Spinifex resin">Spinifex resin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sweets" title="Australian Aboriginal sweets">Sweets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waddy" title="Waddy">Waddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">Woomera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_Aboriginal_art" title="Category:Australian Aboriginal art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_artefacts" title="Australian Aboriginal artefacts">Artefacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bark_painting" title="Bark painting">Bark painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Contemporary Indigenous Australian art">Contemporary visual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Australian dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didgeridoo" title="Didgeridoo">Didgeridoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreaming_(Australian_Aboriginal_art)" title="Dreaming (Australian Aboriginal art)">Dreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Australia" title="Indigenous music of Australia">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_Australian_musical_groups" title="Category:Indigenous Australian musical groups">Music groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rock" title="Indigenous rock">Rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Aboriginal_%26_Torres_Strait_Islander_Art_Award" title="National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award">NATSIA Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papunya_Tula" title="Papunya Tula">Papunya Tula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandpainting#Indigenous_Australian_sandpainting" title="Sandpainting">Sandpainting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibe_Australia" title="Vibe Australia">Vibe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Visual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yininmadyemi_-_Thou_didst_let_fall" title="Yininmadyemi - Thou didst let fall">Yininmadyemi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Category:History of Indigenous Australians">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Land_Rights_Act_1976" title="Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976">Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Frontier_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Frontier Wars">Australian Frontier Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathurst_War" title="Bathurst War">Bathurst War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawkesbury_and_Nepean_Wars" title="Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars">Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledon_Bay_crisis" title="Caledon Bay crisis">Caledon Bay crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cummeragunja_walk-off" title="Cummeragunja walk-off">Cummeragunja walk-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Mourning_(Australia)" title="Day of Mourning (Australia)">Day of Mourning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_Hill_walk-off" title="Wave Hill walk-off">Gurindji Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_Australian_historical_figures" title="List of Indigenous Australian historical figures">Historical figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="History of Indigenous Australians">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Australian history wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_breastplate" title="Aboriginal breastplate">King plates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="List of massacres of Indigenous Australians">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_Aboriginal_missions" title="Category:Australian Aboriginal missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_native_police" title="Australian native police">Native police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Title_Act_1993" title="Native Title Act 1993">Native Title Act 1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal_for_Aborigines" title="New Deal for Aborigines">New Deal for Aborigines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilbara_strike" title="Pilbara strike">Pilbara strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pintupi_Nine" title="Pintupi Nine">Pintupi Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apology_to_Australia%27s_Indigenous_peoples" title="Apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples">Apology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Tent_Embassy" title="Aboriginal Tent Embassy">Tent embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_history_of_Western_Australia" title="Aboriginal history of Western Australia">Western Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Australian_referendum_(Aboriginals)" title="1967 Australian referendum (Aboriginals)">1967 Referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_recognition_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians">Constitutional recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians_and_crime" title="Indigenous Australians and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_health_in_Australia" title="Indigenous health in Australia">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights_in_Australia" title="Indigenous land rights in Australia">Land rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">Native title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Protected_Area" title="Indigenous Protected Area">Protected Area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayals_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Media portrayals of Indigenous Australians">Media portrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory_National_Emergency_Response" title="Northern Territory National Emergency Response">Northern Territory National Emergency Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_self-determination" title="Indigenous Australian self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_in_Australia" title="Reconciliation in Australia">Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-Caste_Act" title="Half-Caste Act">Half-Caste Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluru_Statement_from_the_Heart" title="Uluru Statement from the Heart">Uluru Statement from the Heart</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_treaties_in_Australia" title="Indigenous treaties in Australia">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_commission#Australia" title="Truth commission">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Voice_to_Parliament" title="Indigenous Voice to Parliament">Voice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Voting rights of Indigenous Australians">Voting rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent134" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:khaki; padding-top:0.1em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_by_continent" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples by continent"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_world_by_continent134" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> by <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Location of Africa"><img alt="Location of Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Africa_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Indigenous peoples of Africa">Africa</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Eurasia" title="Location of Eurasia"><img alt="Location of Eurasia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Eurasia_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples#Eurasia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">Eurasia</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="Location of North America"><img alt="Location of North America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-North_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Location of Oceania"><img alt="Location of Oceania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-Oceania_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Oceania</a> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:17%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Location of South America"><img alt="Location of South America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/80px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/120px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg/160px-South_America_in_the_world_%28red%29_%28W3%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="1948" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:khaki;"><div> <a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous 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/></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/794496/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4000178-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85009602">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947098x">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947098x">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 46 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-55f85cbc4-xw7wh","wgBackendResponseTime":171,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"5.717","walltime":"6.445","ppvisitednodes":{"value":59046,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1311161,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":94850,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":92,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1318384,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 5383.371 1 -total"," 23.37% 1258.005 468 Template:Sfn"," 20.51% 1104.318 207 Template:Cite_web"," 8.73% 470.140 85 Template:Cite_news"," 8.21% 441.909 57 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.71% 361.431 1 Template:Infobox_ethnic_group"," 5.79% 311.785 58 Template:Cite_book"," 4.40% 236.764 1 Template:Australia_topics"," 4.33% 233.151 1 Template:Country_topics"," 4.15% 223.240 2 Template:Reflist"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.803","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":13953147,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF\u0026#039;The_Dreaming\u0026#039;\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC2016a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC2016b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC:_death_of_Tungutalum2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_Local_Radio2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_News2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_News2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_News2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_News2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABC_–_Pilbara_Rock_Art\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2004a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2005b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2010b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS:_Census_over/undercount2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS:_TableBuilder2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS:_population_summary2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_1301.02002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_1301.02005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_1370.02004b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_2017.02017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_2077.0\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_2077.02018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_3238.02018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_3302.0.55.003_–_Life_Tables2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_4510.02017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_4704.02008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_4713.02010a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_4714.02016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_Census2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_increase2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_tech_note2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFABS_–_population2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAEC_–_milestones\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAG.DoH2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHRC2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHRC2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHRC2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAHRC:_Nulungu_Reconciliation_Lecture2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIATSIS2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIATSIS2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIATSIS:_Land_Rights2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIATSIS:_handback2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIATSISFATSIL2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAIHW_Youth_Justice2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFALII1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFALII:_Summary_report2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFALRC2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFALRC:_incarceration_rate2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFANTaR2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFANZSOG:_Karla_Grantn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFASO_–_Dead_Heart\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFASO_–_Rabbit-Proof_Fence\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFASO_–_The_Tracker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFATNS_–_ICC\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAWM\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAboriginal_Art_Online2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAboriginal_Arts\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAboriginal_Australian_Art_\u0026amp;_Culturen.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAborigine:_Merriam-Webster.com_Dictionary\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdcockDennisEastealHuttley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAghakhanianYunusNaiduJinam2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllmonKelly2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmeryn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmpe_Akelyernemane_Meke_Mekarle2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnaya2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrews2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnglican_Church2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArcioni2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArt_Gallery_of_NSW2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArthur_Beetson_OAM\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustLII1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustLII1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Geographic2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Government2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Indigenous_HealthInfoNet2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Institute_of_Health_and_Welfare2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Museum\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Museum2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Museum2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralians_Together2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralians_Together:_Indigenous_disadvantage\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralians_Together:_Mabo_and_Native_title\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralians_Together:_Stolen_Generations\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBBC2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBBC2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBach1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalla2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallyn2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiddleHunterYapGray\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBindon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBird2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirdTurneyFifieldJones2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack_Comedy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackwell_Public_Schooln.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlainey1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlakLash_Creativen.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlak_\u0026amp;_Brightn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlak_History_Monthn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlandowski1862\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBleakley1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoehme2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBottoms2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowernHarold2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowlerJohnstonOlleyPrescott2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradshaw,_CoreyWilliams,_AlanSaltré,_FrédérickNorman,_Kasih2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrennan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBringing_them_Home:_\u0026quot;Chapter_13\u0026quot;1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBringing_them_home_education_module\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroome2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCallaway2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCareySherwoodPriceBowler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlhoffDuliNägeleNur2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarmody2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCentral_Land_Council\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrysanthos2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCivics_and_Citizenship_Education2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarksonJacobsMarwickFullagar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoA2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColin_Groves2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollard2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColonial_frontier_massacres_–_C21CH\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCommon_Ground\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCommon_Ground:_Songlines\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnor2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConvery2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook,_James1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostaDunstan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCronshaw2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCtG_Report2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCulottaGibbons2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCulture_Portal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD._J._Colgan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarian-Smith2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidMcNivenMitchellOrr2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidsonWahlquist2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoSSM2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDovetail2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunbar-HallGibson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunstan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllenderChristiansen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnviroNorthn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEthnologue.com\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvansØrsted-Jensen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFOCUS_Asia-Pacific1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFace_the_Facts2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarnsworth2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerrier2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFestival_de_Cannes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFestival_de_Cannes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiona2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirst_encounters_and_frontier_conflict2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzgeraldWeatherburn2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFive_Fast_Facts2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlinders_University:_Appropriate_Terminology\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFogartyDwyer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForum2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFG._J._AdcockE._S._DennisS._EstealG._A._Huttley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGammage2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarde\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardiner-Garden2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerritsen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlynnJenifer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoQ\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoQ2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGobbett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGough2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraves2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreg_Gardiner2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregory_J._AdcockElizabeth_S._DennisSimon_EastealGavin_A._Huttley2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuantai2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaydar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeath2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeissMelodie-Jane2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigginsCollard2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilferti2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobart_Town_Courier1828\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobbsWilliams2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodge1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowden2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudjashovKivisildUnderhillEndicott2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuxley1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIAA2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFICommunity_Newsletter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIndigenous_Desert_Alliance\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._W._H._Trueman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaensch1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeuniewic2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarvelas2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayserBrauerWeissSchiefenhövel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelsey-Sugg2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedyKennedy1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimStephen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirk2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKociumbas2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKooriweb.org1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2018a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2018b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2019b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2021b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLAoNT2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLPP2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLack1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatimore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawfordZillman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehmann1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemkin1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevene2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipsonReich2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockwood2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLondey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoxley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukin_Watson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMCA\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacAulayHillAchilliRengo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKnight1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaddoxAAP2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaher2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalaspinasWestawayMullerSousa2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallickLiLipsonMathieson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManfredMarkIrinaFrederick2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarten2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynardHaskins2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCallumWaller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEvoyLindWangMoyzis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGregor2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIlroy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIlroy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenna2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMah2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNiven2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMear2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedia_RING2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelville2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMercer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinisters_Media_Centre2019a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinisters_Media_Centre2019b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinisters_Media_Centre2019c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoAD\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFModern_Australian_poetry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoses2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoyal2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulvaney1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMundine2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMungo_National_Park\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunro2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunroMcLisky2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNAA_Uncommon_Lives2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNAA_–_DaD\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNGA_–_ATSI\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNGoV\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNIAA2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNITV:_Living_Black2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMA:_APA2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA_–_Freedom_Ride\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA_–_contact\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA_–_cricket\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA_–_indigenous_rights\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNMoA_–_walk-off\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNSW_NPWS\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagleBallantynevan_OvenTyler-Smith2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Heritage_Places_–_Budj_Bim_National\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Indigenous_Times2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeubauer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNine_News2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNunnMao2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Sullivan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Sullivann.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOIPC2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOPMC_Closing_the_Gap\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOffer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgden2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlleyRobertsYoshidaBowler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonMarsh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEG2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPardoe1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPardoe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParks_Australia_(1)\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParks_Australia_(2)\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartlett1977–1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPascoe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPascoe2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPascoe2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerche2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlaces_–_Torres_Strait_Islands2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProtsyk2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQCAA2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQUoT:_Guidelines2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasmussenGuoWangLohmueller2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRead1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReconciliation_Australia2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReef_Catchmentsn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFResistance\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReyes-CentenoGhirottoDétroitGrimaud-Hervé2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogersBain2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenstockMukandiZwiHill2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRugby_Hall_of_Fame2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRurenga2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSBS2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScreen_Australia2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSentance2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmonds2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithChamberlainRileyStringer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmythMonaghanSmythConsultants2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpencer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpinney2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpoonerFirmanYalmambirra2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStand_for_Freedom2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStats_NZ2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStyle_Manual2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSweeney2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwift2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTSRA_–_history\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTatz1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaufikTeixeiraLlamasSudoyo2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTerzonRobinson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Age2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Australian2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Australian2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Australian2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Canberra_Times1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Herald1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Sydney_Morning_Herald2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTindale1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorre2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres_Strait_history\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTourism_Australia2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraditional_Healers2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUluru_Statement:_a_quick_guide\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUluru_Statement_from_the_Heart\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniSA2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Service2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Newcastle2017b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUoN\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUoS2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVinesHope1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWDL_–_Blandowski1862\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWVA_–_8_interesting_facts\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWahlquist2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelch2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellington2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiltshire2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWindschuttleGillin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWynne2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaunmayr2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckermann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckermann;_et_al.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFaustralia.gov.au2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFd\u0026#039;AbbsGillickHodsonKavanagh2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFindigenous.gov.au2013\"] = 1,\n [\"blak_culture\"] = 1,\n [\"reconciliation\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"' \\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"AUD\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"As of\"] = 7,\n [\"Australia topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blist\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 2,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AustLII\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 58,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite interview\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 57,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 85,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 207,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Culture of Oceania\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 8,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Further\"] = 8,\n [\"Harv\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvcol\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 187,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 3,\n [\"Hatnote\"] = 1,\n [\"Indigenous Australians\"] = 1,\n [\"Indigenous peoples by continent\"] = 1,\n [\"Indigenous rights\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox ethnic group\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 18,\n [\"Missing information\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Population distribution\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 11,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 468,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Split section\"] = 2,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Australian English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","500","12.6"],["?","480","12.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","340","8.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","280","7.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","6.5"],["type","200","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","200","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","200","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","140","3.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","120","3.0"],["[others]","1260","31.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-55f85cbc4-dnttf","timestamp":"20250225044110","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Indigenous Australians","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indigenous_Australians","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q170355","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q170355","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-08-10T11:16:37Z","dateModified":"2025-02-15T09:59:55Z","headline":"First Nations people of Australia and its islands"}</script> </body> </html>