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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prozesua"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Prozesua </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prozesua-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Erakutsi/ezkutatu Prozesua azpiatal </button> <ul id="toc-Prozesua-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genearen_isolamendua_eta_klonazioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genearen_isolamendua_eta_klonazioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Genearen isolamendua eta klonazioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genearen_isolamendua_eta_klonazioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNAren_txertaketa_genoma_ostalarian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNAren_txertaketa_genoma_ostalarian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 DNAren txertaketa genoma ostalarian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNAren_txertaketa_genoma_ostalarian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aplikazioak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aplikazioak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Aplikazioak </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aplikazioak-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Erakutsi/ezkutatu Aplikazioak azpiatal </button> <ul id="toc-Aplikazioak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medikuntza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medikuntza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Medikuntza </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medikuntza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ikerketa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ikerketa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ikerketa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ikerketa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Industria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nekazaritza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nekazaritza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Nekazaritza </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nekazaritza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beste_aplikazio_batzuk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beste_aplikazio_batzuk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Beste aplikazio batzuk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beste_aplikazio_batzuk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erregulazioa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erregulazioa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Erregulazioa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erregulazioa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eztabaida_etikoak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eztabaida_etikoak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Eztabaida etikoak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eztabaida_etikoak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erreferentziak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erreferentziak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Erreferentziak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erreferentziak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ikus,_gainera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ikus,_gainera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Ikus, gainera </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ikus,_gainera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kanpo_estekak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kanpo_estekak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Kanpo estekak </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kanpo_estekak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Edukiak" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ingeniaritza genetiko</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Joan beste hizkuntza batean idatzitako artikulu batera. 87 hizkuntzatan eskuragarri." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" > 87 hizkuntza </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetiese_manipulasie" title="Genetiese manipulasie – afrikaansa" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Genetiese manipulasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaansa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="هندسة وراثية – arabiera" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هندسة وراثية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxenier%C3%ADa_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Inxeniería xenética – asturiera" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inxeniería xenética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik_m%C3%BCh%C9%99ndisliyi" title="Genetik mühəndisliyi – azerbaijanera" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Genetik mühəndisliyi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaijanera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Генетик инженерия – baxkirera" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Генетик инженерия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baxkirera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Генетычная інжынерыя – bielorrusiera" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Генетычная інжынерыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorrusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Генно инженерство – bulgariera" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Генно инженерство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgariera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B2" title="বংশাণু প্রকৌশল – bengalera" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বংশাণু প্রকৌশল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalera" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologiezh_c%27henetek" title="Teknologiezh c'henetek – bretoiera" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Teknologiezh c'henetek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="bretoiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneti%C4%8Dko_in%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Genetičko inženjerstvo – bosniera" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genetičko inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enginyeria_gen%C3%A8tica" title="Enginyeria genètica – katalana" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enginyeria genètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="ئەندازەی بۆماوەیی – erdialdeko kurduera" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەندازەی بۆماوەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="erdialdeko kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetick%C3%A9_in%C5%BEen%C3%BDrstv%C3%AD" title="Genetické inženýrství – txekiera" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genetické inženýrství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="txekiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genteknologi" title="Genteknologi – daniera" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Genteknologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="daniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentechnik" title="Gentechnik – alemana" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gentechnik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γενετική μηχανική – greziera" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενετική μηχανική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artikulu onak"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering – ingelesa" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Genetic engineering" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="ingelesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentekniko" title="Gentekniko – esperantoa" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gentekniko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperantoa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_gen%C3%A9tica" title="Ingeniería genética – gaztelania" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ingeniería genética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="gaztelania" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geenitehnoloogia" title="Geenitehnoloogia – estoniera" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geenitehnoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C_%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="مهندسی ژنتیک – persiera" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهندسی ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geenitekniikka" title="Geenitekniikka – finlandiera" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geenitekniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nie_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Génie génétique – frantsesa" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génie génétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="frantsesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetyske_technology" title="Genetyske technology – mendebaldeko frisiera" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Genetyske technology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="mendebaldeko frisiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innealt%C3%B3ireacht_gh%C3%A9initeach" title="Innealtóireacht ghéiniteach – irlandera" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Innealtóireacht ghéiniteach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="基因工程 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="基因工程" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9ni_j%C3%A9n%C3%A9tik" title="Jéni jénétik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Jéni jénétik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enxe%C3%B1ar%C3%ADa_xen%C3%A9tica" title="Enxeñaría xenética – galiziera" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enxeñaría xenética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A1%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הנדסה גנטית – hebreera" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנדסה גנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebreera" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अनुवंशिक अभियांत्रिकी – hindia" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुवंशिक अभियांत्रिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindia" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gensko_in%C5%BEenjerstvo" title="Gensko inženjerstvo – kroaziera" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gensko inženjerstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="kroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonbinezon_jenetik" title="Rekonbinezon jenetik – Haitiko kreolera" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Rekonbinezon jenetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitiko kreolera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nseb%C3%A9szet" title="Génsebészet – hungariera" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Génsebészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hungariera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գենետիկական ճարտարագիտություն – armeniera" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենետիկական ճարտարագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekayasa_genetik" title="Rekayasa genetik – indonesiera" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rekayasa genetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingegneria_genetica" title="Ingegneria genetica – italiera" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ingegneria genetica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E4%BC%9D%E5%AD%90%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="遺伝子工学 – japoniera" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="遺伝子工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinetik_injinierin" title="Jinetik injinierin – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jinetik injinierin" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გენური ინჟინერია – georgiera" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენური ინჟინერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гендік инженерия – kazakhera" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гендік инженерия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakhera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ತಳೀಯ ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತಳೀಯ ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="유전공학 – koreera" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="koreera" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endazyariya_b%C3%BBmay%C3%AEk" title="Endazyariya bûmayîk – kurduera" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Endazyariya bûmayîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Генетика инженериясы – kirgizera" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Генетика инженериясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirgizera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologia_genetica" title="Technologia genetica – latina" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Technologia genetica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latina" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geentechnik" title="Geentechnik – luxenburgera" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geentechnik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxenburgera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C5%B3_in%C5%BEinerija" title="Genų inžinerija – lituaniera" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genų inžinerija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%93nu_in%C5%BEenierija" title="Gēnu inženierija – letoniera" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gēnu inženierija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Генетско инженерство – mazedoniera" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Генетско инженерство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="mazedoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D" title="ജനിതക എൻജിനീയറിങ്ങ് – malabarera" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജനിതക എൻജിനീയറിങ്ങ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malabarera" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Генийн инженерчлэл – mongoliera" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Генийн инженерчлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongoliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejuruteraan_genetik" title="Kejuruteraan genetik – malaysiera" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kejuruteraan genetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaysiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angenharie_gen%C3%A9tica" title="Angenharie genética – mirandesa" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Angenharie genética" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetische_technologie" title="Genetische technologie – nederlandera" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genetische technologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="nederlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gensl%C3%B8yd" title="Gensløyd – nynorsk (norvegiera)" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gensløyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="nynorsk (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gensl%C3%B8yd" title="Gensløyd – bokmål (norvegiera)" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gensløyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="bokmål (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%87%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਜਣਨ ਇੰਜੀਨੀਅਰੀ – punjabera" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਣਨ ਇੰਜੀਨੀਅਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C5%BCynieria_genetyczna" title="Inżynieria genetyczna – poloniera" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Inżynieria genetyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poloniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="د جنتیک انجنیري – paxtunera" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جنتیک انجنیري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paxtunera" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engenharia_gen%C3%A9tica" title="Engenharia genética – portugesa" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Engenharia genética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugesa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inginerie_genetic%C4%83" title="Inginerie genetică – errumaniera" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Inginerie genetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="errumaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Генетическая инженерия – errusiera" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Генетическая инженерия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="errusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ncignir%C3%ACa_gin%C3%A8tica" title="Ncignirìa ginètica – siziliera" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ncignirìa ginètica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="siziliera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%AA" title="تعجيل وراثت – sindhia" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تعجيل وراثت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhia" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneti%C4%8Dki_in%C5%BEenjering" title="Genetički inženjering – serbokroaziera" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genetički inženjering" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbokroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ජාන ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව – sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජාන ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genetic engineering" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetsko_in%C5%BEenirstvo" title="Genetsko inženirstvo – esloveniera" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Genetsko inženirstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="esloveniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inxhinieria_gjenetike" title="Inxhinieria gjenetike – albaniera" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inxhinieria gjenetike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Генетички инжењеринг – serbiera" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Генетички инжењеринг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9kayasa_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tik" title="Rékayasa génétik – sundanera" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Rékayasa génétik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sundanera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genteknik" title="Genteknik – suediera" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genteknik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suediera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மரபணுப் பொறியியல் – tamilera" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மரபணுப் பொறியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilera" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="พันธุวิศวกรรม – thailandiera" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พันธุวิศวกรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetika_in%C5%BEenerligi" title="Genetika inženerligi – turkmenera" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Genetika inženerligi" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="turkmenera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhenyeriyang_henetiko" title="Inhenyeriyang henetiko – tagaloa" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Inhenyeriyang henetiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagaloa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetik_m%C3%BChendisli%C4%9Fi" title="Genetik mühendisliği – turkiera" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Genetik mühendisliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turkiera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Генетична інженерія – ukrainera" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Генетична інженерія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainera" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;padding-top:0.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Osagai nagusiak</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">Kromosoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma">Genoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herentzia_genetiko" title="Herentzia genetiko">Herentzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">Mutazioa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukleotido" title="Nukleotido">Nukleotidoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bariazio_genetiko" title="Bariazio genetiko">Bariazioa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetikaren_sarrera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetikaren sarrera (sortu gabe)">Sarrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetikaren_historia" title="Genetikaren historia">Historia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboluzio" title="Eboluzio">Eboluzioa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eboluzio_molekular" title="Eboluzio molekular">molekularra</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populazioen_genetika" title="Populazioen genetika">Populazioen genetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelen_legeak" title="Mendelen legeak">Herentzia mendeliarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika_kuantitatibo" title="Genetika kuantitatibo">Genetika kuantitatiboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika_molekular" title="Genetika molekular">Genetika molekularra</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Ikerketa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sekuentziazio" title="DNA sekuentziazio">DNA sekuentziazioa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ingeniaritza genetikoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika">Genomika</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetika_mediko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetika mediko (sortu gabe)">Genetika medikoa</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Adarrak</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetikaren_adar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetikaren adar (sortu gabe)">Genetikaren adarrak</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title">Medikuntza pertsonalizatua</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medikuntza_pertsonalizatu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medikuntza pertsonalizatu (sortu gabe)">Medikuntza pertsonalizatua</a> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r9236167"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9235565">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-ikusi"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi:Genetika_aurkibidea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Txantiloi:Genetika aurkibidea (sortu gabe)"><abbr title="Txantiloi hau ikusi">i</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-eztabaida"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi_eztabaida:Genetika_aurkibidea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Txantiloi eztabaida:Genetika aurkibidea (sortu gabe)"><abbr title="Txantiloi hau eztabaidatu">e</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-aldatu"><a class="external text" href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Txantiloi:Genetika_aurkibidea&action=edit"><abbr title="Txantiloi hau aldatu">a</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg/220px-Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg/330px-Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg/440px-Bacteria_used_to_make_wheat_seeds_nearly_immune_to_wheat_take-all.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2131" data-file-height="2953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Onddo" title="Onddo">Onddo</a> baten aurrean erresistentzia duten <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterioen</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">geneak</a> garian txertatuz, onddo horren <a href="/wiki/Infekzio" title="Infekzio">infekzioen</a> aurrean gari erresistentea lortzen da (argazkian, gari-garauak eta <a href="/wiki/Petri_plaka" title="Petri plaka">Petri plaka</a> batean hazten diren bakterioak).</figcaption></figure> Ingeniaritza genetikoa <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">organismoen</a> ezaugarri genetikoak aldarazteko aukera ematen duten tekniken multzoa da. DNAren organismo batetik besterako manipulazioa eta transferentzia ahalbidetzen duen teknologia honi esker, espezie berriak sortu, akats genetikoak zuzendu edota konposatu berriak sor daitezke. DNA molekula berriak bi bidetatik lor daitezke: DNA isolatu eta DNA birkonbinatuaren teknologiaren metodoen bidez intereseko material genetikoa kopiatuz, edo DNAren sintesi artifizialaren bitartez.  Lehenengo DNA birkonbinatua <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg-ek</a> sortu zuen 1972an, <a href="/w/index.php?title=SV40&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SV40 (sortu gabe)">SV40</a> tximino-birusa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lambada_birusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lambada birusa (sortu gabe)">lambda birusarekin</a> konbinatu zuenean. Ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez organismo baten geneak aldatu eta gene berriak sartzen dira haren DNAn. <a href="/wiki/Genetikoki_eraldatutako_organismo" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako organismo">Genetikoki eraldatutako organismoak</a> (GEO) lortzen dira horrela, <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterioak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landare" title="Landare">landareak</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Animalia" title="Animalia">animaliak</a> izan daitezkeenak. Medikuntzan eta elikagaien industrian aplikatzen dira, batez ere, ingeniaritza genetikoaren aurrerapenak. Ikerkuntzan ere erabiltzen dira <a href="/wiki/Genetikoki_eraldatutako_organismo" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako organismo">GEOak</a>: geneen funtzioa eta adierazpena aztertzeko balio dute funtzio-galeraren eta -irabaztearen miaketaren eta adierazpenaren ikerketaren bitartez. Zenbait generi knock out teknika aplikatuz, giza gaixotasunen animalia ereduak sor daitezke. Ingeniaritza genetikoaren funtsa <a href="/wiki/Zelula" title="Zelula">zelula</a> hartzaile batean aukeratutako DNAren zati bat txertatzean datza, eta horretarako, bektore edo bitarteko moduan <a href="/wiki/Plasmido" title="Plasmido">plasmidoak</a> erabiltzen dira. Aukeratutako DNA zati horrek klonatu nahi diren geneak izaten ditu, eta zelula hartzailea <a href="/wiki/Prokarioto" title="Prokarioto">prokariotoa</a> zein <a href="/wiki/Eukarioto" title="Eukarioto">eukariotoa</a> izan daiteke. Ingeniaritza genetikoaren bitartez posible da <a href="/wiki/Espezie" title="Espezie">espezie</a> desberdinetako DNAk klonatzea. Ohikoa da, esaterako, <a href="/wiki/Intsulina" title="Intsulina">intsulinaren</a> sintesia eragiten duen DNA <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterio</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Legamia" title="Legamia">legamia</a> batean sartzea, intsulina ekoitz dezan. Prozesu horretan plasmido batek egiten du bitartekari lana.<a href="#cite_note-#1-1">[1]</a> Ingeniaritza genetikoa geneak txertatzeko erabiltzeaz gain, geneak ezabatzeko, edo geneen knock outa eragiteko ere erabil daiteke. Sorturiko molekula berria ausaz edo leku jakin batean txerta daiteke genoman. Material genetikoaren manipulazioaren bidez, hainbat produktu baliagarriren ekoizpena errazten da. Izan ere, gaur egun botika eta <a href="/wiki/Bakterio-kontrako" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakterio-kontrako">antibiotiko</a> asko lortzen dira ingeniaritza genetikoa aplikatuz, bai eta giza intsulina, <a href="/wiki/Hazkunde_hormona" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazkunde hormona">hazkunde hormona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interferoi" title="Interferoi">interferoia</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Txerto" title="Txerto">txertoak</a> ere. Ingeniaritza genetikoak potentzial handia izan dezake <a href="/wiki/Gaixotasun_genetiko" title="Gaixotasun genetiko">gaixotasun genetikoak</a> sendatzeko <a href="/wiki/Farmako" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmako">farmakoak</a> sortzeari begira. Gainera, aplikazio industrialak dituzten zenbait produktu sor daitezke, esate baterako, <a href="/wiki/Detergente" title="Detergente">detergenteak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gazta" title="Gazta">gazta</a> edo beste produktu batzuk. Ildo beretik, genetikoki eraldatutako uztaren komertzializazioaren igoerak irabazi ekonomikoak ekarri dizkie zenbait herrialdetako nekazariei. Hala ere, eztabaida handia piztu du teknologiaren munduan. Eztabaida hasi zen produktuak merkaturatu ziren momentuan. Izan ere, zientzia-adostasun bat badago aldarrikatzen duena genetikoki eraldaturiko elikagaiek elikagai konbentzionalen arrisku berdina dutela. Aipaturiko kezka horien guztien ondorioz, Nazioarteko hitzarmen bat sinatu zen 2000. urtean: Biosegurtasunaren inguruko Cartagenako Protokoloa. Geroztik, herrialdeek beren legedia garatu dute genetikoki eraldaturiko organismoen erabilera erregulatzeko. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ikuspegi_orokorra">Ikuspegi orokorra</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Ikuspegi orokorra»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Ikuspegi orokorra">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoa prozesu bat da non <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">organismo</a> baten material genetikoa eraldatzen den <a href="/wiki/Azido_desoxirribonukleiko" title="Azido desoxirribonukleiko">DNA</a> txertatuz edo kenduz. Animalia eta landareen ugalketa tradizionalean, zenbait gurutzaketa egin ondoren intereseko fenotipoa hautatzen da. Ingeniaritza genetikoak, ordea, zuzenean hartzen du intereseko genea organismo batetik eta beste batean txertatzen du. Prozesu hori askoz azkarragoa da tradizionala baino, eta edozein gene edozein organismotan txertatzea ahalbidetzen du. Sorturiko DNA molekula zuzenean txerta daiteke organismo ostalarian edo, bestela, lehenengoz zelula batean txerta daiteke, ondoren ostalariarekin elkartu edo hibridatzeko.<a href="#cite_note-#2-2">[2]</a> Material genetiko heredagarriaren konbinazio berriaren sorkuntza eta ondorengo material genetikoaren txertaketa bektore baten bidez edo zuzenean mikroinjekzio edo makroinjekzio bidez egiten da.<a href="#cite_note-#3-3">[3]</a> Ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez eraldatutako <a href="/wiki/Landare" title="Landare">landare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animalia" title="Animalia">animalia</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Mikroorganismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikroorganismo">mikroorganismoei</a> genetikoki eraldaturiko organismo edo GEO deritze.<a href="#cite_note-:02-4">[4]</a> Beste espezie baten material genetikoa txertatu zaien organismoei, berriz, transgeniko deritze. Ingeniaritza genetikoa intereseko organismotik material genetikoa ezabatzeko erabiltzen bada, organismoari knock out deritzo.<a href="#cite_note-#4-5">[5]</a> Aplikazioei dagokienez, ingeniaritza genetikoak <a href="/wiki/Gaixotasun_genetiko" title="Gaixotasun genetiko">gaixotasun genetikoak</a> senda ditzake; izan ere, gaixotasuna eragiten duen genearen lekuan gene funtzional bat jar dezake.<a href="#cite_note-#5-6">[6]</a> Gainera, ikerkuntzan oso tresna garrantzitsua da, gene espezifikoen funtzioak aztertzea ahalbidetzen duelako.<a href="#cite_note-#6-7">[7]</a> Aurretik aipatu bezala, <a href="/wiki/Farmako" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmako">farmako</a>, <a href="/wiki/Txerto" title="Txerto">txerto</a> eta beste zenbait produktu lortu dira genetikoki eraldaturiko organismoen bidez. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historia">Historia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Historia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Historia">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoaren aurrerapausoek eragin handia izan dute zientzian eta ekonomian, batik bat, medikuntza eta nekazaritza alorretan. Gizakiak aspalditik eraldatu ditu espezieen <a href="/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma">genomak</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ugalketa_selektibo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ugalketa selektibo (sortu gabe)">ugalketa selektiboaren</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Hautespen_artifizial" title="Hautespen artifizial">hautespen artifizialaren</a> bidez.<a href="#cite_note-#7-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-#8-9">[9]</a> Berrikiago, ugalketa selektiboa helburu hartuta, <a href="/wiki/Mutazio" title="Mutazio">mutazio</a> bidezko ugalketak <a href="/wiki/Gai_kimiko" title="Gai kimiko">substantzia kimikoekiko</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Erradiazio" title="Erradiazio">erradiazioarekiko</a> esposizioa erabili du ausazko mutazioen maiztasun handia eragiteko. Ingeniaritza genetikoa, DNAren ugalketatik eta mutazioetatik kanpoko manipulazio zuzen gisa, 1970eko hamarkadatik aurrera hasi zen erabiltzen. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg/220px-Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg/330px-Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg/440px-Jaenisch_2003_by_Sam_Ogden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>1974an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Jaenisch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rudolf Jaenisch (sortu gabe)">Rudolf Jaenisch-ek</a> genetikoki eraldatutako lehen animalia sortu zuen.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/1972" title="1972">1972. urtean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg-ek</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_birkonbinatzaile" title="DNA birkonbinatzaile">DNA birkonbinatuaren</a> lehen molekulak sortu zituen tximinoaren <a href="/w/index.php?title=SV40&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SV40 (sortu gabe)">SV40</a> birusaren DNA eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lambda_birusarena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lambda birusarena (sortu gabe)">Lambda birusarena</a> konbinatu zituenean.<a href="#cite_note-#9-10">[10]</a> Urtebete  geroago, <a href="/wiki/1973" title="1973">1973an</a> hain zuzen ere, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Bayer" title="Herbert Bayer">Herbert Boyer-ek</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen" title="Stanley Cohen">Stanley Cohen-ek</a> lehen <a href="/wiki/Organismo_transgeniko" class="mw-redirect" title="Organismo transgeniko">organismo transgenikoa</a> sortu zuten. Horretarako, <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia Coli</a> bakterio baten <a href="/wiki/Plasmido" title="Plasmido">plasmidoan</a> antibiotikoekiko erresistentziaren geneak sartu zituzten.<a href="#cite_note-#10-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-#11-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/1974" title="1974">1974. urtean</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Jaenisch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rudolf Jaenisch (sortu gabe)">Rudolf Jaenisch-ek</a> sagu transgeniko bat sortu zuen DNA arrotza <a href="/wiki/Enbrioi" title="Enbrioi">enbrioian</a> sartuz eta, horrela, munduko lehen animalia transgenikoa sortu zuen.<a href="#cite_note-#12-13">[13]</a> Lorpen horiek ingeniaritza genetikoaren balizko arriskuei buruzko kezka sortu zuten zientzia-komunitatean, eta <a href="/wiki/1975" title="1975">1975ean</a> eztabaidatu ziren lehen aldiz <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asilomarreko_Konferentzia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asilomarreko Konferentzia (sortu gabe)">Asilomarreko Konferentzian</a>. Bilera horren gomendio nagusietako bat izan zen DNA birkonbinatuaren ikerketa ikuskatu egin beharko litzatekeela teknologia segurutzat jo arte.<a href="#cite_note-#13-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-#14-15">[15]</a> Ingeniaritza genetikoko lehen enpresa, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genentech&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genentech (sortu gabe)">Genentech</a>,  <a href="/wiki/1976" title="1976">1976. urtean</a> sortu zuten Herbert Boyer-ek eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Swanson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Swanson (sortu gabe)">Robert Swanson-ek</a>, eta urtebete geroago, konpainiak giza proteina bat (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Somatostatina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Somatostatina (sortu gabe)">somatostatina</a>) ekoitzi zuen E.colin. Bestalde, Genentechek <a href="/wiki/1978" title="1978">1978an</a> iragarri zuen genetikoki eraldatutako giza <a href="/wiki/Intsulina" title="Intsulina">intsulina</a> sortuko zutela.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> 1980an, <a href="/w/index.php?title=AEBetako_Auzitegi_Gorenak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AEBetako Auzitegi Gorenak (sortu gabe)">AEBetako Auzitegi Gorenak</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diamond_v._Chakrabarty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diamond v. Chakrabarty (sortu gabe)">Diamond v. Chakrabarty</a> kasuaren epaiaren bidez, genetikoki eraldatutako bizidunak patentatu zitezkeela ebatzi zuen.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Ildo beretik,  <a href="/wiki/Elikagai_eta_Sendagaien_Administrazioa" title="Elikagai eta Sendagaien Administrazioa">Elikagai eta Sendagaien Administrazioak</a> (ingelesezko laburdura FDA) bakterioek ekoitzitako intsulinaren salmenta baimendu zuen <a href="/wiki/1982" title="1982">1982an</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/1983" title="1983">1983an</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Advanced_Genetic_Sciences_(AGS)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) (sortu gabe)">Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS)</a> enpresak AEBetako gobernuari baimena eskatu zion <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pseudomonas_syringae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pseudomonas syringae (sortu gabe)">Pseudomonas syringae</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterio</a> eraldatuak erabiltzeko uztak izozteetatik babesteko asmoz. P.syringaek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ina_proteinak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ina proteinak (sortu gabe)">ina proteinak</a> adierazten dituzte, eta horiek izotza sortarazten dute. Beraz, ingeniaritza genetiko bidez eraldatu dira, eta ice-minus motako bakterioak lortu dira.  Ingurumenaren aldeko taldeen eta ekintzaileen protestak gorabehera, <a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/1987" title="1987">1987an</a> P. Syringae eraldatua <a href="/wiki/Kalifornia" title="Kalifornia">Kaliforniako</a> marrubi- eta patata-zoro batean zabaldu zuten. Hori izan zen <a href="/wiki/Genetikoki_eraldatutako_organismo" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako organismo">GEO</a> bat askatu zen lehen aldia. <a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Genetikoki eraldatutako landareen lehen landa-probak <a href="/wiki/Frantzia" title="Frantzia">Frantzian</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuak" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuak">Estatu Batuetan</a> egin ziren <a href="/wiki/1986" title="1986">1986an</a>, eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabako_landare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabako landare (sortu gabe)">tabako-landareek</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbizida" title="Herbizida">herbizidei</a> aurre egitea zuten helburu.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Txinako_Herri_Errepublika" title="Txinako Herri Errepublika">Txinako Herri Errepublika</a> izan zen landare transgenikoak merkaturatu zituen lehen herrialdea; izan ere, <a href="/wiki/1992" title="1992">1992an</a> sortu zuen birusekiko erresistentea zen tabakoa.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/1994" title="1994">1994an</a>, Calgen-ek genetikoki eraldatutako lehen elikagaia merkaturatzeko onespena lortu zuen. Zehazki usteltzea beranduago gertatzeko diseinatutako tomatea izan zen, Flavr Savr izenekoa <a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> 1994an, <a href="/wiki/Europar_Batasuna" title="Europar Batasuna">Europar Batasunak</a> bromoxilino herbizidarekiko erresistentea zen tabako eraldatua onartu zuen, eta horixe izan zen, hain zuzen ere,  Europan merkaturatu zen genetikoki eraldatutako lehen laborea.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/1995" title="1995">1995ean</a>, eraldatutako tomatea segurua zela ebatzi zuen <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingurumena_Babesteko_Agentziak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ingurumena Babesteko Agentziak (sortu gabe)">Ingurumena Babesteko Agentziak</a>, FDAk onartu ondoren, eta horrela, <a href="/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuak" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuak">Estatu Batuetan</a> <a href="/wiki/Pestizida" title="Pestizida">pestizidak</a> ekoizten zituen lehen laborea bihurtu zen.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/2009" title="2009">2009an</a>, 11 labore transgeniko merkaturatu ziren 25 herrialdetan, hala nola Estatu Batuetan, <a href="/wiki/Brasil" title="Brasil">Brasilen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentinan</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Txinako_Herri_Errepublika" title="Txinako Herri Errepublika">Txinan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paraguai" title="Paraguai">Paraguai</a>n eta <a href="/wiki/Hegoafrika" title="Hegoafrika">Hegoafrikan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/1990" title="1990">1990eko</a> hamarkadaren hasieran egin zen gizakiaren bilakaera argitzeko eta pairatzen dituen eritasunak kontrolatzeko edo erabat desagerrarazteko lehen urratsetako bat, zientzialariek gizakiaren kromosoma txikienen (<a href="/wiki/Y_kromosoma" title="Y kromosoma">Y kromosoma</a> eta 21. kromosoma) barne-egitura deskribatu eta marraztu ahal izan zutenean. Hasieran askoz luzeago joko zuela uste bazen ere, <a href="/wiki/2001" title="2001">2001</a>. urte hasierarako gizakiaren mapa genetiko osoa deskribatzea lortu zen. <a href="/wiki/2010" title="2010">2010ean</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._Craig_Venter_Institutua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. Craig Venter Institutua (sortu gabe)">J. Craig Venter Institutuko</a> zientzialariek lehen genoma sintetikoa sortu eta bakterio-zelula huts batean txertatu zuten. Lortu zuten bakterioak, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycoplasma_laboratorium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycoplasma laboratorium (sortu gabe)">Mycoplasma laboratorium</a> izenekoak, erreplikatu eta proteinak ekoizten zituen.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Handik lau urtera, pauso bat aurrera egin zen: base bakarreko pare bat zuen plasmido bat erreplikatzen zuen bakterio bat garatu, eta hedatutako alfabeto genetiko bat erabiltzeko diseinatutako lehen organismoa sortu zen.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/2012" title="2012">2012an</a> <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudnak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentierrek</a> <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR/Cas9</a> sistema garatu zuten,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> ia edozein organismoren genoma erraz eta espezifikoki eraldatzeko erabil daitekeen teknika.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prozesua">Prozesua</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Prozesua»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Prozesua">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> DNAren pusketa bat zelula hartzaile batean txertatzeko prozesuak 5 etapa ditu: <ul><li>Txertatu nahi den DNA puska isolatu behar da; izan ere, DNA horrek zelula hartzailean sartu nahi diren geneak ditu.</li></ul> <ul><li>DNA puska hori bektore batean, hala nola plasmido batean, txertatu behar da.</li></ul> <ul><li>Bektorea zelula hartzailean sartu behar da, genetikoki aldatu nahi den organismoaren zelulan, alegia.</li></ul> <ul><li>Zelula ostalarian sartutako DNA erreplikatu eta adierazi egin behar da.</li></ul> <ul><li>Klonatutako DNA duten zelulen aukeraketa, hots, <a href="/wiki/Genetikoki_eraldatutako_organismo" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako organismo">GEOaren</a> hautaketa egin behar da.</li></ul> Labur azalduta, lehenengo etapan DNA toki jakin batetik apurtuko da, klonatu nahi diren geneak eta ez beste sekuentzia bat aukeratzeko. <a href="/wiki/Murrizte-endonukleasa" title="Murrizte-endonukleasa">Murrizte-endonukleasak</a> izeneko <a href="/wiki/Entzima" title="Entzima">entzimei</a> esker posible da hori egitea. Izan ere, entzima horiek gai dira DNAren sekuentzia bat ezagutu eta puntu jakin batetik mozteko. Manipulatu nahi den DNA zatia lortuta, beste entzima batzuek, <a href="/wiki/Ligasa" title="Ligasa">ligasa</a> izenekoek, zati hori itsatsiko dute garraiatzaile moduan jardungo duen <a href="/wiki/Plasmido" title="Plasmido">plasmido</a> batean. Bektore moduan, plasmidoek ez ezik, zenbait <a href="/wiki/Fago" title="Fago">fago</a> ere erabiltzen dira. Zelula ostalariaren barnean klonatutako DNA (plasmidoan dagoena) erreplikatu egingo da plasmidoa erreplikatzen denean, eta zelula ostalaria (bakterioa edo legamia) klonaturiko geneek kodetutako produktua ekoizten hasiko da, adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Intsulina" title="Intsulina">intsulina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interferoi" title="Interferoi">interferona</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Bakterio-kontrako" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakterio-kontrako">antibiotikoak</a>. Plasmido-bektoreek klonatu nahi diren geneez gain, erresistentzia ematen duen beste gene bat ere izan behar dute, esaterako, penizilinarekiko erresistentzia-genea. Horrela, klonatutako zelula gainontzeko guztietatik banandu eta isolatuko da penizilina duen <a href="/wiki/Hazkuntza-ingurune" title="Hazkuntza-ingurune">hazkuntza-ingurune</a> batean. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genearen_isolamendua_eta_klonazioa">Genearen isolamendua eta klonazioa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Genearen isolamendua eta klonazioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Genearen isolamendua eta klonazioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg/220px-Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg/330px-Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg/440px-Master_Mix_with_Primers_form_PCR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Polimerasaren kate-erreakzioa klonazio molekularrean erabiltzen den tresna indartsua da.</figcaption></figure> GEO bat eratzeko lehen urratsa da txertatu nahi den genea aukeratzea. Hautapen hori helburuaren arabera egiten da, eta aurretik egindako ikerketetan oinarritzen da. Behin gene aproposa aukeratu dela, isolatu egin behar da.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Horretarako, lehenik eta behin gene hori daraman zelula emailea apurtu eta DNA isolatzen da. Jarraian, DNA-harizpitik intereseko genea lortzeko, DNA hori zenbait pusketatan apurtzen da <a href="/wiki/Murrizte-endonukleasa" title="Murrizte-endonukleasa">murrizte-entzimen</a> bidez<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> edo genea anplifikatu egiten da <a href="/wiki/Polimerasaren_kate-erreakzioa" title="Polimerasaren kate-erreakzioa">polimerasaren kate-erreakzioaren (PCR)</a> bidez.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Ondoren, zatiki horiek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gel-elektroforesi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gel-elektroforesi (sortu gabe)">gel-elektroforesi</a> bidez eskuratzen dira. Gainera, aukeratutako geneak edota organismo emailearen genoma askotan aurrez ikertu izan badira, liburutegi genetiko batetik eskura daitezke. Horrez gain, DNA-sekuentzia ezaguna bada, baina ez badago genearen kopiarik eskuragarri, modu artifizialean sintetiza daiteke.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Behin genea isolatuta, plasmido bati lotu eta bakterio batean txertatzen da; horrela, bakterioa zatitzen denean, plasmidoa erreplikatu egiten denez, intereseko genearen nahi beste kopia lor daitezke.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Genea organismo ituan txertatu aurretik, beste elementu genetiko batzuekin konbinatu behar da, hala nola, sekuentzia sustatzaile eta amaitzaileekin; horiexek izango dira, hain zuzen ere, <a href="/wiki/Transkripzio_(genetika)" title="Transkripzio (genetika)">transkripzioaren</a> hasiera eta bukaera mugatuko dutenak. Gainera, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hautespen-markatzailea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hautespen-markatzailea (sortu gabe)">hautespen-markatzailea</a> gehitzen da, gehienetan antibiotikoekiko erresistentzia eskaintzen duena. Horrela, ikertzaileek zein zelula eraldatu den egoki zehatz dezakete. Horrez gain, posible da genea adierazpena edota eraginkortasuna hobetzeko eraldatzea. Eraldatze horiek egiteko, DNA birkonbinatuaren teknikak erabiltzen dira, esaterako, murrizte-digestioak, ligazioak eta molekula-klonazioak.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNAren_txertaketa_genoma_ostalarian">DNAren txertaketa genoma ostalarian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Aldatu atal hau: «DNAren txertaketa genoma ostalarian»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: DNAren txertaketa genoma ostalarian">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Hainbat teknika erabil daitezke material genetikoa genoma ostalarian txertatzeko. Bakterio batzuk gai dira berez kanpoko DNA barneratzeko. DNA hori genoman txertatu edo <a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">kromosomaz</a> kanpoko material genetiko bezala manten daiteke. Animalia-zeluletan mikroinjekzioa erabili ohi da material genetikoa txertatzeko. Teknika horren bidez, DNA zuzenean sar daiteke nukleoan edo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birus-bektore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birus-bektore (sortu gabe)">birus-bektoreen</a> bidez barnera daiteke.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Genegun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Genegun.jpg/220px-Genegun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Genegun.jpg/330px-Genegun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Genegun.jpg/440px-Genegun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Gene pistola batek biolistika erabiltzen du DNA landare ehunetan sartzeko.</figcaption></figure> Landareen kasuan, <a href="/wiki/Agrobacterium" title="Agrobacterium">Agrobacterium</a> bakterioa erabiltzen da maiz DNAren txertaketarako.<a href="#cite_note-:12-42">[42]</a> Izan ere, Agrobacteriumaren T-DNA sekuentziak ahalbidetzen du landareetara material genetikoa modu naturalean barneratzea.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Beste metodo batzuk ere erabil daitezke, hala nola, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biolistika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biolistika (sortu gabe)">biolistika</a>, non tungstenozko edo urrezko partikulak DNAz estali eta landare-zelulen kontra jaurtitzen diren<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> edo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elektroporazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elektroporazioa (sortu gabe)">elektroporazioa</a>, non zelulen mintza permeabilizatzen den shock elektriko baten bidez. Zelula bakarra transformatzen da material genetikoarekin eta, beraz, organismoa zelula horretatik birsortu behar da. Horretarako, landareen kasuan, ehunen kultiboak erabiltzen dira.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Animalien kasuan, ordea, ziurtatu behar da material genetikoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enbrioiaren_zelula_ama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enbrioiaren zelula ama (sortu gabe)">enbrioiaren zelula ametan</a> txertatu dela.<a href="#cite_note-:12-42">[42]</a> Nolanahi ere, bakterioak zelulabakarrak direnez eta klonazio bidez ugaltzen direnez, ez da beharrezkoa birsorkuntzarako urratsik jarraitzea. Horrez gain, transformatutako eta transformatu gabeko zelulak bereizteko, hautespen-markatzaileak erabiltzen dira. Horregatik, hautespen-markatzaileak maiz agertzen dira organismo transgenikoetan. Dena den, zenbait estrategia garatu dira markatzaile horiek landare transgeniko helduetatik kentzeko.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Ondoren, organismo ostalariak genea barneratu duela egiaztatzeko, PCRa, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_hibridazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southern hibridazioa (sortu gabe)">Southern hibridazioa</a> edota DNAren sekuentziazioa erabiltzen dira.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Gainera, azterketa horiei esker, genearen kopia kopurua eta kromosoma barruko kokapena jakin daiteke. Hala eta guztiz ere, genea egoteak ez du bermatzen haren adierazpen-maila egokia izango denik. Hori dela eta, geneen produktuak (RNA eta proteinak) detektatzeko teknikak ere erabiltzen dira, esaterako, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_hibridazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern hibridazioa (sortu gabe)">Northern hibridazioa</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=RT-PCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RT-PCR (sortu gabe)">RT-PCR</a> kuantitatiboa, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_plapaketa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western plapaketa (sortu gabe)">Western plapaketa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunofluoreszentzia" title="Immunofluoreszentzia">Immunofluoreszentzia</a>, <a href="/wiki/ELISA" title="ELISA">ELISA</a> eta analisi fenotipikoak.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Material genetikoa ausaz txerta badaiteke ere, kokapen jakin batera ere zuzen daiteke. Horretarako, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birkonbinazio_homologoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birkonbinazio homologoa (sortu gabe)">birkonbinazio homologoa</a> erabiltzen da, gene endogeno batean nahi diren aldaketak egiteko. Birkonbinazio homologoa, ordea, ez da oso maiz gertatzen landare eta animalietan espontaneoki, eta beraz, hautespen-markatzaileen erabilera eskatzen du askotan. Dena dela, maiztasun hori handitu daiteke genomaren edizioaren bitartez. Ediziorako, modu artifizialean lortutako nukleasak erabiltzen dira DNA-harizpi bikoitza genomaren gune jakin batzuetan apurtzeko. Ondoren, zelulen mekanismo endogenoak erabiltzen dira apurketa horiek konpontzeko, birkonbinazio homologo edo ez-homologo bidez. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aplikazioak">Aplikazioak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Aplikazioak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Aplikazioak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medikuntza">Medikuntza</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Medikuntza»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Medikuntza">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoak aplikazio ugari ditu medikuntzan, besteak beste, drogen fabrikazioa, gizakien ezaugarriak imitatzen dituzten <a href="/w/index.php?title=Animalia-ereduak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Animalia-ereduak (sortu gabe)">animalia ereduen</a> sorrera eta <a href="/wiki/Gene-terapia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene-terapia">gene-terapia</a>. Ingeniaritza genetikoa bakterioetan giza intsulina ekoizteko erabili zen lehenengoz.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormona" title="Hormona">Hormona</a> horrek garrantzi handia du industria farmazeutikoan, mundu osoan milioika gaixo <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetikoek</a> hartu behar dutelako. Garai batean <a href="/wiki/Intsulina" title="Intsulina">intsulina</a> behi edo txerriaren <a href="/wiki/Pankrea" title="Pankrea">pankreatik</a> lortzen zen. Gaur egun, aldiz, ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez lortzen da, intsulinaren sintesia ekoizten duten geneak <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterio</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Legamia" title="Legamia">legamia</a> batean klonatuz, <a href="/wiki/Plasmido" title="Plasmido">plasmido</a> bat bektore gisa erabilita. Intsulinarekin bezala, egun gauza bera egiten da gizakien <a href="/wiki/Hazkunde_hormona" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazkunde hormona">hazkunde-hormonekin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormona_folikulu_estimulatzaile" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormona folikulu estimulatzaile">hormona folikulu- estimulatzaileekin</a> (antzutasuna tratatzeko), <a href="/wiki/Albumina" title="Albumina">giza albuminarekin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antigorputz_monoklonal" title="Antigorputz monoklonal">antigorputz monoklonalekin</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Faktore_antihemofiliko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faktore antihemofiliko (sortu gabe)">faktore antihemofilikoekin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Txerto" title="Txerto">txertoekin</a> eta beste zenbait sendagairekin.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Esaterako, egun, <a href="/wiki/Interferoi" title="Interferoi">interferona</a> ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez lortzen da, eta teknika horrek asko erraztu eta merkatu du garai bateko ekoizpen prozesu luze eta korapilatsua. Intsulina eta beste proteinekin (<a href="/wiki/Hazkunde_hormona" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazkunde hormona">hazkunde-hormonarekin</a>, esaterako) egiten den bezala, haren sintesia kodetzen duten gene eukariotoak (<a href="/wiki/Leukozito" title="Leukozito">leukozitoenak</a>) bakterio batean sartzen dira plasmido baten bidez. Bakterio transgeniko horiek industria bioteknologikoen biorreaktoreetan kopuru handitan ekoitziko dute <a href="/wiki/Interferoi" title="Interferoi">interferona</a> (edo isolatu nahi den giza proteina). Halaber, saguaren <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hibridoma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hibridoma (sortu gabe)">hibridomak</a> ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez ere egokitu dira gizakien antigorputz monoklonalak sortzeko.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/2017" title="2017">2017an</a>, gaixoaren beraren <a href="/wiki/T_zelula" class="mw-redirect" title="T zelula">T zeluletako</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antigeno_kimerikoen_hartzaile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antigeno kimerikoen hartzaile (sortu gabe)">antigeno kimerikoen hartzaileetan</a> ingeniaritza genetikoaren teknikak erabiltzea onartu zuen Estatu Batuetako <a href="/wiki/Elikagai_eta_Sendagaien_Administrazioa" title="Elikagai eta Sendagaien Administrazioa">Elikagai eta Sendagaien Administrazioak</a> (FDA), minbiziaren <a href="/wiki/Leuzemia" title="Leuzemia">leuzemia linfoblastiko akutua</a> tratatzeko. Egun, genetikoki diseinatutako birusak garatzen ari dira, oraindik <a href="/wiki/Immunitate" title="Immunitate">immunitatea</a> eman dezaketenak,  baina sekuentzia infekziosorik ez dutenak.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Ingeniaritza genetikoa giza gaixotasunen animalia ereduak sortzeko ere erabiltzen da. Esaterako, genetikoki eraldatutako saguak dira genetikoki manipulatutako animalia eredu ohikoena.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Minbizia (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oncomouse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oncomouse (sortu gabe)">oncomouse</a>), gizentasuna, <a href="/wiki/Gaixotasun_kardiobaskular" title="Gaixotasun kardiobaskular">bihotzeko gaixotasunak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetesa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artritis" title="Artritis">artritisa</a>, substantzien gehiegikeria, <a href="/wiki/Antsietate-nahasmendu" title="Antsietate-nahasmendu">antsietatea</a>, zahartzea eta <a href="/wiki/Parkinsonen_gaixotasuna" title="Parkinsonen gaixotasuna">Parkinson gaixotasuna</a> aztertzeko eta modelatzeko erabiltzen dira.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Ildo beretik, genetikoki eraldatutako txerriak ere hazi izan dira giza organoen <a href="/wiki/Transplante_(medikuntza)" title="Transplante (medikuntza)">transplanterako</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene-terapia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene-terapia">Gene-terapia</a> gizakien ingeniaritza genetikoa da, oro har, gene akastunak gene eraginkorrekin trukatzean datzana. Hau da, ingeniaritza genetikoak gaixotasun bat sortzen duten geneak aldatzea ahalbidetzen du, <a href="/wiki/Kromosoma" title="Kromosoma">kromosometatik</a> gene okerrak kenduz eta gene zuzenak ipiniz. Gene-terapia somatikoa erabiliz, zenbait gaixotasunen ikerketa klinikoa egin da, besteak beste, <a href="/w/index.php?title=X-ri_lotutako_SCID&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="X-ri lotutako SCID (sortu gabe)">X kromosomari lotutako SCID</a>-aren,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leuzemia" title="Leuzemia">leuzemia linfozitiko kronikoaren</a> (CLL),<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Parkinsonen_gaixotasuna" title="Parkinsonen gaixotasuna">Parkinson gaixotasunaren</a> inguruan.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> 2012an, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alipogene_tiparvovec&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alipogene tiparvovec (sortu gabe)">Alipogene tiparvovec</a> bihurtu zen erabilera klinikorako onarturiko lehen gene-terapia.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/2015" title="2015">2015ean</a> birus bat erabili zen gene osasuntsu bat sartzeko larruazaleko gaixotasun arraroa (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermolisis_bullosa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epidermolisis bullosa (sortu gabe)">epidermolisis bullosa</a>) zuen mutil baten larruazaleko zeluletan.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lerro_germinala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lerro germinala (sortu gabe)">Lerro germinaleko</a> terapiak edozein aldaketa heredagarria izatea eragingo luke, eta horrek ezinegona sortu du komunitate zientifikoan.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Izan ere, kezka dago ea teknologia-tratamenduetarako erabili beharrean ez ote den erabiliko gizakien itxura, moldagarritasuna, <a href="/wiki/Adimen" title="Adimen">adimena</a>, izaera edo portaera hobetzeko, bai eta aldatzeko ere. Sendatzearen eta hobetzearen arteko muga zedarritzea zaila izan daiteke.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/2018" title="2018">2018ko</a> azaroan, <a href="/w/index.php?title=He_Jiankui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="He Jiankui (sortu gabe)">He Jiankui</a>-k iragarri zuen bi giza enbrioren genomak editatu zituela <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a> sistemaren bidez: <a href="/wiki/GIB" class="mw-redirect" title="GIB">GIB birusak</a> zeluletan sartzeko erabiltzen duen hartzailea kodetzen duen <a href="/wiki/CCR5" title="CCR5">CCR5 genea</a> desgaitu zuen. He-k esan zuen bi neska bikik, Luluk eta Nanak, CCR5aren kopia funtzionalak zeramatzatela CCR5 ezinduekin batera (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mosaizismo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mosaizismo (sortu gabe)">mosaizismoa</a>) eta oraindik GIBaren aurrean zaurgarriak zirela. Lana arriskutsua, ez-etikoa eta goiztiarra zela salatu zen.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Beraz, geroztik legeak zehaztu egin dira, eta, egun, lerro germinaletan aldaketak egitea debekatuta dago 40 herrialdetan. Bestalde, zientzialariek “<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gene_bultzadak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gene bultzadak (sortu gabe)">gene-bultzadak</a>” (ingelesez gene drives) sortzen dituzte eltxoen genomak aldatu eta malariaren aurrean immune bihurtzeko. Horrek guztiak genetikoki eraldatatutako eltxoak eltxo-populazio osora zabaldu eta gaixotasuna desagerraraztea du helburu.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ikerketa">Ikerketa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Ikerketa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Ikerketa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:PCWmice1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/PCWmice1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="97" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="97" /></a><figcaption>Knock out saguak</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png/220px-Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png/330px-Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png/440px-Expression_of_Human_Wild-Type_and_P239S_Mutant_Palladin.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Giza zeluletako zenbait proteina fluoreszentzia berdez markatuta ikusgarriak izan daitezen. </figcaption></figure> Ingeniaritza genetikoa oso tresna garrantzitsua da natura-zientzialarientzat, GEOen sorrera barne, esaterako, geneen analisia egiteko tresnarik baliagarriena bihurtu baita.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Hainbat organismoren geneak eta informazio genetikoa bakterio batean sar daiteke eta bertan gorde eta eraldatu, genetikoki eraldatutako bakterioak lortzeko prozesu baten ondoren. Bakterioak merkeak dira, hazteko errazak, klonagarriak, azkar ugaltzen eta erraz transformatzen direnak eta, gainera, ia -80 °C-an gorde daitezke. Gene bat isolatu eta gero, bakterio baten barruan gorde daiteke ikerkuntzarako hornikuntza gisa.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Organismoak genetikoki eraldatzen dira gene jakin batzuen funtzioak aztertu ahal izateko. Horien artean aurki dezakegu organismoaren fenotipoan geneak eduki dezakeen funtzioa, non adierazten den genea edota zein beste generekin elkarrekiten duen. Horrela, ikerketa mota horietan funtzioaren galera edota irabazia, eta adierazpen-aldaketa aztertzen dira. <ul><li>Funtzioaren galeraren ikerketetan (gene baten knock out motako ikerketetan adibidez), organismoa gene jakin baten edo batzuen aktibitatea galtzeko eraldatzen dira organismoak. Knock out ikerketa sinple batean, intereseko genearen kopia bat aldatu egiten da ez-funtzional bihurtzeko. Zehazki, enbrioiaren zelula ametan txertatzen da gene eraldatua eta, horrela, berezko gene funtzionala ordezkatzen du. Zelula ama horiek blastozistoan aurki daitezke eta horiek ordezko ametan txertatzen dituzte. Prozesu horrek ikerlariari ahalbidetzen dio mutazioak sortutako akatsen azterketa egitea eta, hortaz, bai gene jakinen funtzioa zehazteko ere. Garapenaren Biologiako arloan oso ohikoa da ikerketa mota hau egitea.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[72]</a></li> <li>Funtzio-irabaziaren ikerketetan (knock out ikerketen aurkakoa). Batzuetan, knock out ikerketekin batera egiten dira, intereseko genearen funtzioa modu zehatzagoan definitu ahal izateko. Prozesua knock out ingeniaritzako prozesuaren oso antzekoa da, baina kasu honetan helburua genearen funtzioaren irabazia egitea da eta, horretarako, genearen kopia gehiago sartu ohi dira edota genearen adierazpena eragiten da. Mota honetako ikerketak funtzio jakin bat egiteko proteina bakar bat nahikoa den ala ez jakiteko egiten dira, baina beti ez da beharrezkoa izaten proteina, batez ere, erredundantzia genetiko edota funtzionala gertatzen denean.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[72]</a></li> <li>Miaketa-azterketek intereseko proteinaren kokapenaren eta haren elkarrekintzen inguruko informazioa ahalbidetzen dute. Analisia aurrera eramateko modu bat gene basatia fusio-gene batekin ordezkatzea da, gene basatiaren alborakuntza  dena. Zehazki, fluoreszentzia berdeko proteina (ingelesez GFP) bezalako elementu bat eraman ohi du gene berriak eta horrek eraldaketa genetikoaren ondorioz sortutako produktuak erraz identifikatzea ahalbidetzen du. Hala ere, aipatutako teknika erabilgarria den arren, manipulazioaren ondorioz, genearen funtzioa desegin daiteke eta, orduan, efektu ez-desiragarriak sor daitezke, baita ikerketako emaitza zalantzagarriak ere. Horregatik, teknika berriak garatzen ari dira proteinaren azterketa egin ahal izateko, baina haren berezko funtzioa arindu gabe; horren adibide da, esaterako, antigorputz monoklonaletan lotze-motibo bezala balioko duten sekuentzia txikien gehikuntza.<a href="#cite_note-:1-72">[72]</a></li> <li>Adierazpenaren azterketen helburua da proteina jakinak non eta noiz sortzen diren aztertzea. Proteina kodetzen duen DNAren aurreko DNA sekuentzia, sustatzailearen sekuentzia alegia, berriro txertatuko da organismo batean; dena den, kasu honetan GFP edo tindagai baten genea ere txertatuko da proteina kodetzeko gunearen ondoren. Horrela, proteina sortzen den lekua eta denbora azter daitezke. Gainera, sustatzailea ere eralda daiteke adierazpen egokian beharrezkoak diren eta transkripzio-faktore diren proteinak batzen diren geneak identifikatzeko; azken prozesu horri sustatzaileen saialdi deritzo.<a href="#cite_note-:2-73">[73]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industria">Industria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Industria»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Industria">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">Organismo</a> bateko zelulak eralda daitezke <a href="/wiki/Proteina" title="Proteina">proteina</a> jakin bat adierazteko, esate baterako, <a href="/wiki/Entzima" title="Entzima">entzima</a> bat adierazteko eta, horrela, intereseko proteina gainadierazi egingo da. Ondoren, eraldaturiko organismoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioerreaktore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioerreaktore (sortu gabe)">biorreaktore</a> batean haziz, proteinaren kantitate handiak ekoitz daitezke. Biorreaktorean <a href="/wiki/Hartzidura" title="Hartzidura">hartzidura</a> industrial deritzon prozesua gertatuko da, eta, ondoren, proteinaren purifikazioa egingo da.<a href="#cite_note-#1-1">[1]</a> Zenbait <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genek</a> ez dute ondo lan egiten <a href="/wiki/Bakterio" title="Bakterio">bakterioen</a> barnean; beraz, <a href="/wiki/Legamia" title="Legamia">legamia</a>-, <a href="/wiki/Intsektu" title="Intsektu">intsektu-</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Ugaztun" title="Ugaztun">ugaztun</a>-zelulak erabil daitezke.<a href="#cite_note-#5-6">[6]</a> Aipaturiko teknikaren bidez, zenbait gauza egin daitezke. Hasteko, <a href="/wiki/Sendagai" title="Sendagai">farmakoak</a> ekoizteko balio du, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Intsulina" title="Intsulina">intsulina</a>, giza hazkunde-hormona eta <a href="/wiki/Txerto" title="Txerto">txertoak</a> ekoizteko. <a href="/wiki/Txerto" title="Txerto">Txertoei</a> dagokienez, mikrobio osoak (birusak, bakterioak) erabili ahal dira (hilda edo motelduta), edo soilik mikrobioaren <a href="/wiki/Antigeno" title="Antigeno">antigenoak</a>, erantzun immunea eragiten dutenak. B <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a> birusaren txertoak, adibidez, birus horren estalkiaren antigenoak besterik ez ditu. Ingeniaritza genetikoaren bidez birusaren estalki-antigenoen geneak klonatu eta adierazi egin daitezke bakterioetan. Hala, antigeno horiek kopuru handietan ekoizten dira biorreaktoreetan. Bestalde, janaria, <a href="/wiki/Erregai" title="Erregai">erregaiak</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Elikadura-osagarri" title="Elikadura-osagarri">elikadura-osagarriak</a> ekoizteko ere, esaterako, <a href="/wiki/Triptofano" title="Triptofano">triptofanoa</a>, erabiltzen da aipaturiko teknika.<a href="#cite_note-#6-7">[7]</a> Beste aplikazio bat da genetikoki eraldaturiko bakterioek beren ziklo naturaletik kanpo dauden prozesuetan parte har dezaten eragitea, esate baterako, <a href="/wiki/Bioerregai" title="Bioerregai">biorregaien</a> sorkuntzan,<a href="#cite_note-#2-2">[2]</a> olio-orbainen, karbonoaren eta beste batzuen hondakinen garbiketan<a href="#cite_note-#3-3">[3]</a>, edo ur edangarriko artsenikoaren detekzioan.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Genetikoki eraldaturiko zenbait mikroorganismo <a href="/wiki/Biorremediazio" class="mw-redirect" title="Biorremediazio">biorremediatzean</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biomining&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biomining (sortu gabe)">biomining</a>en erabil daitezke. Mikroorganismo horiek aproposak dira <a href="/wiki/Metal_astun" title="Metal astun">metal astunak</a> ingurunetik hartu eta beste konposatu batzuetan txertatzeko gaitasuna dutelako. Horrek badu, nolabait, abantaila bat: azken konposatuak askoz errazago berreskuratzen dira.<a href="#cite_note-#4-5">[5]</a> Materialen zientzian, genetikoki eraldatutako <a href="/wiki/Birus" title="Birus">birusa</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikerkuntza" title="Ikerkuntza">ikerketa</a>-laborategi batean erabili da litio-ioizko bateria ekologiko bat muntatzeko aldamio gisa<a href="#cite_note-#7-8">[8]</a> <a href="#cite_note-#8-9">[9]</a> Azkenik, bakterioak ingurumen-baldintza jakin batzuen pean adierazten den proteina baten detektore gisa ere erabili dira.<a href="#cite_note-#9-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nekazaritza">Nekazaritza</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Nekazaritza»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Nekazaritza">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoaren aplikazio ezagunetarikoa eta eztabadaigarrienetarikoa da <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetikoki_eraldatutako_laborea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako laborea (sortu gabe)">genetikoki eraldatutako laboreak</a> edo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetikoki_eraldatutako_animalia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako animalia (sortu gabe)">animaliak</a> sortu, eta <a href="/wiki/Janari_transgeniko" title="Janari transgeniko">janari transgenikoak</a> sortzeko erabiltzea. Izan ere, laboreak garatu dira, besteak beste, ekoizpena handitzeko, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tentsio_abiotiko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tentsio abiotiko (sortu gabe)">tentsio abiotikoekiko</a> tolerantzia handitzeko, elikagaien konposizioa aldatzeko eta produktu berriak ekoizteko.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Eskala handian merkaturatutako lehen laboreek intsektu-izurrien kontrako babesa eta <a href="/wiki/Herbizida" title="Herbizida">herbizidekiko</a> tolerantzia eman zuten. Onddo eta birusekiko erresistenteak diren laboreak ere garatu dira, edo garapen bidean daude.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Ingeniaritza genetikoaren bitartez landareek <a href="/wiki/Herbizida" title="Herbizida">herbizidekiko</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Intsektu" title="Intsektu">intsektuekiko</a> duten erresistentzia apurra nabarmen areagotu daiteke. Herbiziden kasuan, adibidez, bakterio batzuek berezko erresistentzia garatu dute molekula horiekiko. Erresistentzia kodetzen duten geneak <a href="/wiki/Agrobacterium" title="Agrobacterium">Agrobacterium</a> generoko bakterioetara pasatzen dira (Agrobacterium landareen <a href="/wiki/Parasito" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasito">parasitoa</a> da). Agrobacteriumek landarea infektatzen duenean, herbizidekiko erresistentzia transferitzen dio landareari. Halaber, intsektuekiko erresistentziari dagokionez, intsektuak hiltzen dituen bakterio baten toxinaren geneak (<a href="/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis" title="Bacillus thuringiensis">Bacillus thuringiensis</a>arenak) klonatu egiten dira landareetan plasmido bat bektore moduan erabiliz. Modu horretan, intsektuen aurreko erresistentzia lortu duten kotoi- eta patata-landare ugari hazi dituzte AEBen. Horrek guztiak laboreetako intsektu eta belar gaiztoen kudeaketa errazten du eta, zeharkako bide batez, laboreen ekoizpena handitzen laguntzen du.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Gainera, garapen bidean daude modu zuzenean ekoizpena handitzen duten labore transgenikoak ere. Horretarako, laborategiek labore horien hazkundea azkartzen dute edo landarea erresistenteago egiten dute, hau da, gatzekiko, hotzarekiko edo lehorteekiko tolerantzia hobetzen dute.<a href="#cite_note-:03-80">[80]</a> Bestalde, 2016. urtean <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izokin_transgeniko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Izokin transgeniko (sortu gabe)">izokinak</a> eraldatu ziren genetikoki hazkunde-hormona gehiago izateko eta, horrela, helduen tamaina azkarrago lortzeko.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Horrez gain, nekazaritza-produktuen kalitatea aldatzen duten GEOak garatu dira; horrela, produktu horien nutrizio-balioa igotzea eta industriarako erabilgarriagoak izan daitezkeen ezaugarriak eta kantitateak eskuratzea lortu da.<a href="#cite_note-:03-80">[80]</a> Esaterako, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amflora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amflora (sortu gabe)">Amflora</a> izeneko patatak industriarako erabilgarriagoa den almidoien nahasketa ekoizten du. Ildo beretik, <a href="/wiki/Soja_transgeniko" title="Soja transgeniko">soja</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koltza_transgeniko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koltza transgeniko (sortu gabe)">koltza</a> genetikoki eraldatu dira olio osasuntsuagoak ekoitz ditzaten.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Merkaturatutako lehen elikagai transgenikoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Flavr_Savr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flavr Savr (sortu gabe)">tomate</a>-barietate bat izan zen, heltze-prozesua atzeratuta zeukana. Ondorioz, tomate horren bizitza luzeagoa zen.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Hainbat animalia eta landare transgeniko diseinatu dira normalean ekoizten ez dituzten produktuak lortzeko. Adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Nekazaritza_molekularra" class="mw-redirect" title="Nekazaritza molekularra">nekazaritza molekularrean</a> animaliak eta laboreak erabiltzen dira biorreaktore gisa, txertoak, medikamentuen bitartekariak edota medikamentuak lortzeko.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Esate baterako, behiak eta ahuntzak diseinatu dira esnean medikamentuak eta beste proteina batzuk adierazteko. Ez hori bakarrik, 2009. urtean FDAk ahuntzen esnean ekoitzitako medikamentu bat onetsi zuen.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beste_aplikazio_batzuk">Beste aplikazio batzuk</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Beste aplikazio batzuk»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Beste aplikazio batzuk">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoak ingurune naturalen kontzerbaziorako aplikazioak izan ditzake. Esaterako, geneen <a href="/wiki/Birus" title="Birus">birus</a> bektoreen bidezko transferentzia proposatu da espezie inbaditzaileen kontrol gisa, bai eta gaixotasunak pairatzeko arriskuan dauden espezieak babesteko txertoak egiteko ere.<a href="#cite_note-#10-11">[11]</a> Zuhaitz transgenikoak landatu dira naturan dauden zenbait <a href="/wiki/Patogeno" title="Patogeno">patogenoren</a> aurkako erresistentzia eskuratzeko.<a href="#cite_note-#11-12">[12]</a> Organismoak gero eta arazo gehiago dituzte ingurunera moldatzeko, <a href="/wiki/Klima_aldaketa" title="Klima aldaketa">klima-aldaketaren</a> eta beste zenbait asalduraren ondorioz. Geneen eraldaketa irtenbide bat izan daiteke adaptazioa errazteko, eta horrela, espezieen suntsipena gertatzeko aukerak murrizteko.<a href="#cite_note-#12-13">[13]</a> Kontsenbazioarekin lotuta dauden ingeniaritza genetikoaren aplikazioak teorikoak dira eta oraindik ez dira martxan jarri. Ildo beretik, ingeniaritza genetikoa arte mikrobianoa eratzeko ere erabiltzen da.<a href="#cite_note-#13-14">[14]</a> Zenbait bakterio genetikoki eraldatzen dira argazki zuri-beltzak eratzeko.<a href="#cite_note-#14-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erregulazioa">Erregulazioa</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Erregulazioa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Erregulazioa">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Ingeniaritza genetikoaren erregulazioa GEOen garapenaren eta erabileraren inguruan gobernuek hartzen dituzten neurri eta arriskuez arduratzen da.  <a href="/wiki/1975" title="1975">1975. urtean</a> hasi zen garatzen gai honen inguruko erregulazio-markoa, <a href="/wiki/California_City_(Kalifornia)" title="California City (Kalifornia)">Californian</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asimolar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asimolar (sortu gabe)">Asimolar-</a>en, hain zuzen ere.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Asimolar-ko bilkuran birkonbinazioaren teknologikoari buruzko borondatezko gidak gomendatu zituzten.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Teknologiak aurrera egin ahala, <a href="/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuak" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuak">Ameriketako Estatu Batuetan</a> (AEB) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zientzia_eta_Teknologiaren_Politika_Bulegoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zientzia eta Teknologiaren Politika Bulegoa (sortu gabe)">Zientzia eta Teknologiaren Politika Bulegoa</a> sortu zen,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> genetikoki eraldatutako elikagaien inguruko erregulazioa bermatzeko <a href="/w/index.php?title=Estatu_Batuetako_Nekazaritza_Saila&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Estatu Batuetako Nekazaritza Saila (sortu gabe)">Estatu Batuetako Nekazaritza Sailarekin</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sendagai_eta_Elikagaien_Administrazioa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sendagai eta Elikagaien Administrazioa (sortu gabe)">Elikagaien eta Sendagaien Administrazioarekin</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingurumen_Babesaren_Agentzia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ingurumen Babesaren Agentzia (sortu gabe)">Ingurumen Babesaren Agentziarekin</a> batera.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kartagenako_Biosegurtasuneko_Protokoloa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kartagenako Biosegurtasuneko Protokoloa (sortu gabe)">Kartagenako Biosegurtasuneko Protokoloa</a> 2000ko urtarrilaren 29an sinatu zen,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> GEOen lanketa eta erabilera biltzen zuen nazioarteko hitzarmen gisa.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> 157 herrialde dira protokolo horren parte eta horietako askok herrialde mailako erregulazioak zehazteko erabili ohi dute protokoloa.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Genetikoki eraldatutako elikagaien lege-erregulazioa ezberdina da herrialdearen arabera, eta batzuetan debekatuta dauden arren, beste batzuetan haien erabilera baimenduta dago, maila ezberdinetan bada ere.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Herrialde batzuek genetikoki eraldatutako elikagaien inportazioa onartzen dute, baina ez, ordea, haien laborantza (<a href="/wiki/Errusia" title="Errusia">Errusia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norvegia" title="Norvegia">Norbegia</a> edota <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>). Beste herrialde batzuetan, Japonian edota Hego Korean esaterako, genetikoki eraldatutako elikagaien ereinketa aurreikusten dute, baina oraindik ez da ekoitzi genetikoki eraldatutako produkturik. Beste herrialde batzuetan, berriz, nahiz eta GEOen ereinketa ez onartu, haien inguruko ikerketa onartzen da.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Erregulazio horren inguruko desadostasunik nabarienak AEBen eta <a href="/wiki/Europa" title="Europa">Europaren</a> artekoak dira, AEBko politikak produktua du ardatz prozesua gabe, eta egiaztagarriak diren arrisku zientifikoak bakarrik hartzen ditu kontuan; hortaz, funtsezko baliokidetasun kontzeptua erabiltzen du.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Europar_Batasuna" title="Europar Batasuna">Europar Batasunean</a>, ordea, munduko erregulaziorik zorrotzena dago indarrean GEOen inguruan.<a href="#cite_note-#15-101">[101]</a> Hala sortutako produktu guztiak “elikagai berritzat” hartzen dira eta, hortaz, azterketa sakon bat egiten zaie, kasuz kasu, Elikagaien Segurtasun Agintaritza Europarraren eskutik. Baimena emateko irizpideak lau taldetan banatzen dira: segurtasuna, aukeratze-askatasuna, etiketatzea eta trazabilitatea.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Gainontzeko herrialdeen GEOen gaineko erregulazioa Europarenaren eta AEBenaren artean kokatzen da. Erregulatzaileak arduratzen dituen gakoa da, esaterako, genetikoki eraldatutako produktuen etiketatzea. Europar Batasunaren arabera, beharrezkoak dira bai etiketa eta bai trazabilitatea ere, aukeraketa egiteko unean beharrezkoa den informazio guztia edukitzeko, datu faltsuak<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> ekiditeko eta merkatutik produktuen kanporaketa errazteko, erosleen osasunean edota ingurumenean kalterik eraginez gero.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ameriketako_Medikuen_Elkarteak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ameriketako Medikuen Elkarteak (sortu gabe)">Ameriketako Medikuen Elkartearen</a> <a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> eta Zientziaren Garapenerako Ameriketako Elkartearen<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> ustetan, produktuak kaltegarriak direla erakusten duten datu zientifikorik egon ezean, borondatezko etiketatzeak ere erosleak faltsuki arduratuko ditu. GEO produktuak etiketatzea beharrezkoa da 64 herrialdetan.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Etiketatze hori nahitaezkoa izan daiteke genetikoki eraldatutako eduki mailaren atalase bateraino edota borondatezkoa. <a href="/wiki/Kanada" title="Kanada">Kanada</a> eta AEBn, esaterako, guztiz borondatezkoa da genetiko eraldatutako janariaren etiketatzea,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> baina Europan nahitaezkoa da janari orok, baita GEOren kantitatea % 0,9koa baino handiagoa duen pentsu orok ere, etiketa eramatea.<a href="#cite_note-#15-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eztabaida_etikoak">Eztabaida etikoak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Eztabaida etikoak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Eztabaida etikoak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> Kritikoek hainbat arrazoirengatik egin dute ingeniaritza genetikoaren erabileraren aurka, kezka etikoak, ekologikoak eta ekonomikoak barne. Kezka horietako asko <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laborantza_transgeniko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laborantza transgeniko (sortu gabe)">laborantza transgenikoekin</a> eta horren bidez ekoitzitako <a href="/wiki/Elikagai" title="Elikagai">elikagaiak</a> seguruak izatearekin lotuta daude, baita <a href="/wiki/Nekazaritza" title="Nekazaritza">laborantzak</a> ingurugiroan duen inpaktuarekin ere. Eztabaida horiek liskarrak, nazioarteko tirabira ekonomikoak eta protestak eragin dituzte, eta herrialde batzuetan merkataritza-produktuen erregulazio murriztaileak ere bai.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Zientzialariak “<a href="/wiki/Jainko" class="mw-disambig" title="Jainko">jainko</a> izatera jolasten ari direla” dioten akusazioak eta beste auzi <a href="/wiki/Erlijio" title="Erlijio">erlijioso</a> batzuk hasieratik leporatu izan zaizkio <a href="/wiki/Teknologia" title="Teknologia">teknologiari</a>. <a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>Planteatutako bestelako auzi etikoek biziaren <a href="/wiki/Patente" title="Patente">patentazioa</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>, jabetza intelektualeko <a href="/wiki/Eskubide" title="Eskubide">eskubideen</a> erabilera<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a>, produktuen etiketa maila,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a>elikagaien horniketaren kontrola <a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> eta prozesu erregulatzailearen objektibotasuna biltzen dituzte.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Zalantzak sortu badira ere, ikerketa gehienek ondorioztatu dute landare transgenikoen laborantzak <a href="/wiki/Nekazari" title="Nekazari">nekazarientzako</a> ekonomikoki onuragarriak direla.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Labore transgenikoen eta landare bateragarrien arteko <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a>-fluxuak, <a href="/wiki/Herbizida" title="Herbizida">herbizida</a> selektiboen erabilera handiagoarekin batera, gehiegizko sasitzaren garapenaren arriskua areagotu dezake.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Beste ingurumen-kezka batzuek xede ez diren organismoetan ere izan dezakete eragina, lurzoru-mikroorganismoetan<a href="#cite_note-:0-122">[122]</a> eta bigarren mailako <a href="/wiki/Izurri" class="mw-redirect" title="Izurri">izurrite</a> erresistenteen areagotzean, besteak beste.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Transgenikoen laborantzekin lotutako <a href="/wiki/Ingurumen" title="Ingurumen">ingurumen</a>-inpaktu ugari ulertzeko, urte asko pasa behar izaten dira.<a href="#cite_note-:0-122">[122]</a> <a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Esate baterako, <a href="/wiki/Genetikoki_eraldatutako_organismo" title="Genetikoki eraldatutako organismo">genetikoki eraldatutako</a> arrainen komertzializazioarekin, ihes eginez gero etorkizunean sor ditzaketen ingurumen-ondorioen gaineko kezkak piztu dira.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Gaur egun, esaterako, genetikoki eraldatutako arrainen komertzializazioaren inguruko kezkak piztu dira; izan ere, ez dago argi zeintzuk izan daitezkeen ingurumenerako ondorioak, horiek ihes egiten badute. Genetikoki eraldatutako elikagaien segurtasunaren inguruan hiru kezka nagusi daude: erreakzio <a href="/wiki/Alergia" title="Alergia">alergikoren bat</a> sor dezaketen ala ez; ea geneak elikagaietatik giza <a href="/wiki/Zelula" title="Zelula">zeluletara</a> transferi daitezkeen; eta giza kontsumorako onarturik ez dauden geneak beste laboreekin nahas daitezkeen ala ez (194). <a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Adostasun zientifikoa dago egun<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> kultibo transgenikoetatik datozen elikagai eskuragarriek giza osasunerako ohiko produktuek baino arrisku handiagorik ez dakartela onartzeko orduan,<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> bai eta elikagai transgeniko bakoitza merkaturatu aurretik kasuan kasu probatu behar dela onartzeko ere.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Hala ere, ohikoagoa da elikagai transgenikoak segurutzat hartzea zientzialarien artean biztanle arrunten artean baino.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erreferentziak">Erreferentziak</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Erreferentziak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">aldatu</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ingeniaritza_genetiko&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Erreferentziak">aldatu iturburu kodea</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-#1-1">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-#1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-#1_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714085807/http://www.microbiologyprocedure.com/microbial-genetics/applications-of-genetic-engineering.htm">«Applications of Genetic Engineering, Biotechnology, Plasmids, Microbiology, Chromosome, Microbes, Plant Cells, Cellulose, Endoprin»</a> web.archive.org 2011-07-14 (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-11-22). </li> <li id="cite_note-#2-2">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-#2_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-#2_2-1">b</a> (Ingelesez) Summers, Rebecca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23431-bacteria-churn-out-first-ever-petrol-like-biofuel/">«Bacteria churn out first ever petrol-like biofuel»</a> New Scientist (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-11-22). </li> <li id="cite_note-#3-3">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-#3_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-#3_3-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101127053814/http://molecular-plant-biotechnology.info/use-of-microbes-in-industry-and-agriculture/applications-of-genetically-engineered-bacteria.htm">«Application of Some Genetically Engineered Bacteria,Crop Production,Biodegradation of Xenobiotics,Environment Systems»</a> web.archive.org 2010-11-27 (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-11-22). </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-4"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446216187.n199">«Genetic Modification (GM)»</a> Environmental Sciences: A Student's Companion (SAGE Publications Ltd): 387–387. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4129-4705-3" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-1-4129-4705-3">978-1-4129-4705-3</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-11-08). </li> <li id="cite_note-#4-5">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-#4_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-#4_5-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/624556031">Campbell biology. </a> (9th ed. argitaraldia) Benjamin Cummings / Pearson 2011 <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-321-55823-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-321-55823-7">978-0-321-55823-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=624556031">624556031</a>. 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(2016-12-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/23395">Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. </a> National Academies Press  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.17226%2F23395">10.17226/23395</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-309-43738-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-309-43738-7">978-0-309-43738-7</a>. (Noiz kontsultatua: 2020-11-09). </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/FAQ-genetically-modified-foods">"Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods"</a>. World Health Organization. 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(2016-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691615621275">«Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States»</a> Perspectives on Psychological Science 11 (3): 315–324.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691615621275">10.1177/1745691615621275</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1745-6916">1745-6916</a>. 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