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href="#Philosophical_orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophical orientation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_orientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Buddha_and_early_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Buddha_and_early_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The Buddha and early Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Buddha_and_early_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Buddha and early Buddhism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Buddha_and_early_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Buddha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Buddha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Buddha</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Buddha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Middle_Way" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Middle_Way"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Middle Way</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Middle_Way-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Basic teachings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Four_Noble_Truths_and_dependent_causation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Four_Noble_Truths_and_dependent_causation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The Four Noble Truths and dependent causation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Four_Noble_Truths_and_dependent_causation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-self" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-self"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Non-self</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-self-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transcendence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Transcendence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meta-ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meta-ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Meta-ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meta-ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_schools_and_Abhidharma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_schools_and_Abhidharma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Buddhist schools and Abhidharma</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Buddhist_schools_and_Abhidharma-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Buddhist schools and Abhidharma subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_schools_and_Abhidharma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Abhidharma_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Abhidharma_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The Abhidharma schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Abhidharma_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Mahāyāna_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Indian Mahāyāna philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indian Mahāyāna philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_Mahāyāna_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_and_Madhyamaka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prajñāpāramitā_and_Madhyamaka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_and_Madhyamaka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yogācāra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yogācāra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Yogācāra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yogācāra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Yogācāra_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Yogācāra_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Later Yogācāra developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Yogācāra_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddha-nature_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddha-nature_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Buddha-nature thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddha-nature_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vajrayāna_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vajrayāna_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Vajrayāna Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vajrayāna_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tibetan_Buddhist_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tibetan_Buddhist_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Tibetan Buddhist philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tibetan_Buddhist_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tibetan Buddhist philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tibetan_Buddhist_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shentong_and_Buddha_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shentong_and_Buddha_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Shentong and Buddha nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shentong_and_Buddha_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gelug" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gelug"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Gelug</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gelug-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sakya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sakya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Sakya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sakya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nyingma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nyingma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Nyingma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nyingma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rimé_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rimé_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Rimé movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rimé_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asian_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>East Asian Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-East_Asian_Buddhism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle East Asian Buddhism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tiantai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tiantai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Tiantai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tiantai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huayan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huayan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Huayan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huayan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chan_and_Japanese_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chan_and_Japanese_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Chan and Japanese Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chan_and_Japanese_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esoteric_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esoteric_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Esoteric Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esoteric_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_other_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_other_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Comparison with other philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة بوذية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة بوذية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="বৌদ্ধ দৰ্শন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বৌদ্ধ দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_budista" title="Filosofía budista – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía budista" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="বৌদ্ধ দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধ দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Буддизм фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Буддизм фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="बौद्ध दर्शन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बौद्ध दर्शन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_budista" title="Filosofia budista – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia budista" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistick%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Buddhistická filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Buddhistická filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistische_Philosophie" title="Buddhistische Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Buddhistische Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_budista" title="Filosofía budista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía budista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_budista" title="Filosofia budista – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia budista" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="فلسفه بودایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه بودایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_bouddhiste" title="Philosophie bouddhiste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie bouddhiste" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%82%AC%EC%83%81" title="불교의 사상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="불교의 사상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բուդդայական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բուդդայական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="बौद्ध दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बौद्ध दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Buddhis" title="Filsafat Buddhis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Buddhis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბუდისტური ფილოსოფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბუდისტური ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Buddhica" title="Philosophia Buddhica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia Buddhica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhista_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Buddhista filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buddhista filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ബൗദ്ധദർശനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബൗദ്ധദർശനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბუდისტური ფილოსოფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბუდისტური ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Буддын гүн ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Буддын гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeddhistische_filosofie" title="Boeddhistische filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Boeddhistische filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%8F%E6%95%99%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="仏教哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="仏教哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistisk_filosofi" title="Buddhistisk filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Buddhistisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਬੁੱਧ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੁੱਧ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="بودايي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بودايي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_buddyjska" title="Filozofia buddyjska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia buddyjska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_budista" title="Filosofia budista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia budista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Буддийская философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Буддийская философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%B8" title="බුදු දහම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බුදු දහම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhistick%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Budhistická filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Budhistická filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Будистичка филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Будистичка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budisti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Budistička filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Budistička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhalainen_filosofia" title="Buddhalainen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Buddhalainen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiyang_Budista" title="Pilosopiyang Budista – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiyang Budista" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8C%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பௌத்த மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பௌத்த மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budist_felsefe" title="Budist felsefe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Budist felsefe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Буддійська філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Буддійська філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_gi%C3%A1o" title="Triết học Phật giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học Phật giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Buddhist philosophical tradition</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_university.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/220px-Nalanda_university.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/330px-Nalanda_university.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/440px-Nalanda_university.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nalanda_mahavihara" title="Nalanda mahavihara">Nalanda <i>mahāvihāra</i></a> (great monastery) was a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_higher-learning_institutions" title="Ancient higher-learning institutions">major institution of higher-learning</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a> from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Scharfe_2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scharfe_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" class="mw-redirect" title="Four stages of awakening">Four Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Pratyekabuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a 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2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/25px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/38px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg/50px-Dharma_Wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_philosophy" title="Category:Buddhist philosophy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SeatedBuddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/120px-SeatedBuddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/180px-SeatedBuddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SeatedBuddha.jpg/240px-SeatedBuddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="1430" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma Tradition">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology#The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Pramāṇavāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana#Philosophical_background" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiāntāi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen/Chán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Buddhist logico-epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Buddhism and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Buddhist vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahimsa in Buddhism">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Interdependent origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma#The_dharma_theory" title="Abhidharma">Dharma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">Svabhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Buddhist atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Pre-modern philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma_Mah%C4%81vibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3a_%C5%9A%C4%81stra#Abhidharma_Mahāvibhāṣa_Śāstra,_by_Katyāyāniputra" title="Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra">Katyāyāniputra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Aryadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Harivarman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83ghabhadra" title="Saṃghabhadra">Saṃghabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadatta" title="Buddhadatta">Buddhadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammap%C4%81la" title="Dhammapāla">Dhammapāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_of_Nalanda" title="Dharmapala of Nalanda">Dharmapala of Nalanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Chandrakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guifeng Zongmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81nagarbha" title="Jñānagarbha">Jñānagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)" title="Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1anasrimitra" title="Jñanasrimitra">Jñanasrimitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratnak%C4%ABrti" title="Ratnakīrti">Ratnakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayakaragupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongzom_Ch%C3%B6kyi_Zangpo" title="Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo">Rongzom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Acariya Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen" title="Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen">Dolpopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Je Tsongkhapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorampa" title="Gorampa">Gorampa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Chokden" title="Sakya Chokden">Sakya Chokden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miky%C3%B6_Dorje,_8th_Karmapa_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikyö Dorje, 8th Karmapa Lama">Mikyö Dorje</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledi_Sayadaw" title="Ledi Sayadaw">Ledi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keiji_Nishitani" title="Keiji Nishitani">Keiji Nishitani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajime_Tanabe" title="Hajime Tanabe">Hajime Tanabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masao_Abe" title="Masao Abe">Masao Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._N._Jayatilleke" title="K. N. Jayatilleke">K. N. Jayatilleke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katukurunde_Nyanananda_Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukurunde Nyanananda Thera">Ñāṇananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadasa" title="Buddhadasa">Buddhadasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._A._Payutto" title="P. A. Payutto">P. A. Payutto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamyang_Khyentse_Wangpo" title="Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo">Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamgon_Kongtrul" title="Jamgon Kongtrul">Jamgon Kongtrul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamg%C3%B6n_Ju_Mipham_Gyatso" title="Jamgön Ju Mipham Gyatso">Ju Mipham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gend%C3%BCn_Ch%C3%B6phel" title="Gendün Chöphel">Gendün Chöphel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a 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title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a 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</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Buddhist philosophy</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophical system</a> that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It comprises all the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical investigations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">systems of rational inquiry</a> that developed among various <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">schools of Buddhism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a> following the <i><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">parinirvāṇa</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> (c. 5th century BCE), as well as the further developments which followed the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">spread of Buddhism throughout Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Acri_2018_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri_2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnelly_2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Buddhism combines both philosophical reasoning and the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">practice of meditation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddhist religion presents a multitude of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">Buddhist paths to liberation</a>; with the expansion of early Buddhism from ancient India to <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and subsequently to <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Acri_2018_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acri_2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnelly_2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhist thinkers have covered topics as varied as <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of time">philosophy of time</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a> in their analysis of these paths.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a> was based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> gained by the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80yatana" title="Āyatana">sense organs</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Chitta_(Buddhism)" title="Chitta (Buddhism)">mind</a>), and the Buddha seems to have retained a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skeptical</a> distance from <a href="/wiki/The_unanswered_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="The unanswered questions">certain metaphysical questions</a>, refusing to answer them because they were not conducive to liberation but led instead to further speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However he also affirmed theories with metaphysical implications, such as <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent arising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Particular points of Buddhist philosophy have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism,<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as between representative thinkers of Buddhist schools and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jaina</a> philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These elaborations and disputes gave rise to various <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna movement</a>, and scholastic traditions such as <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a>, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnelly_2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One recurrent theme in Buddhist philosophy has been the desire to find a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> between philosophical views seen as extreme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_phases_of_Buddhist_philosophy">Historical phases of Buddhist philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical phases of Buddhist philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Conze" title="Edward Conze">Edward Conze</a> splits the development of Indian Buddhist philosophy into three phases:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The phase of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">pre-sectarian Buddhist doctrines</a> derived from oral traditions that originated during the life of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>, and are common to all later <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">schools of Buddhism</a>.</li> <li>The second phase concerns non-<a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> "scholastic" Buddhism, as evident in the <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> texts beginning in the 3rd century BCE, that feature scholastic reworking and schematic classification of material in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma philosophy of the Theravāda school</a> belongs to this phase.</li> <li>The third phase concerns <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a>, beginning in the late first century CE. This movement emphasizes the path of a <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> and includes various schools of thought, such as <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnelly_2017-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Various elements of these three phases are incorporated and/or further developed in the philosophy and worldview of the various sects of Buddhism that then emerged. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_orientation">Philosophical orientation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophical orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika and nāstika</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyana in Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Epistemological_foundation" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics § Epistemological foundation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Awakening</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy in ancient India</a> was aimed mainly at <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">spiritual liberation</a> and had <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriological</a> goals. In his study of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a> schools of Buddhist philosophy in ancient India, Peter Deller Santina writes:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Attention must first of all be drawn to the fact that <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophical systems in India</a> were seldom, if ever, purely speculative or descriptive. Virtually all the great philosophical systems of India: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Sāṃkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedānta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a> and so forth, were preeminently concerned with providing a means to liberation or salvation. It was a tacit assumption with these systems that if their philosophy were correctly understood and assimilated, an <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">unconditioned state</a> free of suffering and limitation could be achieved. [...] If this fact is overlooked, as often happens as a result of the propensity engendered by formal <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Occidental philosophy</a> to consider the philosophical enterprise as a purely descriptive one, the real significance of Indian and Buddhist philosophy will be missed.</p></blockquote> <p>For the Indian Buddhist philosophers, the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> were not meant to be taken on faith alone, but to be confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">logical analysis and inquiry</a> (<i>pramāṇa</i>) of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Buddhist texts mention that a person becomes a follower of the Buddha's teachings after having pondered them over with wisdom and the gradual training also requires that a disciple "investigate" (<i>upaparikkhati</i>) and "scrutinize" (<i>tuleti</i>) the teachings.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddha also expected his disciples to approach him as a teacher in a critical fashion and scrutinize his actions and words, as shown in the <i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABma%E1%B9%83saka_Sutta" title="Vīmaṃsaka Sutta">Vīmaṃsaka Sutta</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Buddhist thinkers even argued that rational reflection and philosophical analysis was a central practice which was necessary for the attainment of insight in meditation. Thus, Mahayana philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1akaragupta" title="Prajñakaragupta">Prajñakaragupta</a> argue that one is not a yogi "merely because of <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>", rather, one must meditate, listen to the teachings and understand them by "reflecting through rational inquiry" (yukti-cintāmaya). Only through this method which combined <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> reflection and meditation will the wisdom that leads to enlightenment arise.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Buddha_and_early_Buddhism">The Buddha and early Buddhism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Buddha and early Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; border: 1px solid #DAA520"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFE4B5;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#e67e00">Part of</span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Early_Buddhism" title="Category:Early Buddhism">a series</a> <span class="tmp-color" style="color:#e67e00">on</span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFE4B5;">Early <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/100px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/150px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg/200px-Ashoka_Chakra_Y.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="414" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts#Texts_of_the_Early_schools" title="Buddhist texts">Scriptures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a> (EBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran EBTs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81timok%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prātimokṣa">Prātimokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jatakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avadana" title="Avadana">Avadanas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81vastu" title="Mahāvastu">Mahāvastu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a></li> <li>Tibetan EBTs in the <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Early sangha</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81riputta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sāriputta">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81moggall%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāmoggallāna">Mahāmoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakasyapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahakasyapa">Mahakasyapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākātyāyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anathapindika" title="Anathapindika">Anāthapiṇḍika</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Kingdom of Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moggaliputtatissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Moggaliputtatissa">Moggaliputtatissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 10em"> <div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekavy%C4%81vah%C4%81rika" title="Ekavyāvahārika">Ekavyāvahārika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gokulika" class="mw-redirect" title="Gokulika">Gokulika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahu%C5%9Brut%C4%ABya" title="Bahuśrutīya">Bahuśrutīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caitika" title="Caitika">Caitika</a></li> <li>(Haimavata)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthaviras</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a> <ul><li>Vātsīputrīya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83mit%C4%ABya" class="mw-redirect" title="Saṃmitīya">Saṃmitīya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> <ul><li>(Haimavata)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" title="Kāśyapīya">Kāśyapīya</a>)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>) <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulasarvastivada" title="Mulasarvastivada">Mulasarvastivada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamrashatiya" title="Tamrashatiya">Tambapaṇṇiya</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/K%C4%81%C5%9Byap%C4%ABya" title="Kāśyapīya">Kāśyapīya</a>)</li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%AB%C5%9B%C4%81saka" title="Mahīśāsaka">Mahīśāsaka</a>) <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;;background:#FFE4B5;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Terms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikaya_Buddhism" title="Nikaya Buddhism">Nikāya Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hīnayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattvay%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhisattvayāna">Bodhisattvayāna</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Buddhism" title="Template:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Buddha">The Buddha</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Buddha"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Relation_between_Advaita_Vedanta_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Relation between Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism">Relation between Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg/250px-Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg/375px-Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Bodleian_MS._Burm._a._12_Life_of_the_Buddha_13-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="607" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> surrounded by his followers. Illustration from an 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Myanmar" title="Art of Myanmar">Burmese watercolour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodleian_Library" title="Bodleian Library">Bodleian Library</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Scholarly opinion varies as to whether <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> himself was engaged in philosophical inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siddartha Gautama (c. 5th century BCE) was a north Indian <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></i> (wandering ascetic), whose teachings are preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pāli</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikayas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikayas">Nikayas</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a> as well as in other surviving fragmentary textual collections, collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>. Dating these texts is difficult, and there is disagreement on how much of this material goes back to a single religious founder. While the focus of the Buddha's teachings is about attaining the highest good of <i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvāṇa</a></i>, they also contain an analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">source of human suffering</a> (<i>duḥkha</i>), the nature of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism)" title="Ātman (Buddhism)">personal identity</a> (<i>ātman</i>), and the process of acquiring <a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">knowledge</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">prajña</a></i>) about the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Middle_Way">The Middle Way</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Middle Way"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></div> <p>The Buddha defined his teaching as "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">the Middle Way</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Pali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pali language">Pāli</a>: <i>majjhimāpaṭipadā</i>). In the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra</a></i>, this is used to refer to the fact that his teachings steer a middle course between the extremes of <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> and bodily denial (as practiced by the <a href="/wiki/Jains" class="mw-redirect" title="Jains">Jains</a> and other Indian ascetic groups) and sensual <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a> or indulgence. Many <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></i> ascetics of the Buddha's time placed much emphasis on a denial of the body, using practices such as <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a>, to liberate the mind from the body. <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>, however, realized that the mind was embodied and causally dependent on the body, and therefore that a malnourished body did not allow the mind to be trained and developed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, Buddhism's main concern is not with luxury or poverty, but instead with the human response to circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another related teaching of the historical Buddha is "the teaching through the middle" (<i>majjhena dhammaṃ desana</i>), which claims to be a metaphysical middle path between the extremes of <a href="/wiki/Sassatavada" title="Sassatavada">eternalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eternal_oblivion" title="Eternal oblivion">annihilationism</a>, as well as the extremes of existence and non-existence.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea would become central to later Buddhist metaphysics, as all Buddhist philosophies would claim to steer a metaphysical middle course. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_teachings">Basic teachings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Basic teachings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></div> <p>Apart from the middle way, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout these <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>, so older studies by various scholars conclude that the Buddha must at least have taught some of these key teachings:<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, which provide an analysis of <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">the cause of suffering</a> (<i>duḥkha</i>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, which illustrate the path to <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">spiritual liberation</a> (<i>mokṣa</i>)</li> <li>The four <i><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyānas</a></i> (meditations)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>, three characteristics which apply to all phenomena and which are: <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">suffering</a> (<i>duḥkha</i>), <a href="/wiki/Impermanence#Buddhism" title="Impermanence">impermanence</a> (<i>anicca</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">non-self</a> (<i>anattā</i>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates of clinging</a> (<i>skandhā</i>), which provide an analysis of personal identity and physical existence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent origination</a> (<i>pratītyasamutpāda</i>), a complex doctrine which analyzes the how <a href="/wiki/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)" title="Sentient beings (Buddhism)">living beings</a> come to be and how they are conditioned by various psycho-physical processes</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">rebirth</a>, actions which lead to a new existence after death, in an <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth</a> (<i>saṃsāra</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></i>, the ultimate soteriological goal which leads to the cessation of all suffering</li></ul> <p>According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda Buddhism</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba Sūtra</a></i> belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> school.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravādin <i><a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Majjhima Nikāya">Majjhima Nikāya</a></i> and the Sarvāstivādin <i><a href="/wiki/Madhyama_Agama" title="Madhyama Agama">Madhyama Āgama</a></i> contain mostly the same major Buddhist doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Salomon_(professor_of_Asian_studies)" title="Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)">Richard G. Salomon</a>, in his study of the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a> (which are the earliest manuscripts containing discourses attributed to Gautama Buddha), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Lambert_Schmithausen" title="Lambert Schmithausen">Schmithausen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilmann" title="Tilmann">Vetter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Bronkhorst</a> argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among these various doctrines. They present alternative possibilities for what was taught in <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">earliest Buddhism</a> and question the authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines. For example, some scholars think that the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a></i> was not central to the teachings of the historical Buddha, while others disagree with this position.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajña">insight into the true nature of reality</a> (<i>prajña</i>) was seen as liberating in earliest Buddhism or whether it was a later addition. according to Vetter and Bronkhorst, <i>dhyāna</i> constituted the original "liberating practice", while discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">liberation</a> was a later development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi–xxii_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi–xxii-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars such as Bronkhorst and Carol Anderson also think that the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism but as Anderson writes "emerged as a central teaching in a slightly later period that still preceded the final redactions of the various Buddhist canons."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993107_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993107-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199921_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199921-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook of earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to <i>reject</i> and let go of more than on what doctrines to <i>accept</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Only knowledge that is useful in attaining liberation</a> is valued. According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early texts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Four_Noble_Truths_and_dependent_causation">The Four Noble Truths and dependent causation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Four Noble Truths and dependent causation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> or "Truths of the Noble One" are a central feature to the teachings of the historical Buddha and are put forth in the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra</a></i>. The first truth of <i><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">duḥkha</a></i>, often translated as "suffering", is the inherent and eternal unsatisfactoriness of life. This unpleasantness is said to be not just physical pain and psychological distress, but also a kind of existential unease caused by the inevitable facts of our mortality and ultimately by the <a href="/wiki/Impermanence#Buddhism" title="Impermanence">impermanence of all beings and phenomena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Suffering also arises because of contact with unpleasant events, and due to not getting what one desires. The second truth is that this unease arises out of conditions, mainly <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">craving</a> (<i>taṇhā</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a> (<i>avidyā</i>). The third truth is then the fact that whenever <a href="/wiki/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)" title="Sentient beings (Buddhism)">sentient beings</a> let go of craving and remove ignorance through insight and knowledge, <a href="/wiki/Nirodha" title="Nirodha">suffering ceases</a> (<i>nirodhā</i>). The fourth truth is the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>, which consists of eight practices that end suffering. They are: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a>, and right <i><a href="/wiki/Samadhi#Buddhism" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a></i> (concentration, mental unification, meditation). The highest good and ultimate goal taught by the historical Buddha, which is the attainment of <i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvāṇa</a></i>, literally means "extinguishing" and signified "the complete extinguishing of greed, hatred, and delusion (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a>), the forces which power <i><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">saṃsāra</a></i>".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></i> also means that after an <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightened being</a>'s death, there is no further rebirth. In <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">earliest Buddhism</a>, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a> (<i>pratītya-samutpāda</i>) was most likely limited to processes of mental conditioning and not to all physical phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gautama Buddha understood the world in procedural terms, not in terms of things or substances.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory posits a flux of events arising under certain conditions which are interconnected and dependent, such that the processes in question at no time are considered to be static or independent. <a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Craving</a> (<i>taṇhā</i>), for example, is always dependent on, and caused by sensations gained by the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80yatana" title="Āyatana">sense organs</a> (<i>āyatana</i>). Sensations are always dependent on contact with our surroundings. Buddha's causal theory is simply descriptive: "This existing, that exists; this arising, that arises; this not existing, that does not exist; this ceasing, that ceases." This understanding of causation as "impersonal lawlike causal ordering" is important because it shows how the processes that give rise to suffering work, and also how they can be reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The removal of suffering that stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a> (<i>avidyā</i>), then, requires a <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajña">deep understanding of the nature of reality</a> (<i>prajña</i>). While philosophical analysis of arguments and concepts is clearly necessary to develop this understanding, it is not enough to remove our unskillful mental habits and deeply ingrained prejudices, which require <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">meditation</a>, paired with understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Buddha's teachings as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Gandhāran Buddhist texts</a>, we need to train the mind in meditation to be able to truly comprehend the nature of reality, which is said to have the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a>: suffering, impermanence, and <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">non-self</a> (<i>anātman</i>). Understanding and meditation are said to work together to <a href="/wiki/Vipassana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipassana">clearly see</a> (<i>vipassanā</i>) the nature of human experience and this is said to lead to liberation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-self">Non-self</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Non-self"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="float:right; clear: right; margin:0.1em 0 0.1em 1em; background:Azure; border:1px solid DarkGray; font-size:85%; text-align:center;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-bottom:1px solid DarkGray; background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:center; color:RoyalBlue"> <span style="font-size:small;">The <b><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a></b> (<i>pañca khandha</i>)</span><br />according to the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a>.</td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1"> </td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa"><b>form</b> (<i>rūpa</i>)</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:white; border:1px dotted Blue"><small><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">4 elements<br />(<i>mahābhūta</i>)</a></small></td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:Lime"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LimeGreen"><span style="font-size:x-large;">↓</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:Azure; border-left:1px solid Green"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:White; border:1px dotted Gainsboro"><small><a href="/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba" title="Sparśa">contact<br />(<i>phassa</i>)</a></small></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:Green; text-align:left">    <span style="font-size:x-large;">↓</span></td> <td colspan="2" style="background:Azure; color:LightSkyBlue"><span style="font-size:x-large;">↑</span></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:LightSkyBlue"> <br /><a href="/wiki/Vijnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vijnana"><b>consciousness</b><br />(<i>viññāna</i>)</a><br /> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /><span style="color:DarkBlue;font-size:x-large;">→</span><br /><span style="color:Orange;font-size:x-large;">←</span><br /> <br /> <br /> <br /><span style="color:Red;font-size:x-large;">←</span></td> <td> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="background:white"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="8" style="border-left:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> <td style="color:RoyalBlue; border-top:1px dotted Red"><small><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">mental factors (<i>cetasika</i>)</a></small></td> <td rowspan="8" style="border-right:1px dotted Red; border-top:1px dotted Red; border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="background:Orange"> <br /><a href="/wiki/Vedana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedana"><b>feeling</b><br />(<i>vedanā</i>)</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:OrangeRed"> <br /><a href="/wiki/Samjna" class="mw-redirect" title="Samjna"><b>perception</b><br />(<i>sañña</i>)</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr><td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:Red"> <br /><a href="/wiki/Sankhara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sankhara"><b>formation</b><br />(<i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">saṅkhāra</i></span></i>)</a><br /> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px dotted Red"> </td> </tr></tbody></table> </td> <td rowspan="1"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="border-top:1px solid DarkGray; background:Ivory; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue"> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">Form</a> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Mahabhuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahabhuta">Four Great Elements</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> arises from <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li> <li>Mental Factors arise from the <a href="/wiki/Phassa" class="mw-redirect" title="Phassa">Contact</a> of<br /><a href="/wiki/Vinnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinnana">Consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Namarupa" title="Namarupa">other aggregates</a>.</li> <li>The five aggregates are <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">no-self</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:WhiteSmoke; text-align:left; color:RoyalBlue">  <small><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.109.than.html">Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001)</a></small>  <span style="color:DarkGray;">|</span>  <small><a href="/wiki/Template:PancaKhandha" title="Template:PancaKhandha">diagram details</a></small></td></tr> </tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Self-concept" title="Self-concept">Self-concept</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> argued that <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">compounded entities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentient_beings_(Buddhism)" title="Sentient beings (Buddhism)">sentient beings</a> lacked essence, correspondingly <a href="/wiki/Self-concept" title="Self-concept">the self</a> is without essence (<i>anātman</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means there is no part of a person which is unchanging and essential for continuity, and it means that there is no individual "part of the person that accounts for the identity of that person over time".<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishadic concept</a> of an unchanging <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ultimate self</a> (<i>ātman</i>) and any view of an eternal <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>. The Buddha held that attachment to the appearance of a permanent self in this world of change is <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">the cause of suffering</a> (<i>duḥkha</i>), and the main obstacle to the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">spiritual liberation</a> (<i>mokṣa</i>). </p><p>The most widely used argument that the Buddha employed against the idea of an unchanging ego is an <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> one, based on the observation of the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates of existence</a> (<i>skandhā</i>) that constitute a sentient being, and the fact that these are always changing.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This argument can be put in this way:<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>All <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">psycho-physical processes</a> (<i>skandhā</i>) are impermanent.</li> <li>If there were a self it would be permanent.</li></ol> <dl><dd><dl><dd>IP [There is no more to the person than the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates of existence</a>.]</dd> <dd>∴ There is <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">no self</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>This argument requires the implied premise that the five aggregates are an exhaustive account of what makes up a person, or else the self could exist outside of these aggregates.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This premise is affirmed in other <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83yutta_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Saṃyutta Nikāya">Saṃyutta Nikāya</a></i> 22.47, which states: "whatever ascetics and brahmins regard various kinds of things as self, all regard the five grasping aggregates, or one of them."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This argument is famously expounded in the <i><a href="/wiki/Anattalakkha%E1%B9%87a_Sutta" title="Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta">Anātmalakṣaṇa Sūtra</a></i>. According to this text, the apparently fixed self is merely the result of identification with the <a href="/wiki/Skandhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Skandhas">temporary aggregates of existence</a> (<i>skandhā</i>), the changing processes making up an individual human being. In this view, a 'person' is only a convenient nominal designation on a certain grouping of processes and characteristics, and an 'individual' is a conceptual construction overlaid upon a stream of experiences, just like a <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a> is merely a conventional designation for the parts of a chariot and how they are put together. The foundation of this argument is purely <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a>, for it is based on the fact that all we observe is subject to change, especially everything observed when looking inwardly in meditation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another argument supporting the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">non-self</a>, the "argument from lack of control",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is based on the fact that we often seek to change certain parts of ourselves, that the "executive function" of the mind is that which finds certain things unsatisfactory and attempts to alter them. Furthermore, it is also based on the "anti-reflexivity principle" of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, which states an entity cannot operate on or control itself (a knife can cut other things but not itself, a finger can point at other things but not at itself, etc.). This means then, that the self could never desire to change itself and could not do so; another reason for this is that, besides Buddhism, in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">orthodox schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> the unchanging <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ultimate self</a> (<i>ātman</i>) is perfectly blissful and does not suffer.<sup id="cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2014-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dissanayake_1993-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historical Buddha used this idea to attack the concept of self. This argument could be structured thus:<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>If the self existed it would be the part of the person that performs the executive function, the "controller."</li> <li>The self could never desire that it be changed (anti-reflexivity principle).</li> <li>Each of the five kinds of <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">psycho-physical processes</a> (<i>skandhā</i>) is such that one can desire that it be changed.</li></ol> <dl><dd><dl><dd>IP [There is no more to the person than the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five aggregates of existence</a>.]</dd> <dd>∴ There is <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">no self</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>This argument then denies that there is one permanent "controller" in the person. Instead, it views the person as a set of <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">constantly changing processes which include volitional events</a> seeking change and an awareness of that desire for change. According to Mark Siderits: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What the Buddhist has in mind is that on one occasion one part of the person might perform the executive function, on another occasion another part might do so. This would make it possible for every part to be subject to control without there being any part that always fills the role of the controller (and so is the self). On some occasions, a given part might fall on the controller side, while on other occasions it might fall on the side of the controlled. This would explain how it's possible for us to seek to change any of the skandhas while there is nothing more to us than just those skandhas.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>As noted by K.R. Norman and Richard Gombrich, the Buddha extended his <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">non-self</a> critique to the Brahmanical belief expounded in the <i><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka Upanishad</a></i> that the unchanging <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ultimate self</a> (<i>ātman</i>) was indeed the whole world, or identical with <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2014-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dissanayake_1993-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept is illustrated in the <i>Alagaddupama Sūtra</i>, where the Buddha argues that an individual cannot experience the suffering of the entire world. He used the example of someone carrying off and burning grass and sticks from the Jeta grove and how a monk would not sense or consider themselves harmed by that action. In this example, the Buddha is arguing that we do not have direct experience of the entire world, and hence the self cannot be the whole world.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this Buddhist text, as well as in the <i>Soattā Sūtra</i>, the Buddha outlines <a href="/wiki/View_(Buddhism)" title="View (Buddhism)">six wrong views</a> about self: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are six wrong views: An unwise, untrained person may think of the body, 'This is mine, this is me, this is my self'; he may think that of feelings; of perceptions; of volitions; or of what has been seen, heard, thought, cognized, reached, sought or considered by the mind. The sixth is to identify the world and self, to believe: 'At death, I shall become permanent, eternal, unchanging, and so remain forever the same; and that is mine, that is me, that is my self.' A wise and well-trained person sees that all these positions are wrong, and so he is not worried about something that does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Furthermore, Gautama Buddha argued that the world can be observed to be a cause of suffering (<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> was held to be ultimately blissful in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">orthodox schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>) and that since we cannot control the world as we wish, the world cannot be the self. The idea that "this cosmos is the self" is one of the <a href="/wiki/View_(Buddhism)" title="View (Buddhism)">six wrong views</a> rejected by the historical Buddha,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with the related <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> <a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hindu theology</a> which held that "everything is a Oneness" (SN 12.48 <i>Lokayatika Sutta</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2014-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dissanayake_1993-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historical Buddha also held that understanding and seeing the truth of non-self led to un-attachment, and hence to the cessation of suffering, while <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a> (<i>avidyā</i>) about the <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajña">true nature of personality</a> (<i>prajña</i>) led to further suffering and attachment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Buddhist logico-epistemology</a></div> <p>All schools of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> recognize <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">various sets of valid justifications for knowledge</a> (<i>pramāṇa</i>) and many see the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> as providing access to truth. The historical Buddha <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">denied the authority of the Vedas</a>, though, like his contemporaries, he affirmed the soteriological importance of holding the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path#Right_view" title="Noble Eightfold Path">right view</a>; that is, having a proper understanding of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this understanding was not conceived primarily as metaphysical and cosmological knowledge, but as a piece of knowledge into the arising and cessation of suffering in human experience.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the Buddha's epistemic project is different from that of <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>; it is primarily a solution to the fundamental human spiritual/existential problem. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">logico-epistemology</a> has been compared to <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, in the sense that it was based on the experience of the world through <a href="/wiki/The_senses" class="mw-redirect" title="The senses">the senses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddha taught that <a href="/wiki/%C4%80yatana" title="Āyatana">empirical observation through the six sense fields</a> (<i>āyatanā</i>) was the proper way of verifying any knowledge claims. Some <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> go further, stating that "the All", or everything that exists (<i>sabbam</i>), are these six sense spheres (SN 35.23, <i>Sabba Sutta</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that anyone who attempts to describe another "All" will be unable to do so because "it lies beyond range".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This text seems to indicate that for the Buddha, things in themselves or <a href="/wiki/Noumena" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumena">noumena</a> are beyond our epistemological reach (<i>avisaya</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Opinion" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view/FAQ#Assert_facts,_not_opinions" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view/FAQ"><span title="This statement may be opinion presented as fact. (January 2019)">opinion</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Furthermore, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Kesamutti_Sutta" title="Kesamutti Sutta">Kālāma Sutta</a></i> the Buddha tells a group of confused villagers that the only proper reason for one's beliefs is verification in one's own personal experience (and the experience of the wise) and denies any verification which stems from a personal authority, sacred tradition (<i>anussava</i>), or any kind of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> which constructs metaphysical theories (<i>takka</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation#Tevijja_Sutta" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">Tevijja Sutta</a></i> (DN 13), the Buddha rejects the personal authority of <a href="/wiki/Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmins">Brahmins</a> because none of them can prove they have had personal experience of <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, nor could any of them prove its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddha also stressed that experience is the only criterion for verification of the truth in this passage from the <i><a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Majjhima Nikāya">Majjhima Nikāya</a></i> (MN.I.265): </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>"Monks, do you only speak that which is known by yourselves seen by yourselves, found by yourselves?"</dd> <dd>"Yes, we do, sir."</dd> <dd>"Good, monks, That is how you have been instructed by me in this timeless doctrine which can be realized and verified, that leads to the goal and can be understood by those who are intelligent."</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Furthermore, the Buddha's standard for personal verification was a <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_soteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist soteriology">salvific</a> one, for the Buddha a belief counts as truth only if it leads to successful Buddhist practice (and hence, to the destruction of craving). In the "Discourse to Prince Abhaya" (MN.I.392–4) the Buddha states this pragmatic maxim by saying that a belief should only be accepted if it leads to wholesome consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tendency of the Buddha to see what is true as what was useful or "what works" has been called by Western scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Augusta_Foley_Rhys_Davids" class="mw-redirect" title="Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids">Mrs Rhys Davids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Jean_de_la_Vall%C3%A9e-Poussin" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin">Vallée-Poussin</a> a form of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/K._N._Jayatilleke" title="K. N. Jayatilleke">K. N. Jayatilleke</a> argues the Buddha's epistemology can also be taken to be a form of <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Correspondence theory">correspondence theory</a> (as per the <i>Apannaka Sutta</i>) with elements of <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that for the Buddha it is causally impossible for something which is false to lead to cessation of suffering and evil. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> discouraged <a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists#Buddha's_disciples_and_early_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">his disciples and early followers of Buddhism</a> from indulging in intellectual disputation for its own sake, which is fruitless, and distracts one from the ultimate goals of <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">awakening</a> (<i>bodhi</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberation</a> (<i>mokṣa</i>). Only philosophy and discussion which has pragmatic value for liberation from suffering is seen as important. According to the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>, during his lifetime the Buddha remained silent when asked several <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> <a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">questions</a> which he regarded as the basis for "unwise reflection". These "unanswered questions" (<i>avyākṛta</i>) regarded issues such as <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">whether the universe is eternal or non-eternal</a> (or whether it is finite or infinite), the unity or separation of the body and <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Buddhism)">the self</a> (<i>ātman</i>), the complete inexistence of a person after death and <i><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvāṇa</a></i>, and others. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Aggi-Vacchagotta_Sutta" title="Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta">Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta</a></i>, the historical Buddha stated that thinking about these imponderable issues led to "a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views". </p><p>One explanation for this pragmatic suspension of judgment or epistemic <a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">Epoché</a> is that such questions contribute nothing to the practical methods of realizing <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">awakeness</a> during one's lifetime<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and bring about the danger of substituting the experience of liberation by a conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith. According to the Buddha, the <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i> is not an ultimate end in itself or an explanation of all metaphysical reality, but a pragmatic set of teachings. The Buddha used two parables to clarify this point, the 'Parable of the raft' and the <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Poisoned_Arrow" title="Parable of the Poisoned Arrow">Parable of the Poisoned Arrow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Dharma</i> is like a raft in the sense that it is only a pragmatic tool for attaining nirvana ("for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of holding onto", MN 22); once one has done this, one can discard the raft. It is also like medicine, in that the particulars of how one was <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Poisoned_Arrow" title="Parable of the Poisoned Arrow">injured by a poisoned arrow</a> (i.e. metaphysics, etc.) do not matter in the act of removing and curing the arrow wound itself (removing suffering). In this sense, the Buddha was often called "the great physician" because his goal was to cure the human condition of suffering first and foremost, not to speculate about metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having said this, it is still clear that resisting and even refuting a false or slanted doctrine can be useful to extricate the interlocutor, or oneself, from error; hence, to advance in the way of liberation. Witness the Buddha's confutation of several doctrines by Nigantha Nataputta and other purported sages which sometimes had large followings (e.g., Kula Sutta, Sankha Sutta, Brahmana Sutta). This shows that a virtuous and appropriate use of dialectics can take place. By implication, reasoning and argument shouldn't be disparaged by Buddhists. </p><p>After the Buddha's death, some Buddhists such as <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> went on to use the sayings of the Buddha as sound evidence equal to perception and inference.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcendence">Transcendence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transcendence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another possible reason why the Buddha refused to engage in <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> is that he saw ultimate reality and nirvana as devoid of sensory mediation and conception and therefore language itself is <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> inadequate to explain it.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagao_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagao-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the Buddha's silence does not indicate <a href="/wiki/Misology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misology">misology</a> or disdain for philosophy. Rather, it indicates that he viewed the answers to these questions as not understandable by the unenlightened.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagao_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagao-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent arising</a> provides a framework for analysis of reality that is not based on metaphysical assumptions regarding existence or non-existence, but instead on direct cognition of phenomena as they are presented to the mind in meditation. </p><p>The Buddha of the earliest Buddhists texts describes Dharma (in the sense of "truth") as "beyond reasoning" or "transcending logic", in the sense that reasoning is a subjectively introduced aspect of the way unenlightened humans perceive things, and the conceptual framework which underpins their cognitive process, rather than a feature of things as they really are. Going "beyond reasoning" means in this context penetrating the nature of reasoning from the inside, and removing the causes for experiencing any future stress as a result of it, rather than functioning outside the system as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Meta-ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></div> <p>The Buddha's ethics are based on the <a href="/wiki/Soteriological" class="mw-redirect" title="Soteriological">soteriological</a> need to eliminate suffering and on the premise of the law of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>. Buddhist ethics have been termed eudaimonic (with their goal being well-being) and also compared to <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a> (this approach began with Damien Keown).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keown writes that Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a> is analogous to the Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a>, and that Buddhist moral acts and virtues derive their value from how they lead us to or act as an aspect of the nirvanic life. </p><p>The Buddha outlined <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">five precepts</a> (no killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or drinking alcohol) which were to be followed by his disciples, lay and monastic. There are various reasons the Buddha gave as to why someone should be ethical. </p><p>First, the universe is structured in such a way that if someone intentionally commits a misdeed, a bad karmic fruit will be the result. Hence, from a pragmatic point of view, it is best to abstain from these negative actions which bring forth negative results. However, the important word here is <i>intentionally</i>: for the Buddha, karma is nothing else but intention/volition, and hence unintentionally harming someone does not create bad karmic results. Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Jains" class="mw-redirect" title="Jains">Jains</a> who believed that karma was a quasi-physical element, for the Buddha karma was a volitional mental event, what Richard Gombrich calls "an ethicised consciousness".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This idea leads into the second moral justification of the Buddha: intentionally performing negative actions reinforces and propagates mental defilements which keep persons bound to the cycle of rebirth and interfere with the process of liberation, and hence intentionally performing good karmic actions is participating in mental purification which leads to <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvana</a>, the highest happiness. This perspective sees immoral acts as unskillful (<i>akusala</i>) in our quest for happiness, and hence it is pragmatic to do good.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third meta-ethical consideration takes the view of not-self and our natural desire to end our suffering to its logical conclusion. Since there is no self, there is no reason to prefer our own welfare over that of others because there is no ultimate grounding for the differentiation of "my" suffering and someone else's. Instead, an enlightened person would just work to end suffering <i>tout court</i>, without thinking of the conventional concept of persons.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this argument, anyone who is selfish does so out of ignorance of the true nature of personal identity and irrationality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhist_schools_and_Abhidharma">Buddhist schools and Abhidharma</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Buddhist schools and Abhidharma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></div> <p>The main Indian Buddhist philosophical schools practiced a form of analysis termed <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></i> which sought to systematize the teachings of the early Buddhist discourses (sutras). Abhidharma analysis broke down human experience into momentary phenomenal events or occurrences called "<i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma#Dharma_theory" title="Abhidharma">dharmas</a></i>". Dharmas are impermanent and dependent on other causal factors, they arise and pass as part of a web of other interconnected dharmas, and are never found alone. The Abhidharma schools held that the teachings of the Buddha in the sutras were merely conventional, while the Abhidharma analysis was ultimate truth (paramattha sacca), the way things really are when seen by an enlightened being. The Abhidharmic project has been likened as a form of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nyanaponika_page_35_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nyanaponika_page_35-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abhidharma philosophers not only outlined what they believed to be an exhaustive listing of <i>dharmas</i> (Pali: dhammas), which are the ultimate phenomena, events or processes (and include physical and mental phenomena), but also the causal relations between them. In the Abhidharmic analysis, the only thing which is ultimately real is the interplay of dharmas in a causal stream; everything else is merely conceptual (<i>paññatti</i>) and nominal.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This view has been termed "<a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">mereological</a> reductionism" by Mark Siderits because it holds that only impartite entities are real, not wholes.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abhidharmikas such as Vasubandhu argued that conventional things (tables, persons, etc.) "disappear under analysis" and that this analysis reveals only a causal stream of phenomenal events and their relations. The mainstream Abhidharmikas defended this view against their main Hindu rivals, the <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> school, who were <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> theorists and posited the existence of <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Abhidharmikas such as the <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a> were also strict <a href="/wiki/Nominalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominalists">nominalists</a>, and held that all things - even dharmas - were merely conceptual. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Abhidharma_schools">The Abhidharma schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Abhidharma schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_(9241725897).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/220px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/330px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/440px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3021" data-file-height="1811" /></a><figcaption>Indian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Asoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Asoka">Aśoka</a> and the elder <a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a>, who is seen as a key thinker of the <a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a> tradition (and thus, of <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>An important Abhidhamma work from the <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</a> school is the <i><a href="/wiki/Kath%C4%81vatthu" title="Kathāvatthu">Kathāvatthu</a></i> ("Points of controversy"), attributed to the Indian scholar-monk <a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 327</span>–247 BCE). This text is important because it attempts to refute several philosophical views which had developed after the death of the Buddha, especially the theory that 'all exists' (<i>sarvāstivāda</i>), the theory of momentariness (<i>khāṇavāda</i>) and the personalist view (<i><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">pudgalavada</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalupahana,_David_page_128-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were the major philosophical theories that divided the Buddhist Abhidharma schools in India. </p><p>After being brought to <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> in the first century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali language</a> <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da_Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda Abhidhamma">Theravada Abhidhamma</a> tradition was heavily influenced by the works of <a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a> (4-5th century AD), the most important philosopher and commentator of the <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> school. The Theravada philosophical enterprise was mostly carried out in the genre of <a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakatha</a> (commentaries) as well as <a href="/wiki/Subcommentaries,_Theravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcommentaries, Theravada">sub-commentaries</a> (tikas) on the classic Pali Abhidhamma texts. Abhidhamma study also included smaller doctrinal summaries and compendiums, like the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha</a></i> (The Compendium of Things contained in the Abhidhamma). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a>-Vaibhāṣika (sometimes just "<a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a>") was one of the major Buddhist philosophical schools in India, and they were so named because of their belief that dharmas exist in all three times: past, present and future. Though the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma system began as a mere categorization of mental events, their philosophers and exegetes such as <a href="/wiki/Dharmatr%C4%81ta" title="Dharmatrāta">Dharmatrata</a> and Katyāyāniputra, the compiler of the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahavibhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavibhasa">Mahāvibhāṣa</a></i> ("Great Commentary"), eventually refined this system into a robust <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>, which also included a type of <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance theory</a>. This realism was based on the nature of dharmas, which was called <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a> ("self-nature" or "intrinsic existence").<sup id="cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalupahana,_David_page_128-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Svabhava is a sort of <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a>, though it is not a completely independent essence, since all dharmas were said to be causally dependent. The Sarvāstivāda system extended this realism across time, effectively positing a type of <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">eternalism</a> with regards to time; hence, the name of their school means "the view that everything exists".<sup id="cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalupahana,_David_page_128-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vaibhāṣika remained an influential school in North India during the medieval period. Perhaps the most influential figure in this tradition was the great scholar <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83ghabhadra" title="Saṃghabhadra">Saṃghabhadra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another key figure was <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%9Aubhagupta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Śubhagupta (page does not exist)">Śubhagupta</a> (720–780), who was a Vaibhāṣika thinker within the epistemological (pramana) tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Buddhist schools such as the <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1aptiv%C4%81da" title="Prajñaptivāda">Prajñaptivāda</a> ("the nominalists"), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Caitika" title="Caitika">Caitika</a> Mahāsāṃghikas refused to accept the concept of <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, not all Abhidharma sources defend svabhava. For example, the main topic of the <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Tattvasiddhi</a> Śāstra</i> by Harivarman (3-4th century CE), an influential Abhidharma text, is the emptiness (<a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">shunyata</a>) of dharmas.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, this anti-essentialist nominalism was widespread among the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> sects. Another important feature of the Mahāsāṃghika tradition was its unique theory of consciousness. Many of the Mahāsāṃghika sub-schools defended a theory of self-awareness (<i><a href="/wiki/Svasa%E1%B9%83vedana" title="Svasaṃvedana">svasaṃvedana</a></i>) which held that consciousness can be simultaneously aware of itself as well as its intentional object.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these schools also held that the mind's nature (<i>cittasvabhāva</i>) is fundamentally pure (<i>mulavisuddha</i>), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/220px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/330px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg/440px-Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a> (c. 5th century), the most important Abhidharma scholar of <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</a> Buddhism, presenting three copies of the <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Theravādins and other schools, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sautrantika" class="mw-redirect" title="Sautrantika">Sautrāntikas</a> ("those who follow the <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>"), often attacked the theories of the Sarvāstivādins, especially their theory of time. A major figure in this argument was the scholar <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>, a Sarvāstivādin monk himself (who was also influenced by the critiques of the <a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrantika</a> school), who critiqued the theory of all exists and argued for <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">philosophical presentism</a> in his comprehensive treatise, the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmakosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakosa">Abhidharmakośa</a>.</i> This work is the major Abhidharma text used in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism today. The Theravāda also holds that dharmas only exist in the present, and are thus also <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">presentists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Theravāda presentation of Abhidharma is also not as concerned with <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> as the Sarvāstivāda view, but is more of a phenomenological schema.<sup id="cite_ref-Nyanaponika_page_35_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nyanaponika_page_35-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence the concept of svabhava (Pali: sabhava) for the Theravādins is more of a certain characteristic or dependent feature of a dharma, than any sort of essence or metaphysical grounding. As the Sinhalese scholar <a href="/wiki/Y_Karunadasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Y Karunadasa">Y. Karunadasa</a> writes, the Pali tradition only postulates sabhava "for the sake of definition and description." However, ultimately each dhamma (particular phenomenon) is not a singular independent existence. Thus, Karunadasa rejects the view that Theravada Abhidhamma defends an <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">ontological pluralism</a> (but it is also not <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> either, since there is no single underlying ground of all things or metaphysical substratum). Instead they are merely processes that happen "due to the interplay of a multitude of conditions."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karunadasa also describes the Theravada system as a "critical realism" which sees the ultimate existents as the myriad irreducible dhammas, and which also accepts the existence of an external world with entities that truly exist independently of cognition (as opposed to Mahayana forms of idealism).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important theory held by some Sarvāstivādins, Theravādins and Sautrāntikas was the theory of "momentariness" (Skt., kṣāṇavāda, Pali, khāṇavāda). This theory held that dhammas only last for a minute moment (<i>ksana</i>) after they arise. The Sarvāstivādins saw these 'moments' in an atomistic way, as the smallest length of time possible (they also developed a material atomism). Reconciling this theory with their eternalism regarding time was a major philosophical project of the <a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarvāstivāda">Sarvāstivāda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Theravādins initially rejected this theory, as evidenced by the Khaṇikakathā of the <a href="/wiki/Kathavatthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathavatthu">Kathavatthu</a> which attempts to refute the doctrine that "all phenomena (dhamma) are as momentary as a single mental entity."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, momentariness with regards to mental dhammas (but not physical or <a href="/wiki/R%C5%ABpa" title="Rūpa">rūpa</a> dhammas) was later adopted by the Sri Lankan Theravādins, and it is possible that it was first introduced by the scholar <a href="/wiki/Buddhagosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhagosa">Buddhagosa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All Abhidharma schools also developed complex theories of causation and conditionality to explain how dharmas interacted with each other. Another major philosophical project of the Abhidharma schools was the explanation of <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>. Some schools such as the Sarvastivadins explained perception as a type of phenomenalist realism while others such as the Sautrantikas preferred <a href="/wiki/Representationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Representationalism">representationalism</a> and held that we only perceive objects indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major argument used for this view by the Sautrāntikas was the "time-lag argument." According to Mark Siderits: "The basic idea behind the argument is that since there is always a tiny gap between when the sense comes in contact with the external object and when there is sensory awareness, what we are aware of can't be the external object that the senses were in contact with, since it no longer exists."<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is related to the theory of extreme momentariness. </p><p>One major philosophical view which was rejected by all the schools mentioned above was the view held by the <a href="/wiki/Pudgalavadin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudgalavadin">Pudgalavadin</a> or 'personalist' schools. They seemed to have held that there was a sort of 'personhood' in some ultimately real sense which was not reducible to the five aggregates.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This controversial claim was in contrast to the other Buddhists of the time who held that a personality was a mere conceptual construction (prajñapti) and only conventionally real. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_Mahāyāna_philosophy"><span id="Indian_Mah.C4.81y.C4.81na_philosophy"></span>Indian Mahāyāna philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indian Mahāyāna philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a></div> <p>From about the 1st century BCE, a new textual tradition began to arise in Indian Buddhist thought called <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a> (Great Vehicle), which would slowly come to dominate Indian Buddhist philosophy. During the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">medieval period of Indian history</a>, Buddhist philosophy thrived in large monastery complexes such as <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vikramasila" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikramasila">Vikramasila</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Valabhi_University" title="Valabhi University">Vallabhi</a>. These institutions became major centers of philosophical learning in North India (where both Buddhist and also non-Buddhist thought was studied and debated). Mahāyāna philosophers continued the philosophical projects of Abhidharma, while at the same time critiquing them and introducing many new concepts and ideas. Since the Mahāyāna held to the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic concept of truth</a> which states that doctrines are regarded as conditionally "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial, these new theories and practices were seen as 'skillful means' (<a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">upaya</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mahayana also promoted the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> ideal, which included an attitude of compassion for all sentient beings. The Bodhisattva is someone who chooses to remain in <i><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">samsara</a></i> (the cycle of birth and death) to benefit all other beings who are suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major Mahayana philosophical schools and traditions include the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñaparamita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha">Tathagatagarbha</a>, the epistemological school of Dignaga, and in China the <a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> schools. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prajñāpāramitā_and_Madhyamaka"><span id="Praj.C3.B1.C4.81p.C4.81ramit.C4.81_and_Madhyamaka"></span>Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajñāpāramitā">Prajñāpāramitā</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_(868),_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/220px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/330px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/440px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1610" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>The world's earliest printed book is a Chinese translation of the <i>Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</i> (<a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajra Cutter Sutra</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> (circa 868 CE).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagardjuna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/220px-Nagardjuna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/330px-Nagardjuna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nagardjuna.jpg/440px-Nagardjuna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Nagarjuna, protected by the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nagas</a> snake spirits who are said to be the guardians of the Prajnaparamita sutras.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā-sutras</a> ("perfection of insight" sutras) (circa 1st century BCE) emphasize the <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">shunyata</a> (emptiness) of <i>all</i> phenomena. It is thus a radical global <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-essentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-essentialism">anti-essentialism</a>, which sees all things as illusions and all of reality as a dreamlike appearance without any fundamental essence.<sup id="cite_ref-Conze,_Edward_1953_PP.117-129_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conze,_Edward_1953_PP.117-129-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Prajñāpāramitā is said to be a transcendent spiritual <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> of the nature of ultimate reality, which empty of any <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> or foundation, like a universal <a href="/wiki/Mirage" title="Mirage">mirage</a>. </p><p>Thus, the <i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a></i> (<i>Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</i>) states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All conditioned phenomena<br /> </p><p> Are like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow,<br /> Like dew or a flash of lightning;<br /> </p><p> Thus we shall perceive them".<sup id="cite_ref-chungtai_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chungtai-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a></i> famously affirms the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena: </p> <blockquote><p>Oh, Sariputra, form does not differ from emptiness, and emptiness does not differ from form.<br />Form is emptiness and emptiness is form; the same is true for feelings, perceptions, volitions and consciousness.</p></blockquote><p>The Prajñāpāramitā sources also note that this applies to every single phenomenon, even <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of the Buddhist aspirant in the Prajñāpāramitā texts is to awaken to the perfection of wisdom ("prajñāpāramitā"), a non-conceptual transcendent wisdom that knows the emptiness of all things while not being attached to anything (including the very idea of emptiness itself or perfect wisdom).<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conze,_Edward_1953_PP.117-129_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conze,_Edward_1953_PP.117-129-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Prajñāpāramitā teachings are associated with the work of the Buddhist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 CE</span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> (Middle way, or "Centrism") school. Nāgārjuna was one of the most influential Indian Mahayana thinkers. He gave the classical arguments for the empty nature of all dharmas and attacked the <a href="/wiki/Essences" class="mw-redirect" title="Essences">essentialism</a> found in various Abhidharma schools (and also in Hindu philosophy) in his magnum opus, <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">The Root Verses on the Middle Way</a></i> (<i>Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i>Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</i>, Nagarjuna relies on <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a> arguments to refute various theories which assume <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a> (an inherent <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a> or "own being"), <a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">dravya</a> (substances) or any theory of existence (<a href="/wiki/Bhava" title="Bhava">bhava</a>). In this work, he covers topics such as <a href="/wiki/Causation_(law)" title="Causation (law)">causation</a>, motion, and the sense faculties.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nāgārjuna asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, non-self (<i><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">anatta</a></i>), and emptiness (<i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">śūnyatā</a></i>). He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of anatta (substantial being) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as śūnyatā (i.e., emptiness of a nature or essence (<i><a href="/wiki/Svabh%C4%81va" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhāva">svabhāva</a> sunyam</i>). </p><p>Later philosophers of the Madhyamaka school built upon Nāgārjuna's analysis and defended Madhyamaka against their opponents. These included <a href="/wiki/%C4%80ryadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Āryadeva">Āryadeva</a> (3rd century CE), Nāgārjuna's pupil; <a href="/wiki/Candrak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Candrakīrti">Candrakīrti</a> (600–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span>), who wrote an important commentary on the <i>Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</i>; and <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> (8th century), who is the key Mahayana ethicist. </p><p>The commentator <a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a> (c. 470–550) has been understood as the originator of the 'prāsaṅgika' approach which is based on critiquing essentialism <i>only</i> through reductio arguments. He was criticized by <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81vaviveka" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhāvaviveka">Bhāvaviveka</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 578</span>), who argued for the use of properly logical <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a> to positively argue for emptiness (instead of just refuting the theories of others). These two approaches were later termed the <a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">prāsaṅgika and the svātantrika</a> approaches to Madhyamaka by Tibetan philosophers and commentators. </p><p>Influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Dignaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignaga">Dignaga</a>, Bhāvaviveka's Madhyamika philosophy makes use of Buddhist epistemology. Candrakīrti, on the other hand, critiqued Bhāvaviveka's adoption of the epistemological (<i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramana</a></i>) tradition on the grounds that it contained subtle essentialism. He quotes Nagarjuna's famous statement in the <i>Vigrahavyavartani</i> which says "I have no thesis" for his rejection of positive epistemic Madhyamaka statements.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Candrakīrti held that a true Madhyamika could only use "consequence" (<i>prasanga</i>), in which one points out the inconsistencies of their opponent's position without asserting an "autonomous inference" (<i>svatantra</i>), for no such inference can be ultimately true from the point of view of Madhyamaka. </p><p>In China, the Madhyamaka school (known as <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sānlùn</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (344–413 CE), who translated the works of Nagarjuna to Chinese. Other Chinese Madhymakas include <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> 's pupil <a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a> (549–623), who wrote over 50 works on Madhyamaka, and <a href="/wiki/Hyegwan" title="Hyegwan">Hyegwan</a>, a Korean monk who brought Madhyamaka teachings to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yogācāra"><span id="Yog.C4.81c.C4.81ra"></span>Yogācāra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Yogācāra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācāra">Yogācāra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg/220px-Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg/330px-Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg/440px-Seshin_Vasubandhu_Kofukuji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1018" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> wrote in defense of Vijñapti-matra (appearance only) as well as writing a massive work on <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Abhidharmakosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakosa">Abhidharmakosa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogācāra">Yogācāra school</a> (<i>Yoga practice</i>) was a Buddhist philosophical tradition which arose in between the 2nd century CE and the 4th century CE and is associated with the philosophers and brothers <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> and with various sutras such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Sandhinirmocana Sutra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Lankavatara Sutra</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_147_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_147-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central feature of Yogācāra thought is the concept of <i>vijñapti-mātra</i>, often translated as "impressions only" or "appearance only". This has been interpreted as a form of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> or as a form of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a>. Other names for the Yogācāra school are 'vijñanavada' (the doctrine of consciousness) and 'cittamatra' (mind-only).<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_147_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_147-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yogācāra thinkers like Vasubandhu argued against the existence of external objects by pointing out that we only ever have access to our own mental impressions, and hence our inference of the existence of external objects is based on faulty logic. Vasubandhu's <i><a href="/wiki/Tri%E1%B9%83%C5%9Bik%C4%81-vij%C3%B1aptim%C4%81trat%C4%81" title="Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā">Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā</a> (The Proof that There Are Only Impressions in Thirty Verses</i>), begins thus: </p> <blockquote><p>I. This [world] is nothing but impressions, since it manifests itself as an unreal object, Just like the case of those with cataracts seeing unreal hairs in the moon and the like.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_149_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_149-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> then, all our experiences are like seeing hairs on the moon when we have cataracts, that is, we project our mental images into something "out there" when there are no such things. Vasubandhu then goes on to use the <a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">dream argument</a> to argue that mental impressions do not require external objects to (1) seem to be spatio-temporally located, (2) to seem to have an inter-subjective quality, and (3) to seem to operate by causal laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_149_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_149-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that purely mental events can have causal efficacy and be <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjective</a> is proved by the event of a <a href="/wiki/Wet_dream" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet dream">wet dream</a> and by the mass or shared <a href="/wiki/Hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallucinations">hallucinations</a> created by the karma of certain types of beings.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After having argued that impressions-only is a theory that can explain our everyday experience, Vasubandhu then appeals to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Parsimony" class="extiw" title="wikt:Parsimony">parsimony</a> - since we do not need the concept of external objects to explain reality, then we can do away with those superfluous concepts altogether as they are most likely just mentally superimposed on our concepts of reality by the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_158_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_158-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yogācārins like Vasubandhu also attacked the realist theories of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Buddhist atomism</a> and the Abhidharma theory of <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a>. He argued that atoms, as conceived by the atomists (un-divisible entities), would not be able to come together to form larger aggregate entities, and hence that they were illogical concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_pp_158_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_pp_158-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Inter-subjective reality for Vasubandhu is then the causal interaction between various <a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">mental streams</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>, and does not include any external physical objects. The soteriological importance of this theory is that, by removing the concept of an external world, it also weakens the 'internal' sense of self as an observer which is supposed to be separate from the external world. To dissolve the dualism of inner and outer is also to dissolve the sense of self and other. The later Yogacara commentator <a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a> explains this thus:</p><blockquote><p>There is a grasper if there is something to be grasped, but not in the absence of what is to be grasped. Where there is nothing to be grasped, the absence of a grasper also follows, there is not just the absence of the thing to be grasped. Thus there arises the extra-mundane non-conceptual cognition that is alike without object and without cognizer.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Apart from its defense of an idealistic metaphysics and its attacks on realism, Yogācāra sources also developed a new theory of mind, based on the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a>, which includes the innovative doctrine of the subliminal storehouse consciousness (Skt: ālayavijñāna).<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yogācāra thinkers also developed a positive account of ultimate reality based on three basic modes or "natures" (svabhāva). This metaphysical doctrine is central to their view of the ultimate and to their understanding of the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition"><span id="The_Dign.C4.81ga-Dharmak.C4.ABrti_tradition"></span>The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dignaga.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Dignaga.jpg/180px-Dignaga.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Dignaga.jpg/270px-Dignaga.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Dignaga.jpg/360px-Dignaga.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Dignāga in formal debating stance</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology#The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Buddhist_logico-epistemology § The_Dignāga-Dharmakīrti_tradition</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480</span>–540) and <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmakīrti">Dharmakīrti</a> (c. 6-7th century) were Buddhist philosophers who developed a system of epistemology (<a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramana</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist logic">logic</a> in their debates with the Brahminical philosophers in order to defend Buddhist doctrine. This tradition is called "those who follow reasoning" (<a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a>: <i>rigs pa rjes su 'brang ba</i>); in modern literature, it is sometimes known by the Sanskrit "<i>pramāṇavāda</i>", or "the Epistemological School."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sautrantika" class="mw-redirect" title="Sautrantika">Sautrantika</a> schools, and defended theories held by both of these schools.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dignāga's influence was profound and led to an "epistemological turn" among all Buddhists and also all Sanskrit language philosophers in India after his death. In the centuries following Dignāga's work, Sanskrit philosophers became much more focused on defending all of their propositions with fully developed <a href="/wiki/Theories_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of knowledge">theories of knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "School of Dignāga" includes later philosophers and commentators like Santabhadra, <a href="/wiki/Dharmottara" title="Dharmottara">Dharmottara</a> (8th century), <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1akaragupta" title="Prajñakaragupta">Prajñakaragupta</a> (740–800 C.E.), <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1anasrimitra" title="Jñanasrimitra">Jñanasrimitra</a> (975–1025), <a href="/wiki/Ratnak%C4%ABrti" title="Ratnakīrti">Ratnakīrti</a> (11th century) and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85karanandana" title="Śaṅkaranandana">Śaṅkaranandana</a> (fl. c. 9th or 10th century).<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> they developed defends the view that there are only two 'instruments of knowledge' or 'valid cognitions' (<i>pramana</i>): "perception" (<a href="/wiki/Pramana#Hinduism" title="Pramana"><i>pratyaksa</i></a>) and "inference" (<i><a href="/wiki/Anum%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Anumāṇa">anumāṇa</a></i>). Perception is a non-conceptual awareness of particulars which is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic and conceptual.<sup id="cite_ref-tillemanssep_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tillemanssep-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These Buddhist philosophers argued in favor of the theory of momentariness, the Yogācāra "awareness only" view, the reality of particulars (<i>svalakṣaṇa</i>), <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a> and the self-reflexive nature of consciousness (<i><a href="/wiki/Svasa%E1%B9%83vedana" title="Svasaṃvedana">svasaṃvedana</a></i>). They attacked <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindu</a> theories of God (<a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Isvara</a>), <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a>, the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, and the existence of a permanent soul (<i>atman</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Yogācāra_developments"><span id="Later_Yog.C4.81c.C4.81ra_developments"></span>Later Yogācāra developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Later Yogācāra developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the time of Asanga and Vasubandhu, the Yogācāra school developed in different directions. One branch focused on epistemology (this would become the school of Dignaga). Another branch focused on expanding the Yogācāra's metaphysics and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This latter tradition includes figures like <a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_of_Nalanda" title="Dharmapala of Nalanda">Dharmapala of Nalanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandragomin" title="Chandragomin">Chandragomin</a> (who was known to have debated the Madhyamaka thinker Candrakirti), and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%ABlabhadra" title="Śīlabhadra">Śīlabhadra</a> (a top scholar at <a href="/wiki/Nalanda_mahavihara" title="Nalanda mahavihara">Nalanda</a>). Yogācārins such as <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramartha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87abhadra" title="Guṇabhadra">Guṇabhadra</a> brought the school to China and translated Yogacara works there, where it is known as <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Wéishí-zōng or Fǎxiàng-zōng</a>. An important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra is <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Weishi_Lun" title="Cheng Weishi Lun">Cheng Weishi Lun</a></i>, or "Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only". </p><p>A later development is the rise of a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> tradition of Yogācāra-tathāgatagarbha thought. This group adopted the doctrine of <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> (the buddha-womb, buddha-source, or "buddha-within") found in various <i><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">tathāgatagarbha sutras</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:12_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hybrid school eventually went on to equate the <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> with the pure aspect of the storehouse consciousness. Some key sources of this school are the <i><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga</a></i> (<i>Uttaratantra</i>), and in China, the influential <i><a href="/wiki/Awakening_of_Faith_in_the_Mahayana" title="Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana">Mahayana Awakening of Faith</a> treatise.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> One key figure of this tradition was <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramārtha</a>, an Indian monk who was an important translator in China. He promoted a new theory that said there was a "stainless consciousness" (<i>amala-vijñāna,</i> a pure wisdom within all beings), which he equated with the buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This synthetic tradition also became important in later Indian Buddhism, where the <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga</a></i> became the key text.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikramashila_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vikramashila_University.jpg/220px-Vikramashila_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vikramashila_University.jpg/330px-Vikramashila_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Vikramashila_University.jpg/440px-Vikramashila_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4838" data-file-height="2644" /></a><figcaption>Site of Vikramaśīla university (<a href="/wiki/Bhagalpur_district" title="Bhagalpur district">Bhagalpur district</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>), an important center for late Indian Yogacara. Great panditas like Jñānaśrīmitra and Ratnākaraśānti were 'gate-scholars' in this university.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another later development was the synthesis of Yogācāra with Madhyamaka. <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81nagarbha" title="Jñānagarbha">Jñānagarbha</a> (8th century) and his student <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a> (725–788) brought together Yogacara, Madhyamaka and the Dignaga school of epistemology into a philosophical synthesis known as the <i>Yogācāra-Svatantrika-Mādhyamika</i>. Śāntarakṣita was also instrumental in the introduction of Buddhism and the Sarvastivadin monastic ordination lineage to Tibet, which was conducted at Samye. <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a>'s disciples included <a href="/wiki/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)" title="Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)">Haribhadra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalaśīla</a>. This philosophical tradition is influential in Tibetan Buddhist thought. </p><p>Perhaps the most important debate among late Yogācāra philosophers was the debate between alikākāravāda (<a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tib.</a> <i>rnam rdzun pa</i>, False Aspectarians, also known as Nirākāravāda) and Satyākāravāda (<i>rnam bden pa</i>, True Aspectarians, also known as sākāravāda). The crux of the debate was the question of whether mental appearances, images or “aspects” (<i>ākāra</i>) are true (<i>satya</i>) or false (<i>alika</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Satyākāravāda camp, defended by scholars like <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1akaragupta" title="Prajñakaragupta">Prajñakaragupta</a> (ca. 8th–9th century), and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1anasrimitra" title="Jñanasrimitra">Jñānaśrīmitra</a> (ca. 980–1040), held that images in consciousness have a real existence, since they arise from a real consciousness. Meanwhile, Alikākāravāda defenders like <a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a> (ca. 970–1045) argued that mental appearances do not really exist, and are false (alīka) or illusory. For these thinkers, the only thing which is real is a pure self-aware consciousness which is contentless (nirākāra, “without images”).<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddha-nature_thought">Buddha-nature thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Buddha-nature thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha">Tathagatagarbha</a></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha">tathāgathagarbha sutras</a></i>, in a departure from mainstream Buddhist language, insist that there is a real potential for awakening is inherent to every sentient being. They marked a shift from a largely <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">apophatic</a> (negative) method within Buddhism to a decidedly more <a href="/wiki/Cataphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataphatic">cataphatic</a> (positive) mode. The main topic of this genre of literature is the <i>tathāgata-garbha,</i> which can mean the womb or embryo of a <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a> (i.e. a Buddha) and is what allows someone to become a Buddha.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another similar term used for this idea is <i>buddhadhātu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">buddha-nature</a> or source of the Buddhas). </p><p>Prior to the period of these scriptures, Mahāyāna <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> had been dominated by teachings on <a href="/wiki/Emptiness" title="Emptiness">emptiness</a>. The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the buddha-nature literature can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of <a href="/wiki/Dependent_origination" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent origination">dependent origination</a> using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sutras, the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism)" title="Ātman (Buddhism)">atman</a>). The word "self" (<i>atman</i>) is used in a way idiosyncratic to these sutras; the "true self" is described as the perfection of the wisdom of <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">not-self</a> in the <i>Buddha-Nature Treatise</i> (<i>Fóxìng lùn</i>, 佛性論, T. 1610) of <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramārtha</a>, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-nanzan-u.ac.jp_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nanzan-u.ac.jp-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used previously in Indian philosophy by essentialist philosophers, but which was now adapted to describe the positive realities of Buddhahood.<sup id="cite_ref-nanzan-u.ac.jp_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nanzan-u.ac.jp-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps the most influential source in the Indian tradition for this teaching is the <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga</a></i> (5th century CE). This <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">śāstra</a> brought together all the major themes of the tathāgatagārbha theory into a single treatise. The <i>Ratnagotravibhāga</i> sees the tathāgatagarbha as being an inherent nature in all things which is omnipresent, all-pervasive, non-conceptual, free of suffering and inherently blissful.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also describes buddha nature as “the intrinsically stainless nature of the mind” (<i>cittaprakṛtivaimalya</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, in many later Indian sources, the <i>tathāgathagarbha</i> teachings also come to be identified with the similar doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">luminous mind</a> (prabhasvara-citta). This ancient idea holds that the mind is inherently pure, and that defilements are only adventitious. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga" title="Ratnagotravibhāga">Ratnagotravibhāga</a></i>, this originally pure (prakṛtipariśuddha) nature (i.e. the fully purified buddha-nature) is further described through numerous terms such as: unconditioned (asaṃskṛta), unborn (ajāta), unarisen (<a href="/wiki/Anutpada" title="Anutpada">anutpanna</a>), eternal (nitya), changeless (dhruva), and permanent (śāśvata).<sup id="cite_ref-:13_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some scholars, <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language expression of <a href="/wiki/Sunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyata">emptiness</a> and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this interpretation, the intention of the teaching of <i>tathāgatagarbha</i> is <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriological</a> rather than metaphysical.<sup id="cite_ref-nanzan-u.ac.jp_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nanzan-u.ac.jp-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vajrayāna_Buddhism"><span id="Vajray.C4.81na_Buddhism"></span>Vajrayāna Buddhism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vajrayāna Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg/220px-Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg/330px-Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg/440px-Abhaya_Kara_Gupta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1228" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayākaragupta</a>, one of "the last great masters" of Indian Buddhism (Kapstein).<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a> (also Mantrayāna, Sacret Mantra, Tantrayāna and Esoteric Buddhism) is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition associated with a group of texts known as the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Tantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Tantras">Buddhist Tantras</a> which had developed into a major force in India by the eighth century. By this time Indian <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> scholars were developing philosophical defenses, <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and explanations of the Buddhist tantric systems, especially through commentaries on key tantras such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Guhyasam%C4%81ja_Tantra" title="Guhyasamāja Tantra">Guhyasamāja Tantra</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vairocan%C4%81bhisa%E1%B9%83bodhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra">Mahavairocana sutra</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Guhyagarbha_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Guhyagarbha Tantra">Guhyagarbha Tantra</a></i>. </p><p>While the view of the Vajrayāna was based on the earlier <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a> theories, it saw itself as being a faster vehicle to liberation containing many skillful methods (<i><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">upaya</a></i>) of tantric ritual. The need for an explication and defense of the Tantras arose out of the unusual nature of the rituals associated with them, which included the use of secret <a href="/wiki/Mantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantras">mantras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karmamudr%C4%81" title="Karmamudrā">sexual yoga</a>, complex visualizations of <a href="/wiki/Mandalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandalas">mandalas</a> filled with <a href="/wiki/Wrathful_deities" title="Wrathful deities">wrathful deities</a> and other practices which were discordant with or at least novel in comparison to traditional Buddhist practice.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Guhyasamāja Tantra</i>, for example, states: "you should kill living beings, speak lying words, take things that are not given and have sex with many women".<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other features of tantra included a focus on the physical body as the means to liberation, and a reaffirmation of <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">feminine</a> elements, feminine deities and a positive view of <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The defense of these tantric practices is based on the theory of transformation which states that negative mental factors and physical actions can be cultivated and transformed in a ritual setting. The <i><a href="/wiki/Hevajra_tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Hevajra tantra">Hevajra tantra</a></i> states: </p> <blockquote><p>Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists, this practice of reversals is not known.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another hermeneutic of Buddhist Tantric commentaries such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Vimalaprabha" title="Vimalaprabha">Vimalaprabha</a></i> (<i>Stainless Light</i>) of Pundarika (a commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Kalachakra" title="Kalachakra"><i>Kalacakra Tantra</i></a>) is one of interpreting <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a> or unethical statements in the Tantras as <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorical</a> statements about tantric practice and physiology. For example, in the <i>Vimalaprabha</i>, "killing living beings" refers to stopping the <a href="/wiki/Prana" title="Prana">prana</a> at the top of the head. In the Tantric Candrakirti's <i>Pradipoddyotana</i>, a commentary to the <i>Guhyasamaja Tantra</i>, killing living beings is glossed as "making them void" by means of a "special <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>" which according to <a href="/wiki/Buton_Rinchen_Drub" title="Buton Rinchen Drub">Bus-ton</a> is associated with <a href="/wiki/Completion_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Completion stage">completion stage</a> tantric practice.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Duckworth" title="Douglas Duckworth">Douglas Duckworth</a> notes that Vajrayāna philosophical outlook is one of embodiment, which sees the physical and cosmological body as already containing wisdom and divinity. Liberation (<a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a> are not seen as something outside the body, or an event in the future, but as imminently present and accessible right now through unique tantric practices like <a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">deity yoga</a>. Hence, Vajrayāna is also called the "resultant vehicle", that is to say, it is the spiritual vehicle that relies on the immanent nature of the result of practice (liberation), which is already present in all beings.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duckworth names the philosophical view of Vajrayāna as a form of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>, by which he means the belief that every existing entity is in some sense divine and that all things express some form of unity.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhaguhya" title="Buddhaguhya">Buddhaguhya</a>, Padmavajra (author of the <i>Guhyasiddhi</i> commentary), Nagarjuna (the 7th-century disciple of <a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a>), <a href="/wiki/Indrabhuti" title="Indrabhuti">Indrabhuti</a> (author of the <i>Jñānasiddhi</i>), Anangavajra, Dombiheruka, Durjayacandra, <a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayakaragupta</a> wrote tantric texts and commentaries systematizing the tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others such as <a href="/wiki/Vajrabodhi" title="Vajrabodhi">Vajrabodhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aubhakarasi%E1%B9%83ha" title="Śubhakarasiṃha">Śubhakarasiṃha</a> brought tantra to <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a> (716 to 720), and tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Yi_Xing" title="Yi Xing">Yi Xing</a> (683–727) and <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a> (774– 835). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a> (1182-28–1251), <a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a> (1308–1364) and <a href="/wiki/Tsongkhapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a> (1357–1419) continued the tradition of Buddhist Tantric philosophy in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tibetan_Buddhist_philosophy">Tibetan Buddhist philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Tibetan Buddhist philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samye_Monastery,_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri,_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg/220px-Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg/330px-Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg/440px-Samye_Monastery%2C_as_viewed_from_the_top_of_Samye_Hepo-ri%2C_a_local_holy_mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samye" title="Samye">Samye</a> was the first Buddhist monastery built in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> (c. 775–779).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></div> <p>Tibetan Buddhist philosophy is mainly a continuation and refinement of the Indian Mahayana philosophical traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial efforts of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Śāntarakṣita</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalaśīla</a> brought their eclectic scholarly tradition to Tibet. </p><p>The initial work of early Tibetan Buddhist philosophers was in the translation of classical Indian philosophical treatises and the writing of commentaries. This initial period is from the 8th to the 10th century. Early Tibetan commentator-philosophers were heavily influenced by the work of <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> and these include <a href="/wiki/Ngok_Loden_Sherab" title="Ngok Loden Sherab">Ngok Loden Sherab</a> (1059–1109) and Chaba Chökyi Senge (1182–1251). Their works are now lost.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 12th and 13th centuries saw the translation of the works of <a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Chandrakirti</a>, the promulgation of his views in Tibet by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Patsab_Nyima_Drakpa" title="Patsab Nyima Drakpa">Patsab Nyima Drakpa</a>, Kanakavarman and Jayananda (12th century) and the development of the Tibetan debate between the <a href="/wiki/Prasangika" class="mw-redirect" title="Prasangika">prasangika</a> and <a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">svatantrika</a> views which continues to this day among Tibetan Buddhist schools.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main disagreement between these views is the use of reasoned argument. For Śāntarakṣita's school, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is useful in establishing arguments that lead one to a correct understanding of emptiness. Then, through the use of meditation, one can reach non-conceptual <a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a> that does not rely on reason. However, Chandrakirti rejects this idea, because meditation on emptiness cannot possibly involve any object. Reason's role for him is purely negative. Reason is used to negate any essentialist view, and then eventually reason must also negate itself, along with any <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_proliferation" title="Conceptual proliferation">conceptual proliferation</a> (<i>prapañca</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Garfield,_Jay_p._217_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield,_Jay_p._217-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another very influential figure from this early period is <a href="/wiki/Mabja_Jangchub_Ts%C3%B6ndr%C3%BC" title="Mabja Jangchub Tsöndrü">Mabja Jangchub Tsöndrü</a> (d. 1185), who wrote an important commentary on Nagarjuna's <i>Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</i>. Mabja was studied under the Dharmakirtian Chaba and also the Candrakirti scholar Patsab. His work shows an attempt to steer a middle course between their views, he affirms the conventional usefulness of pramāṇa epistemology, but also accepts Candrakirti's prasangika views.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mabja's Madhyamaka scholarship was very influential on later Tibetan Madhyamikas such as <a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorampa" title="Gorampa">Gorampa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Miky%C3%B6_Dorje,_8th_Karmapa_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikyö Dorje, 8th Karmapa Lama">Mikyö Dorje</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various Tibetan Buddhist schools or monastic orders. According to <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dreyfus" title="Georges Dreyfus">Georges B.J. Dreyfus</a>, within Tibetan thought, the <a href="/wiki/Sakya_(Tibetan_Buddhist_school)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)">Sakya</a> school holds a mostly <a href="/wiki/Anti-realist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-realist">anti-realist</a> philosophical position (which sees <a href="/wiki/Samvrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Samvrti"><i>saṁvṛtisatya</i></a> / <a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">conventional truth</a> as an illusion), while the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> school tends to defend a form of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> (which accepts that conventional truth is in some sense real and true, yet dependently originated). The <a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> schools also tend to follow Sakya anti-realism (with some differences).<sup id="cite_ref-Dreyfus,_Georges_B._J_1997,_page_2_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dreyfus,_Georges_B._J_1997,_page_2-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shentong_and_Buddha_nature">Shentong and Buddha nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Shentong and Buddha nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 14th century saw increasing interest in the Buddha nature texts and doctrines. This can be seen in the work of the third Kagyu Karmapa <a href="/wiki/Rangjung_Dorje" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangjung Dorje">Rangjung Dorje</a> (1284–1339), especially his treatise <i>"Profound Inner Meaning"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garfield,_Jay_p._256_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield,_Jay_p._256-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This treatise describes ultimate nature or <a href="/wiki/Suchness" class="mw-redirect" title="Suchness">suchness</a> as Buddha nature which is the basis for nirvana and samsara, radiant in nature and empty in essence, surpassing thought.<sup id="cite_ref-Garfield,_Jay_p._256_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield,_Jay_p._256-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important theoriests of buddha-nature in Tibet was the scholar-yogi <a href="/wiki/Dolpopa" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolpopa">Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen</a> (c. 1292–1361). A figure of the <a href="/wiki/Jonang" title="Jonang">Jonang</a> school, Dölpopa developed a view called <a href="/wiki/Shentong" class="mw-redirect" title="Shentong">shentong</a> (Wylie: gzhan stong, 'other emptiness'), based on earlier <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> and Buddha-nature ideas present in Indian sources (including the buddha-nature literature, the <i><a href="/wiki/Kalachakra" title="Kalachakra">Kālacakratantra</a></i> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a>). The shentong view holds that <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a> is already immanent in all living beings as an eternal and all-pervaside non-dual wisdom he termed "all-basis wisdom" or "gnosis of the ground of all" (Tib. <i>kun gzhi ye shes</i>, Skt. ālaya-jñāna).<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view holds that all relative phenomena are empty of inherent existence, but that the ultimate reality, the buddha-wisdom (<i>buddha <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81na" title="Jñāna">jñana</a></i>) is <i>not empty</i> of its own inherent existence.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Dölpopa, all beings are said to have the Buddha nature, the non-dual wisdom which is real, unchanging, permanent, non-conditioned, eternal, blissful and compassionate. This ultimate buddha wisdom is "uncreated and indestructible, unconditioned and beyond the chain of <a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">dependent origination</a>" and is the basis for both <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">samsara</a> and nirvana.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dolpopa's shentong view also taught that ultimate reality was truly a "Great Self" or "Supreme Self" referring to works such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81l%C4%ABya_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra">Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The shentong view had an influence on philosophers of other schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a> thinkers, and was also widely criticized in some circles as being similar to the Hindu notions of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shentong philosophy was also expounded in Tibet and Mongolia by the later Jonang scholar <a href="/wiki/T%C4%81ran%C4%81tha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tāranātha">Tāranātha</a> (1575–1634) and numerous later figures of the Jonang tradition. In the late 17th century, the Jonang order and its teachings came under attack by the <a href="/wiki/5th_Dalai_Lama" title="5th Dalai Lama">5th Dalai Lama</a>, who converted the majority of their monasteries in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> order, although several survived in secret.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gelug">Gelug</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Gelug"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsongkapa,_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century,_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Tsongkapa%2C_thangka_from_Tibet_in_the_15th-century%2C_painting_on_cloth_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1983" data-file-height="2501" /></a><figcaption>Tsongkapa, 15th-century painting, <a href="/wiki/Rubin_Museum_of_Art" title="Rubin Museum of Art">Rubin Museum of Art</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Je Tsongkhapa</a> (Dzong-ka-ba) (1357–1419) founded the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> school of Tibetan Buddhism, which came to dominate the country through the office of the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> and is the major defender of the <a href="/wiki/Prasa%E1%B9%85gika" class="mw-redirect" title="Prasaṅgika">Prasaṅgika</a> Madhyamaka view. His work is influenced by the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Candrakirti" class="mw-redirect" title="Candrakirti">Candrakirti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a>. Tsongkhapa's magnum opus is <i>The Ocean of Reasoning</i>, a Commentary on Nagarjuna's <i><a href="/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulamadhyamakakarika">Mulamadhyamakakarika</a></i>. Gelug philosophy is based upon the study of Madhyamaka texts and Tsongkhapa's works as well as formal debate (rtsod pa).<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tsongkhapa defended Prasangika <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> as the highest view and critiqued the <a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">svatantrika</a> position. Tsongkhapa argued that, because svatantrika conventionally establishes things by their own characteristics, they fail to completely understand the <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">emptiness</a> of phenomena and hence do not achieve the same realization.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drawing on Chandrakirti, Tsongkhapa rejected the Yogacara teachings, even as a provisional stepping point to the Madhyamaka view.<sup id="cite_ref-Garfield,_Jay_p._217_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garfield,_Jay_p._217-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsongkhapa was also critical of the Shengtong view of Dolpopa, which he saw as dangerously absolutist and hence outside the middle way. Tsongkhapa identified two major flaws in interpretations of Madhyamika, under-negation (of <a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a> or own essence), which could lead to Absolutism, and over-negation, which could lead to Nihilism. Tsongkhapa's solution to this dilemma was the promotion of the use of inferential reasoning only within the conventional realm of the <a href="/wiki/Two_truths" class="mw-redirect" title="Two truths">two truths</a> framework, allowing for the use of reason for ethics, conventional monastic rules and promoting a conventional epistemic realism,<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while holding that, from the view of ultimate truth (<i>paramarthika satya</i>), all things (including <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a>) are empty of inherent existence (<a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a>), and that true liberation is this realization of emptiness. </p><p>Sakya scholars such as Rongtön and <a href="/wiki/Gorampa" title="Gorampa">Gorampa</a> disagreed with Tsongkhapa, and argued that the prasangika svatantrika distinction was merely pedagogical. Gorampa also critiqued Tsongkhapa's realism, arguing that the structures which allow an empty object to be presented as conventionally real eventually dissolve under analysis and are thus unstructured and non-conceptual (spros bral). Tsongkhapa's students Gyel-tsap, Kay-drup, and Ge-dun-drup set forth an epistemological realism against the Sakya scholars' anti-realism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sakya">Sakya</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sakya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a> (1182–1251) was a 13th-century head of the <a href="/wiki/Sakya_(Tibetan_Buddhist_school)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)">Sakya</a> school and ruler of Tibet. He was also one of the most important Buddhist philosophers in the Tibetan tradition, writing works on logic and epistemology and promoting <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Pramanavarttika" title="Pramanavarttika">Pramanavarttika</a></i> (Commentary on Valid Cognition) as central to the scholastic study. Sakya Pandita's 'Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition' (<i>Tshad ma rigs pa'i gter</i>) set forth the classic Sakya epistemic anti-realist position, arguing that concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a> are not known through valid cognition and hence are not real objects of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Dreyfus,_Georges_B._J_1997,_page_2_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dreyfus,_Georges_B._J_1997,_page_2-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sakya Pandita was also critical of theories of sudden awakening, which were held by some teachers of the "Chinese Great Perfection" in Tibet. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg/220px-Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg/330px-Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg/440px-Gorampa_Sonam_Sengge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>Gorampa Sonam Senge</figcaption></figure> <p>Later Sakyas such as <a href="/wiki/Gorampa" title="Gorampa">Gorampa</a> (1429–1489) and <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Chokden" title="Sakya Chokden">Sakya Chokden</a> (1428–1507) would develop and defend Sakya anti-realism, and they are seen as the major interpreters and critics of Sakya Pandita's philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Chokden" title="Sakya Chokden">Sakya Chokden</a> also critiqued Tsongkhapa's interpretation of Madhyamaka and Dolpopa's Shentong. In his <i>Definite ascertainment of the middle way</i>, Chokden criticized Tsongkhapa's view as being too logo-centric and still caught up in conceptualization about the ultimate reality which is beyond language.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sakya Chokden's philosophy attempted to reconcile the views of the Yogacara and Madhyamaka, seeing them both as valid and complementary perspectives on ultimate truth. Madhyamaka is seen by Chokden as removing the fault of taking the unreal as being real, and Yogacara removes the fault of the denial of Reality.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the Shentong and Rangtong views are seen as complementary by Sakya Chokden; Rangtong negation is effective in cutting through all clinging to wrong views and conceptual rectification, while Shentong is more amenable for describing and enhancing meditative experience and realization.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, for Sakya Chokden, the same realization of ultimate reality can be accessed and described in two different but compatible ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nyingma">Nyingma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Nyingma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MiphamNew.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/MiphamNew.jpg/220px-MiphamNew.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/MiphamNew.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Nyingma school is strongly influenced by the view of <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> (Great Perfection) and the Dzogchen Tantric literature. <a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a> (1308–1364) was a major philosopher of the <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> school and wrote an extensive number of works on the Tibetan practice of <a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a> and on Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a>. These include the <i><a href="/wiki/Seven_Treasuries" title="Seven Treasuries">Seven Treasures</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Trilogy_of_Natural_Ease" title="Trilogy of Natural Ease">Trilogy of Natural Ease</a></i>, and his <i><a href="/wiki/Trilogy_of_Dispelling_Darkness" title="Trilogy of Dispelling Darkness">Trilogy of Dispelling Darkness</a></i>. Longchenpa's works provide a philosophical understanding of Dzogchen, a defense of Dzogchen in light of the sutras, as well as practical instructions.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Longchenpa, the ground of reality is luminous emptiness, <a href="/wiki/Rigpa" title="Rigpa">rigpa</a> ("knowledge"), or buddha nature, and this ground is also the bridge between sutra and <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Longchenpa's philosophy sought to establish the positive aspects of Buddha nature thought against the totally negative theology of Madhyamika without straying into the absolutism of Dolpopa. For Longchenpa, the basis for Dzogchen and Tantric practice in Vajrayana is the <a href="/wiki/Ground_(Dzogchen)" title="Ground (Dzogchen)">"Ground" or "Basis" (<i>gzhi</i>)</a>, the immanent Buddha nature, "the primordially luminous reality that is unconditioned and spontaneously present" which is "free from all elaborated extremes".<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rimé_movement"><span id="Rim.C3.A9_movement"></span>Rimé movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Rimé movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 19th century saw the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a> (non-sectarian, unbiased) which sought to push back against the politically dominant Gelug school's criticisms of the Sakya, Kagyu, Nyingma and <a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a> philosophical views, and develop a more eclectic or universal system of textual study. <a href="/wiki/Jamyang_Khyentse_Wangpo" title="Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo">Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo</a> (1820–1892) and <a href="/wiki/Jamg%C3%B6n_Kongtr%C3%BCl" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamgön Kongtrül">Jamgön Kongtrül</a> (1813–1899) were the founders of Rimé. The Rimé movement came to prominence at a point in Tibetan history when the religious climate had become partisan.<sup id="cite_ref-GKLT-I_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GKLT-I-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim of the movement was "a push towards a middle ground where the various views and styles of the different traditions were appreciated for their individual contributions rather than being refuted, marginalized, or banned."<sup id="cite_ref-GKLT-I_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GKLT-I-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophically, <a href="/wiki/Jamg%C3%B6n_Kongtr%C3%BCl" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamgön Kongtrül">Jamgön Kongtrül</a> defended <a href="/wiki/Shentong" class="mw-redirect" title="Shentong">Shentong</a> as being compatible with Madhyamaka while another Rimé scholar <a href="/wiki/Jamgon_Ju_Mipham_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso">Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso</a> (1846–1912) criticized Tsongkhapa from a <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> perspective. Mipham argued that the view of the middle way is Unity (zung 'jug), meaning that from the ultimate perspective the duality of sentient beings and Buddhas is also dissolved. Mipham also affirmed the view of <i>rangtong</i> (self emptiness).<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later Nyingma scholar Botrul (1894–1959) classified the major Tibetan Madhyamaka positions as shentong (other emptiness), Nyingma rangtong (self emptiness) and Gelug bdentong (emptiness of true existence). The main difference between them is their "object of negation"; shengtong states that inauthentic experience is empty, rangtong negates any conceptual reference and bdentong negates any true existence.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a> was also influenced by this non-sectarian approach. Having studied under teachers from all major Tibetan Buddhist schools, his philosophical position tends to be that the different perspectives on emptiness are complementary: </p> <blockquote><p>There is a tradition of making a distinction between two different perspectives on the nature of emptiness: one is when emptiness is presented within a philosophical analysis of the ultimate reality of things, in which case it ought to be understood in terms of a non-affirming negative phenomena. On the other hand, when it is discussed from the point of view of experience, it should be understood more in terms of an affirming negation – 14th Dalai Lama<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_Asian_Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: East Asian Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg/170px-Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg/255px-Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg/340px-Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>Painting of Śramaṇa <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>, the founding thinker of the Tiantai school.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tiantai">Tiantai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Tiantai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></div> <p>The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations from India, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods. The Tiantai school, founded by <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a> (538–597), was the first truly unique Chinese Buddhist philosophical school.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tiantai doctrine sought to bring together all Buddhist teachings into a comprehensive system based on the <a href="/wiki/Ekayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekayana">ekayana</a> ("one vehicle") doctrine taught in the <i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a></i>. </p><p>Tiantai's metaphysics is an immanent <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>, which sees every phenomenon (dharma) as conditioned and manifested by the whole of reality (the totality of all other dharmas). Every instant of experience is a reflection of every other, and hence, suffering and nirvana, good and bad, Buddhahood and evildoing, are all "inherently entailed" within each other.<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tiantai metaphysics is entailed in their teaching of the "three truths", which is an extension of the Mādhyamaka <a href="/wiki/Two_truths" class="mw-redirect" title="Two truths">two truths</a> doctrine. The three truths are: the conventional truth of appearance, the truth of emptiness and the third truth of 'the exclusive Center' (但中 <i>danzhong</i>) or middle way, which is beyond conventional truth and emptiness. This third truth is the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a> and expressed by the claim that nothing is "Neither-Same-Nor-Different" than anything else, but rather each 'thing' is the absolute totality of all things manifesting as a particular, everything is mutually contained within each thing. Everything is a reflection of "The Ultimate Reality of All Appearances" (諸法實相 <i>zhufashixiang</i>) and each thought "contains three thousand worlds". This perspective allows the Tiantai school to state such seemingly paradoxical things as "evil is ineradicable from the highest good, <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-plato.stanford.edu_167-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato.stanford.edu-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, in Tiantai, nirvana and samsara are ultimately the same; as Zhiyi writes, "a single, unalloyed reality is all there is – no entities whatever exist outside of it."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Zhiyi did write "one thought contains three thousand worlds", this does not entail idealism. According to Zhiyi, "the objects of the [true] aspects of reality are not something produced by Buddhas, gods, or men. They exist inherently on their own and have no beginning" (<i>The Esoteric Meaning</i>, 210). This is then a form of realism, which sees the mind as real as the world, interconnected with and inseparable from it.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Tiantai thought, ultimate reality is simply the very phenomenal world of interconnected events or dharmas. </p><p>Other key figures of Tiantai thought are <a href="/wiki/Zhanran" title="Zhanran">Zhanran</a> (711–782) and <a href="/wiki/Siming_Zhili" title="Siming Zhili">Siming Zhili</a> (960–1028). Zhanran developed the idea that non-sentient beings have <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">buddha nature</a>, since they are also a reflection of the Absolute. In Japan, this school was known as <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a> and was first brought to the island by <a href="/wiki/Saicho" class="mw-redirect" title="Saicho">Saicho</a>. Tendai thought is more syncretic and draws on Huayan and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">East Asian Esoteric Buddhism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Huayan">Huayan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Huayan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan school</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fazang,_buddhist_Monk,_Japanese_print,_13th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg/220px-Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg/330px-Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg/440px-Fazang%2C_buddhist_Monk%2C_Japanese_print%2C_13th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>A 13th century Japanese print of <a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a>, the most important philosopher of the Huayan school.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a> school is the other native Chinese doctrinal system. Huayan is known for the doctrine of "interpenetration" (Sanskrit: <i>yuganaddha</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on the <i><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avataṃsaka Sūtra</a></i> (<i>Flower Garland Sutra</i>). Huayan holds that all phenomena (Sanskrit: <i><a href="/wiki/Dharmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmas">dharmas</a></i>) are deeply interconnected, mutually arising and that every phenomenon contains all other phenomena. Various metaphors and images are used to illustrate this idea. The first is known as <a href="/wiki/Indra%27s_net" title="Indra's net">Indra's net</a>. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels, while the reflections also contain every other reflection, ad infinitum. The second image is that of the world text. This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself. The words of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a> (Fa-tsang, 643–712), one of the most important Huayan thinkers, wrote 'Essay on the Golden Lion' and 'Treatise on the Five Teachings', which contain other metaphors for the interpenetration of reality. He also used the metaphor of a <a href="/wiki/House_of_mirrors" title="House of mirrors">house of mirrors</a>. Fazang introduced the distinction of "the Realm of Principle" and "the Realm of Things". This theory was further developed by <a href="/wiki/Chengguan_(monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengguan (monk)">Cheng-guan</a> (738–839) into the major Huayan thesis of "the fourfold <a href="/wiki/Dharmadhatu" title="Dharmadhatu">Dharmadhatu</a>" (dharma realm): the Realm of Principle, the Realm of Things, the Realm of the Noninterference between Principle and Things, and the Realm of the Noninterference of All Things.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first two are the universal and the particular, the third is the interpenetration of universal and particular, and the fourth is the interpenetration of all particulars. The third truth was explained by the metaphor of a golden lion: the gold is the universal and the particular is the shape and features of the lion.<sup id="cite_ref-Taigen_Dan_Leighton_2006_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taigen_Dan_Leighton_2006-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While both Tiantai and Huayan hold to the interpenetration and interconnection of all things, their metaphysics have some differences. Huayan metaphysics is influenced by Yogacara thought and is closer to <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>. The Avatamsaka sutra compares the phenomenal world to a dream, an illusion, and a magician's conjuring. The sutra states nothing has true reality, location, beginning and end, or substantial nature. The Avatamsaka also states that "The triple world is illusory – it is only made by one mind", and Fazang echoes this by writing, "outside of mind there is not a single thing that can be apprehended."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, according to Huayan thought, each mind creates its own world "according to their mental patterns", and "these worlds are infinite in kind" and constantly arising and passing away.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in Huayan, the mind is not real either, but also empty. The true reality in Huayan, the noumenon, or "Principle", is likened to a mirror, while phenomena are compared to reflections in the mirror. It is also compared to the ocean, and phenomena to waves.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_166-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, this school was known as <a href="/wiki/Hwaeom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwaeom">Hwaeom</a> and is represented in the work of <a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a> (617–686), who also wrote about the idea of <a href="/wiki/Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">essence-function</a>, a central theme in Korean Buddhist thought. In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, Huayan is known as <a href="/wiki/Kegon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kegon">Kegon</a> and one of its major proponents was <a href="/wiki/My%C5%8De" title="Myōe">Myōe</a>, who also introduced Tantric practices. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chan_and_Japanese_Buddhism">Chan and Japanese Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Chan and Japanese Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophy of Chinese <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a> and Japanese <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> is based on various sources; these include Chinese Madhyamaka (<i><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sānlùn</a></i>), Yogacara (<i><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Wéishí</a></i>), the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha nature</a> texts. An important issue in Chan is that of <a href="/wiki/Subitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Subitism">subitism</a> or "sudden awakening", the idea that insight happens all at once in a flash of insight. This view was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Shenhui" title="Shenhui">Shenhui</a> and is a central issue discussed in the <a href="/wiki/Platform_Sutra" title="Platform Sutra">Platform Sutra</a>, a key <a href="/wiki/Zen_scriptures" title="Zen scriptures">Chan scripture</a> composed in China. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> philosophy also had an influence on Chan. The theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu influenced the <a href="/wiki/Five_Ranks" title="Five Ranks">Five Ranks</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dongshan_Liangjie" title="Dongshan Liangjie">Dongshan Liangjie</a> (806–869), the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Caodong" class="mw-redirect" title="Caodong">Caodong</a> Chan lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-Taigen_Dan_Leighton_2006_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taigen_Dan_Leighton_2006-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guifeng Zongmi</a>, who was also a patriarch of Huayan Buddhism, wrote extensively on the philosophy of Chan and on the Avatamsaka sutra. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japanese Buddhism</a> during the 6th and 7th centuries saw an increase in the proliferation of new schools and forms of thought, a period known as the six schools of Nara (<i><a href="/wiki/Nanto_Rokush%C5%AB" title="Nanto Rokushū">Nanto Rokushū</a></i>). The <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" title="Kamakura period">Kamakura Period</a> (1185–1333) also saw another flurry of intellectual activity. During this period, the influential figure of <a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a> (1222–1282) made the practice and universal message of the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a> more readily available to the population. He is of particular importance in the history of thought and religion, as his teachings constitute a separate sect of Buddhism, one of the only major sects to have originated in Japan<sup id="cite_ref-Yampolsky1990_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yampolsky1990-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xi">: xi </span></sup> </p><p>Also during the Kamakura period, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Soto_Zen" class="mw-redirect" title="Soto Zen">Soto Zen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogen">Dogen</a> (1200–1253), wrote many works on the philosophy of Zen, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Shobogenzo" class="mw-redirect" title="Shobogenzo">Shobogenzo</a></i> is his magnum opus. In Korea, <a href="/wiki/Chinul" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinul">Chinul</a> was an important exponent of <a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Seon Buddhism</a> at around the same time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esoteric_Buddhism">Esoteric Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Esoteric Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taizokai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Taizokai.jpg/228px-Taizokai.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Taizokai.jpg/342px-Taizokai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Taizokai.jpg/456px-Taizokai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3033" data-file-height="3445" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Garbhadhatu">Garbhadhatu</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandala</a>. The center square represents the young stage of <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a> Buddha.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Buddhism">Tantric Buddhism</a> arrived in China in the 7th century, during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. In China, this form of Buddhism is known as Mìzōng (密宗), or "Esoteric School", and <i>Zhenyan</i> (true word, Sanskrit: <a href="/wiki/Mantrayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantrayana">Mantrayana</a>). <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a> (AD774–835) is a major Japanese Buddhist philosopher and the founder of the Tantric <a href="/wiki/Shingon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shingon">Shingon</a> (true word) school in Japan. He wrote on a wide variety of topics such as public policy, language, the arts, literature, music and religion. After studying in China under <a href="/wiki/Huiguo" title="Huiguo">Huiguo</a>, Kūkai brought together various elements into a cohesive philosophical system of Shingon. </p><p>Kūkai's philosophy is based on the <a href="/wiki/Mahavairocana_Tantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavairocana Tantra">Mahavairocana Tantra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vajrasekhara_Sutra" title="Vajrasekhara Sutra">Vajrasekhara Sutra</a> (both from the seventh century). His <i>Benkenmitsu nikkyôron</i> (Treatise on the Differences Between Esoteric and Exoteric Teachings) outlines the difference between exoteric, mainstream <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> (kengyô) and esoteric <a href="/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantric Buddhism">Tantric Buddhism</a> (mikkyô).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kūkai provided the theoretical framework for the esoteric Buddhist practices of Mantrayana, bridging the gap between the doctrine of the sutras and tantric practices. At the foundation of Kūkai's thought is the <a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Trikaya</a> doctrine, which holds there are three "bodies of the Buddha". </p><p>According to Kūkai, esoteric Buddhism has the <a href="/wiki/Dharmakaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmakaya">Dharmakaya</a> (Jpn: <i>hosshin</i>, embodiment of truth) as its source, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a> Buddha (Dainichi). Hosshin is embodied absolute reality and truth. Hosshin is mostly ineffable but can be experienced through esoteric practices such as <a href="/wiki/Mudras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mudras">mudras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mantras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantras">mantras</a>. While Mahayana is taught by the historical Buddha (<a href="/wiki/Nirm%C4%81%E1%B9%87ak%C4%81ya" title="Nirmāṇakāya">nirmāṇakāya</a>), it does not have ultimate reality as its source or the practices to experience the esoteric truth. For Shingon, from an enlightened perspective, the whole phenomenal world itself is also the teaching of Vairocana.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body of the world, its sounds and movements, is the body of truth (dharma) and furthermore it is also identical with the personal body of the cosmic Buddha. For Kūkai, world, actions, persons and Buddhas are all part of the cosmic monologue of Vairocana, they are the truth being preached, to its own self manifestations. This is <i>hosshin seppô</i> (literally: "the dharmakâya's expounding of the Dharma") which can be accessed through mantra which is the cosmic language of Vairocana emanating through cosmic vibration concentrated in sound.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a broad sense, the universe itself is a huge text expressing ultimate truth (Dharma) which must be "read". </p><p>Dainichi means "Great Sun" and Kūkai uses this as a metaphor for the great primordial Buddha, whose teaching and presence illuminates and pervades all, like the light of the sun. This immanent presence also means that every being already has access to the liberated state (<a href="/wiki/Hongaku" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongaku">hongaku</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</a>, and that, because of this, there is the possibility of "becoming Buddha in this very embodied existence" (<i>sokushinjôbutsu</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is achieved because of the <a href="/wiki/Non-dual" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-dual">non-dual</a> relationship between the macrocosm of Hosshin and the microcosm of the Shingon practitioner. </p><p>Kūkai's exposition of what has been called Shingon's "metaphysics" is based on the three aspects of the cosmic truth or Hosshin – body, appearance and function.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body is the physical and mental elements, which are the body and mind of the cosmic Buddha and which is also empty (<a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">Shunyata</a>). The physical universe for Shingon contains the interconnected mental and physical events. The appearance aspect is the form of the world, which appears as mandalas of interconnected realms and is depicted in mandala art such as the <a href="/wiki/Womb_Realm" title="Womb Realm">Womb Realm</a> mandala. The function is the movement and change which happens in the world, which includes change in forms, sounds and thought. These forms, sounds and thoughts are expressed by the Shingon practitioner in various rituals and tantric practices which allow them to connect with and inter-resonate with Dainichi and hence attain liberation here and now.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_172-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gendun_Chophel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Gendun_Chophel.jpg/170px-Gendun_Chophel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Gendun_Chophel.jpg/255px-Gendun_Chophel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Gendun_Chophel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Gend%C3%BCn_Ch%C3%B6phel" title="Gendün Chöphel">Gendün Chöphel</a> in India, 1936.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png/170px-Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png/255px-Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png/340px-Portrait-of-Kitaro-Nishida.png 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="1456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitarō Nishida</a>, professor of philosophy at <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_University" title="Kyoto University">Kyoto University</a> and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, Buddhist modernists such as <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a> (1864–1933) and the American convert <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott" title="Henry Steel Olcott">Henry Steel Olcott</a> sought to show that Buddhism was rational and compatible with modern Scientific ideas such as the theory of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dharmapala also argued that Buddhism included a strong social element, interpreting it as liberal, altruistic and democratic. </p><p>A later Sri Lankan philosopher, <a href="/wiki/K._N._Jayatilleke" title="K. N. Jayatilleke">K. N. Jayatilleke</a> (1920–1970), wrote the classic modern account of Buddhist epistemology (<i>Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge</i>, 1963). His student <a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a> wrote on the history of Buddhist thought and psychology. Other important Sri Lankan Buddhist thinkers include <a href="/wiki/Katukurunde_Nanananda_Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Katukurunde Nanananda Thera">Ven Ñāṇananda</a> (<i>Concept and Reality</i>), <a href="/wiki/Walpola_Rahula" class="mw-redirect" title="Walpola Rahula">Walpola Rahula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammalawa_Saddhatissa" title="Hammalawa Saddhatissa">Hammalawa Saddhatissa</a> (<i>Buddhist Ethics</i>, 1987), Gunapala Dharmasiri (<i>A Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God</i>, 1988), <a href="/wiki/P._D._Premasiri" title="P. D. Premasiri">P. D. Premasiri</a> and <a href="/wiki/R._G._de_S._Wettimuny" title="R. G. de S. Wettimuny">R. G. de S. Wettimuny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 20th-century China, the modernist <a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a> (1890–1947) advocated a reform and revival of Buddhism. He promoted an idea of a Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land" title="Pure Land">Pure Land</a>, not as a metaphysical place in Buddhist cosmology but as something possible to create here and now in this very world, which could be achieved through a "Buddhism for Human Life" (Chinese: <span lang="zh">人生佛教</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rénshēng fójiào</span></i>) which was free of supernatural beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Bingenheimer_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bingenheimer-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taixu also wrote on the connections between modern science and Buddhism, ultimately holding that "scientific methods can only corroborate the Buddhist doctrine, they can never advance beyond it".<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Taixu, <a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a> (1906–2005) advocated a form of <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a> grounded in concern for humanitarian issues, and his students and followers have been influential in promoting <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. This period also saw a revival of the study of Weishi (<a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a>), by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Rensan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Rensan (page does not exist)">Yang Rensan</a> (1837–1911), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ouyang_Jinwu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ouyang Jinwu (page does not exist)">Ouyang Jinwu</a> (1871–1943) and <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Shuming</a> (1893–1988).<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of Tibetan Buddhism's most influential modernist thinkers is <a href="/wiki/Gend%C3%BCn_Ch%C3%B6phel" title="Gendün Chöphel">Gendün Chöphel</a> (1903–1951), who, according to <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr." title="Donald S. Lopez Jr.">Donald S. Lopez Jr.</a>, "was arguably the most important Tibetan intellectual of the twentieth century."<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gendün Chöphel travelled throughout India with the Indian Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Rahul_Sankrityayan" title="Rahul Sankrityayan">Rahul Sankrityayan</a> and wrote a wide variety of material, including works promoting the importance of modern science to his Tibetan countrymen and also Buddhist philosophical texts such as <i>Adornment for Nagarjuna's Thought</i>. Another very influential Tibetan Buddhist modernist was <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%B6gyam_Trungpa" title="Chögyam Trungpa">Chögyam Trungpa</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Training" title="Shambhala Training">Shambhala Training</a> was meant to be more suitable to modern Western sensitivities by offering a vision of "secular enlightenment".<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhadasa" title="Buddhadasa">Buddhadasa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulak_Sivaraksa" title="Sulak Sivaraksa">Sulak Sivaraksa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a> have promoted a philosophy of socially <a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a> and have written on the socio-political application of Buddhism. Likewise, Buddhist approaches to <a href="/wiki/Economic_ethics" title="Economic ethics">economic ethics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist economics</a>) have been explored in the works of <a href="/wiki/E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">E. F. Schumacher</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prayudh_Payutto" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayudh Payutto">Prayudh Payutto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neville_Karunatilake" title="Neville Karunatilake">Neville Karunatilake</a> and Padmasiri de Silva. The study of the Pali Abhidhamma tradition continued to be influential in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, where it was developed by monks such as <a href="/wiki/Ledi_Sayadaw" title="Ledi Sayadaw">Ledi Sayadaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a> was heavily influenced by the work of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a> which included <a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keiji_Nishitani" title="Keiji Nishitani">Keiji Nishitani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Tanabe" title="Hajime Tanabe">Hajime Tanabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masao_Abe" title="Masao Abe">Masao Abe</a>. These thinkers brought Buddhist ideas in dialogue with <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, especially European <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialists</a>. The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the formation of the Kyoto school is <a href="/wiki/Critical_Buddhism" title="Critical Buddhism">Critical Buddhism</a>, which argues against several Mahayana concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hongaku" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongaku">original enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bingenheimer_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bingenheimer-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Japanese Zen Buddhist <a href="/wiki/D.T._Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="D.T. Suzuki">D.T. Suzuki</a> (1870–1966) was instrumental in bringing <a href="/wiki/Zen_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</a> to the West and his <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernist</a> works were very influential in the United States. Suzuki's worldview was a Zen Buddhism influenced by <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a>, which promoted spiritual freedom as "a spontaneous, emancipatory consciousness that transcends rational intellect and <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social convention</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea of Buddhism influenced the Beat writers, and a contemporary representative of Western Buddhist Romanticism is <a href="/wiki/Gary_Snyder" title="Gary Snyder">Gary Snyder</a>. The American Theravada Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a> has critiqued 'Buddhist Romanticism' in his writings. </p><p>Western Buddhist monastics and priests such as <a href="/wiki/Nanavira_Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanavira Thera">Nanavira Thera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bhikkhu Bodhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera" title="Nyanaponika Thera">Nyanaponika Thera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Baker_Aitken" title="Robert Baker Aitken">Robert Aitken</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taigen_Dan_Leighton" title="Taigen Dan Leighton">Taigen Dan Leighton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Matthieu_Ricard" title="Matthieu Ricard">Matthieu Ricard</a> have written texts on Buddhist philosophy. A feature of Buddhist thought in the West has been a desire for dialogue and integration with modern science and psychology, and various modern Buddhists such as <a href="/wiki/B._Alan_Wallace" title="B. Alan Wallace">B. Alan Wallace</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_H._Austin" title="James H. Austin">James H. Austin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Epstein" title="Mark Epstein">Mark Epstein</a> and the <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a> have worked and written on this issue.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another area of convergence has been Buddhism and environmentalism, which is explored in the work of <a href="/wiki/Joanna_Macy" title="Joanna Macy">Joanna Macy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another Western Buddhist philosophical trend has been the project to <a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">secularize Buddhism</a>, as seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Batchelor_(author)" title="Stephen Batchelor (author)">Stephen Batchelor</a>. </p><p>In the West, Comparative philosophy between Buddhist and Western thought began with the work of <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Moore" title="Charles A. Moore">Charles A. Moore</a>, who founded the journal <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_East_and_West" title="Philosophy East and West">Philosophy East and West</a>. Contemporary Western Academics such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Siderits&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Siderits (page does not exist)">Mark Siderits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Westerhoff" title="Jan Westerhoff">Jan Westerhoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonardon_Ganeri" title="Jonardon Ganeri">Jonardon Ganeri</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Miri_Albahari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Miri Albahari (page does not exist)">Miri Albahari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owen_Flanagan" title="Owen Flanagan">Owen Flanagan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damien_Keown" title="Damien Keown">Damien Keown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Tillemans" title="Tom Tillemans">Tom Tillemans</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Loy" title="David Loy">David Loy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evan_Thompson" title="Evan Thompson">Evan Thompson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jay_Garfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Jay Garfield">Jay Garfield</a> have written various works which interpret Buddhist ideas through <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_other_philosophies">Comparison with other philosophies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Comparison with other philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and Western Philosophy">Buddhism and Western Philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Similarities_between_Pyrrhonism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism">Similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism</a></div> <p>Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_McEvilley" title="Thomas McEvilley">Thomas McEvilley</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_I._Beckwith" title="Christopher I. Beckwith">Christopher I. Beckwith</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Adrian Kuzminski<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have identified cross influences between ancient Buddhism and the ancient Greek philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>. The Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> spent 18 months in India as part of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s court on Alexander's conquest of western India, where ancient biographers say his contact with the <a href="/wiki/Gymnosophists" title="Gymnosophists">gymnosophists</a> caused him to create his philosophy. Because of the high degree of similarity between Nāgārjuna's philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, particularly the surviving works of <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_McEvilley" title="Thomas McEvilley">Thomas McEvilley</a> suspects that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." The Buddha taught that the only thing which is eternal is <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a>. <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's <a href="/wiki/Bundle_theory" title="Bundle theory">Bundle theory</a> is a very similar concept to the Buddhist <i><a href="/wiki/Skandhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Skandhas">skandhas</a></i>, though his skepticism about causation leads him to opposite conclusions in other areas. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>'s philosophy parallels Buddhism in his affirmation of <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> and renunciation as a response to suffering and desire (cf. Schopenhauer's <i>The World as Will and Representation</i>, 1818). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Language-game" class="mw-redirect" title="Language-game">language-game</a>" closely parallel the warning that intellectual speculation or <a href="/wiki/Papa%C3%B1ca" class="mw-redirect" title="Papañca">papañca</a> is an impediment to understanding, as found in the Buddhist <i><a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Poison_Arrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Parable of the Poison Arrow">Parable of the Poison Arrow</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, although himself dismissive of Buddhism as yet another nihilism, had a similar impermanent view of the self. <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s ideas on being and nothingness have been held by some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> to be similar to Buddhism today.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative approach to the comparison of Buddhist thought with Western philosophy is to use the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> in Buddhism as a critical tool for the assessment of Western philosophies. In this way, Western philosophies can be classified in Buddhist terms as eternalist or nihilist. In a Buddhist view, all philosophies are considered non-essential views (<a href="/wiki/View_(Buddhism)" title="View (Buddhism)">ditthis</a>) and not to be clung to.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Buddhism and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist logic">Buddhist logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="God in Buddhism">God in Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_terms_and_concepts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist terms and concepts">List of Buddhist terms and concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist topics">List of Buddhist topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sutras">List of sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality in Buddhism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary on the Mulapariyaya Sutta, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.001.than.html">[1]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MN 22, Alagaddupama Sutta, "Bhikkhus, what do you think? If people carried off the grass, sticks, branches, and leaves in this Jeta Grove, or burned them, or did what they liked with them, would you think: 'People are carrying us off or burning us or doing what they like with us'?" – "No, venerable sir. Why not? Because that is neither our self nor what belongs to our self." <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://suttacentral.net/en/mn22/69-70">[2]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a> commentary, ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Dhammapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammapala">Dhammapala</a>, on the <i><a href="/wiki/Nettipakarana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nettipakarana">Nettipakaraṇa</a></i>, says (Pāli <i>pamāṇa</i> is equivalent to Sanskrit <i>pramāṇa</i>): "<i>na hi pāḷito aññaṃ pamāṇataraṃ atthi</i> (quoted in <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Text_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Text Society">Pāli Text Society</a> edition of the Nettipakaraṇa, 1902, p. xi) which Nanamoli translates as: "for there is no other criterion beyond a text" (<i>The Guide</i>, Pāli Text Society, 1962, p. xi).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Scharfe_2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scharfe_2002_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFScharfe2002" class="citation book cs1">Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144">"From Monasteries to Universities"</a>. <i>Education in Ancient India</i>. Brill’s Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2: South Asia. Vol. 16. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">144–</span>145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789047401476_010">10.1163/9789047401476_010</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0147-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0147-6"><bdi>978-90-474-0147-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-9377">0169-9377</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002018456">2002018456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Monasteries+to+Universities&rft.btitle=Education+in+Ancient+India&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.series=Brill%E2%80%99s+Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies%2C+Section+2%3A+South+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E144-%3C%2Fspan%3E145&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789047401476_010&rft.issn=0169-9377&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002018456&rft.isbn=978-90-474-0147-6&rft.aulast=Scharfe&rft.aufirst=Hartmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGMyiDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powers_2021-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powers_2021_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPowers2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Powers, John (18 August 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0051.xml">"Classical Indian Buddhist Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Bibliographies_Online" title="Oxford Bibliographies Online">Oxford Bibliographies Online</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195393521-0051">10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0051</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539352-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539352-1"><bdi>978-0-19-539352-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/871820156">871820156</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240320184206/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0051.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+Indian+Buddhist+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Oxford+Bibliographies+Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021-08-18&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F871820156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195393521-0051&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539352-1&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195393521%2Fobo-9780195393521-0051.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartley_2015-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartley_2015_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBartley2015" class="citation book cs1">Bartley, Christopher (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c3D5CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">"Part I: Buddhist Traditions – Chapter 2: The Buddhist Ethos"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomsbury Academic">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781474243063.0009">10.5040/9781474243063.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-4306-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-4306-3"><bdi>978-1-4742-4306-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+Buddhist+Traditions+%E2%80%93+Chapter+2%3A+The+Buddhist+Ethos&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Indian+Philosophy%3A+Hindu+and+Buddhist+Ideas+from+Original+Sources&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781474243063.0009&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-4306-3&rft.aulast=Bartley&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc3D5CQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acri_2018-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Acri_2018_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acri_2018_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAcri2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Acri, Andrea (20 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638">"Maritime Buddhism"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.638">10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8"><bdi>978-0-19-934037-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638">Archived</a> from the original on 19 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maritime+Buddhism&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-12-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.638&rft.isbn=978-0-19-934037-8&rft.aulast=Acri&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Freligion%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199340378-e-638&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Donnelly_2017-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donnelly_2017_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDonnelly2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Donnelly, Paul B. (25 January 2017). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-191">"Madhyamaka"</a></span>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.191">10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.191</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8"><bdi>978-0-19-934037-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Madhyamaka&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-01-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.191&rft.isbn=978-0-19-934037-8&rft.aulast=Donnelly&rft.aufirst=Paul+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Freligion%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199340378-e-191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Kalupahana, <i>Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism</i>. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalupahana1994_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalupahana1994">Kalupahana 1994</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Kalupahana, <i>Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna</i>. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conze, Edward. Buddhist thought in India: Three phases of Buddhist philosophy. Vol. 4. Routledge, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Santina, Peter Della. <i>Madhyamaka Schools in India: A Study of the Madhyamaka Philosophy and of the Division of the System into the Prasangika and Svatantrika Schools.</i> 2008. p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmithWhitaker2016" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Douglas; Whitaker, Justin (April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160919160302/http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/phil551854.pdf">"Reading the Buddha as a philosopher"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>66</b> (2). University of Hawaii Press: <span class="nowrap">515–</span>538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2016.0026">10.1353/pew.2016.0026</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/phil551854.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Reading+the+Buddha+as+a+philosopher&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E515-%3C%2Fspan%3E538&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpew.2016.0026&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+Justin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw%2FFULLTEXT%2FJR-PHIL%2Fphil551854.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shinya Moriyama. "Prajñākaragupta on Yogic Perception and the Buddha's Omniscience A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation of the Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāra ad Pramāṇavārttika III 281-286, 2023", Journal of Prajnakaragupta Studies 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Douglass, and Justin Whitaker. "Reading the Buddha as a Philosopher." Philosophy East and West 66, no. 2 (2016): pp. 515–538.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Panjvani, Cyrus; Buddhism: A Philosophical Approach (2013), p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swearer, Donald K. Ethics, wealth, and salvation: A study in Buddhist social ethics. Edited by Russell F. Sizemore. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990. (from the introduction)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallis, Glenn (2007) <i>Basic Teachings of the Buddha: A New Translation and Compilation, With a Guide to Reading the Texts,</i> p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <i><a href="/wiki/Kacc%C4%81nagotta_Sutta" title="Kaccānagotta Sutta">Kaccānagotta Sutta</a></i> SN 12.15 (SN ii 16), translated by <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Sujato" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhikkhu Sujato">Bhikkhu Sujato</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mitchell, <i>Buddhism</i>, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 34 and table of contents</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reat, Noble Ross. <i>"The Historical Buddha and his Teachings"</i>. In: Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy. Ed. by Potter, Karl H. Vol. VII: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 AD. Motilal Banarsidass, 1996, pp. 28, 33, 37, 41, 43, 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Analayo (2011). <i>A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya.</i> Dharma Drum Academic Publisher. p. 891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salomon, Richard (20 January 2020). "How the Gandharan Manuscripts Change Buddhist History". lionsroar.com. Retrieved 21 January 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bronkhorst, Johannes (1998), "Did the Buddha Believe in Karma and Rebirth?", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 21 (1): 1–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi–xxii-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi–xxii_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>, pp. xxi–xxii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst1993">Bronkhorst 1993</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993107-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993107_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBronkhorst1993">Bronkhorst 1993</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson199921-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson199921_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1999">Anderson 1999</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_48_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2011, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shulman, Eviatar. "Early meanings of dependent-origination." Journal of Indian Philosophy 36, no. 2 (2008): pp. 297–317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, <i>A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century.</i> 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siderits_2015-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits_2015_34-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSiderits2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Siderits, Mark (Spring 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/buddha/">"Buddha: Non-Self"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. The Metaphysics Research Lab, <a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Language_and_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for the Study of Language and Information">Center for the Study of Language and Information</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643092515">643092515</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230427183712/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/buddha/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Buddha's "middle path" strategy</a> can be seen as one of first arguing that there is nothing that the word "<a href="/wiki/Self-concept" title="Self-concept">I</a>" genuinely denotes, and then explaining that our erroneous sense of an "I" stems from our employment of the useful fiction represented by the concept of the person. While the second part of this strategy only receives its full articulation in the later development of the <a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">theory of two truths</a>, the first part can be found in the Buddha's own teachings, in the form of several <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">philosophical arguments for non-self</a>. Best known among these is the <a href="/wiki/Impermanence#Buddhism" title="Impermanence">argument from impermanence</a> (S III.66–8) [...].<br /> It is the fact that this argument does not contain a premise explicitly asserting that the <a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">five <i>skandhas</i></a> (classes of psychophysical element) are exhaustive of the constituents of persons, plus the fact that these are all said to be empirically observable, that leads some to claim that the Buddha did not intend to deny the existence of a self <i>tout court</i>. There is, however, evidence that the Buddha was generally hostile toward attempts to establish the existence of unobservable entities. In the <i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABgha_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Dīgha Nikāya">Poṭṭhapāda Sutta</a></i> (D I.178–203), for instance, the Buddha compares someone who posits an unseen seer in order to explain our introspective awareness of cognitions, to a man who has conceived a longing for the most beautiful woman in the world based solely on the thought that such a woman must surely exist. And in the <i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABgha_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Dīgha Nikāya">Tevijja Sutta</a></i> (D I.235–52), the Buddha rejects the claim of certain <a href="/wiki/Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmins">Brahmins</a> to know the path to oneness with <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, on the grounds that no one has actually observed this Brahman. This makes more plausible the assumption that the argument has as an implicit premise the claim that there is no more to the person than the five <i>skandhas</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Buddha%3A+Non-Self&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=The+Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643092515&rft.issn=1095-5054&rft.aulast=Siderits&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2015%2Fentries%2Fbuddha%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_33_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBhikku2018" class="citation web cs1">Bhikku, Sujato (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://suttacentral.net/sn22.47/en/sujato">"SN 22.47 – SuttaCentral"</a>. <i>SuttaCentral</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SuttaCentral&rft.atitle=SN+22.47+%E2%80%93+SuttaCentral&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Bhikku&rft.aufirst=Sujato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsuttacentral.net%2Fsn22.47%2Fen%2Fsujato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Panjvani, Cyrus; Buddhism: A Philosophical Approach (2013), p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyrus Panjvani, Buddhism: A Philosophical Approach, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leeming_2014-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leeming_2014_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeeming2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming" title="David Adams Leeming">Leeming, David A.</a> (2014). "Brahman". In <a href="/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming" title="David Adams Leeming">Leeming, David A.</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6086-2_9052">10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6087-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6087-9"><bdi>978-1-4614-6087-9</bdi></a>. <q>For <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a>, especially those in the <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> tradition, <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a>. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic concept</a> or at least a <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brahman&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Psychology+and+Religion&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=197&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6086-2_9052&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-6087-9&rft.aulast=Leeming&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dissanayake_1993-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dissanayake_1993_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDissanayake1993" class="citation book cs1">Dissanayake, Wimal (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lBYz5jgA4-8C&pg=PA39">"The Body in Indian Theory and Practice"</a>. In Kasulis, Thomas P.; Ames, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (eds.). <i>Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice</i>. SUNY Series: The Body in Culture, History, and Religion. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany, New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1079-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1079-X"><bdi>0-7914-1079-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24174772">24174772</a>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> form the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophical thought</a>, and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>, or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Body+in+Indian+Theory+and+Practice&rft.btitle=Self+as+Body+in+Asian+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.series=SUNY+Series%3A+The+Body+in+Culture%2C+History%2C+and+Religion&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24174772&rft.isbn=0-7914-1079-X&rft.aulast=Dissanayake&rft.aufirst=Wimal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlBYz5jgA4-8C%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gombrich; Recovering the Buddha's Message © The Buddhist Forum, Vol I, Seminar Papers 1987–1988</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman, KR; A note on Attā in the Alagaddupama Sutta – 1981</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thanissaro Bhikkhu [trans], MN 22 PTS: M i 130 Alagaddupama Sutta: The Water-Snake Simile, 2004, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.022.than.html">http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.022.than.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thanissaro Bhikkhu [trans], SN 12.48 PTS: S ii 77 CDB i 584 Lokayatika Sutta: The Cosmologist, 1999; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.048.than.html">http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.048.than.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bodhi; The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, p. 117; AN 1.307 "Bhikkhus, I do not see even a single thing on account of which unarisen wholesome qualities arise and arisen wholesome qualities increase and expand so much as right view."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emmanuel, Steven M (editor); A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, 2013, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmmanuel2013" class="citation book cs1">Emmanuel, Steven M., ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/A%2BCompanion%2Bto%2BBuddhist%2BPhilosophy-p-9780470658772"><i>A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy</i></a>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-65877-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-65877-2"><bdi>978-0-470-65877-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Buddhist+Philosophy&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-470-65877-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiley.com%2Fen-us%2FA%252BCompanion%252Bto%252BBuddhist%252BPhilosophy-p-9780470658772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJayatilleke1963" class="citation book cs1">Jayatilleke, K. N. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/EarlyBuddhistTheoryOfKnowledge/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge.pdf"><i>Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Buddhist+Theory+of+Knowledge&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin+Ltd.&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Jayatilleke&rft.aufirst=K.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2FEarlyBuddhistTheoryOfKnowledge%2FEarly%2520Buddhist%2520Theory%2520of%2520Knowledge.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. J. Kalupahana, A Buddhist tract on empiricism, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/kk3n/80-300/kalupahana1969.pdf">https://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/kk3n/80-300/kalupahana1969.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">SN 35.23 PTS: S iv 15 CDB ii 1140 Sabba Sutta: The All, translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu © 2001, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn35/sn35.023.than.html">http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn35/sn35.023.than.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamilton, Sue. 2000. Early Buddhism: a New Approach: the I of the Beholder. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayatilleke, K. N.; Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, pp. 177, 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emmanuel, Steven M (editor); A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, 2013, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayatilleke, K. N.; Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, p. 356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Poussin; Bouddhisme, Third Edition, Paris, 1925, p. 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayatilleke, K. N.; Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, pp. 352–353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Majjhima Nikaya">MN</a> 72 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html">(Thanissaro, 1997)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206153554/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.html">Archived</a> 6 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. For further discussion of the context in which these statements were made, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn44/sn44.intro.than.html">Thanissaro (2004)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayatilleke, K. N.; Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, p. 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2011, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nagao-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nagao_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nagao_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gadjin M. Nagao, <i>Madhyamika and Yogacara</i>. Leslie S. Kawamura, translator, SUNY Press, Albany 1991, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sue Hamilton, <i>Early Buddhism</i>. Routledge, 2000, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Damien Keown, The Nature of Buddhist Ethics, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsTribeWynne2011" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Buddhist-Thought-A-Complete-Introduction-to-the-Indian-Tradition/Williams-Tribe-Wynne/p/book/9780415571791"><i>Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">72–</span>74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415571791" title="Special:BookSources/9780415571791"><bdi>9780415571791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Thought%3A+A+Complete+Introduction+to+the+Indian+Tradition&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415571791&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Tribe%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Wynne%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FBuddhist-Thought-A-Complete-Introduction-to-the-Indian-Tradition%2FWilliams-Tribe-Wynne%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780415571791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvey, Peter. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/view/9281">An analysis of factors related to the kusala/akusala quality of actions in the Pāli tradition.</a></i> JIABS 33/1-2 2010[2011]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nyanaponika_page_35-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nyanaponika_page_35_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nyanaponika_page_35_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nyanaponika, Abhidhamma studies, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronkin, Noa; Early Buddhist metaphysics</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark; Buddhism as philosophy, pp. 117-118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark; Buddhism as philosophy, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalupahana,_David_page_128-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalupahana,_David_page_128_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalupahana, David; A history of Buddhist philosophy, continuities and discontinuities, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KL Dhammajoti. <i>The Contribution of Saṃghabhadra to Our Understanding of Abhidharma Doctrines,</i> in Bart Dessein and Weijen Teng (ed) "Text, History, and Philosophy Abhidharma across Buddhist Scholastic Traditions."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nakamura,_Hajime_1987_pp._298_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nakamura, Hajime (1987). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 298–311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shì hùifēng, "Dependent Origination=Emptiness"—Nāgārjuna's Innovation? An Examination of the Early and Mainstream Sectarian Textual Sources</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. pp. 91-92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yao, Zhihua (2005). <i>The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition,</i> p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:22_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Skorupski, Tadeusz. “Consciousness and Luminosity in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism.” In <i>Buddhist Philosophy and Meditation Practice: Academic Papers Presented at the 2nd IABU Conference Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Main Campus Wang Noi, Ayutthaya, Thailand, 31 May–2 June 2012</i><b>.</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalupahana, David; A history of Buddhist philosophy, continuities and discontinuities, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams,_Paul_2011,_page_124_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2011, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prof. Dr. Y. Karunadasa, THE DHAMMA THEORY, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Y. Karunadasa, The Dhamma Theory, Philosophical Cornerstone of the Abhidhamma, 1996, pages 38-39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Y. Karunadasa, The Theravada Abhidhamma, 2016, pages 42, 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronkin, Noa, "Abhidharma", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=<<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/abhidharma/">http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/abhidharma/</a>>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Rospatt, Alexander; The Buddhist Doctrine of Momentariness: A Survey of the Origins and Early Phase of This Doctrine up to Vasubandhu, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Rospatt, Alexander; The Buddhist Doctrine of Momentariness: A Survey of the Origins and Early Phase of This Doctrine up to Vasubandhu, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronkin, Noa, "Abhidharma", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=<<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/abhidharma/">http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/abhidharma/</a>></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSiderits2021" class="citation book cs1">Siderits, Mark (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YzhCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132"><i>Buddhism As Philosophy</i></a>. 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Hoffman, Contemporary Buddhist philosophy: A biographical essay, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 2 No. 1 1992, pp. 79-100, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/hoffman.htm">http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/hoffman.htm</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bingenheimer-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bingenheimer_175-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bingenheimer_175-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBingenheimer2007" class="citation book cs1">Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf"><i>Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3"><bdi>978-986-7625-08-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+Remarks+on+the+Usage+of+Renjian+Fojiao+%E4%BA%BA%E9%96%93%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99+and+the+Contribution+of+Venerable+Yinshun+to+Chinese+Buddhist+Modernism&rft.btitle=Development+and+Practice+of+Humanitarian+Buddhism%3A+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives&rft.place=Hua-lien+%28Taiwan%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.pub=Tzuchi+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-986-7625-08-3&rft.aulast=Bingenheimer&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmbingenheimer.net%2Fpublications%2Fbingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMahan, David L. 2008. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yih-Hsien Yu, Modern Chinese Philosophy, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmgren, Felix [reviewer], "The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendün Chöpel by Donald S. Lopez Jr.", <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.lionsroar.com/a-modern-man-in-old-tibet/">https://www.lionsroar.com/a-modern-man-in-old-tibet/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trungpa, Chogyam. (1984) "Shambhala: Sacred Path of the Warrior", pp. 25–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. F. Schumacher, "Buddhist economics" (1973)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMahan, David L. 2008. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Austin, James H. Zen and the Brain</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">14th Dalai Lama, the Universe in a single atom</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrentice" class="citation web cs1">Prentice, George. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180815200958/https://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773">"Joanna Macy"</a>. <i>Web Archive</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773">the original</a> on 15 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Web+Archive&rft.atitle=Joanna+Macy&rft.aulast=Prentice&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boiseweekly.com%2Fboise%2Fjoanna-macy%2FContent%3Foid%3D2585773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEdelglass2009" class="citation web cs1">Edelglass, William (April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309534256">"Joanna Macy: The Ecological Self"</a>. <i>Research Gate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+Gate&rft.atitle=Joanna+Macy%3A+The+Ecological+Self&rft.date=2009-04&rft.aulast=Edelglass&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F309534256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcEvilley2002" class="citation book cs1">McEvilley, Thomas (2002). <i>The Shape of Ancient Thought</i>. Allworth Communications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5"><bdi>1-58115-203-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shape+of+Ancient+Thought&rft.pub=Allworth+Communications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-58115-203-5&rft.aulast=McEvilley&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2015" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf"><i>Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">22–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6632-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6632-8"><bdi>978-1-4008-6632-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10500.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Buddha%3A+Pyrrho%27s+Encounter+with+Early+Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-6632-8&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Fchapters%2Fs10500.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuzminski, Adrian. Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism (Studies in Comparative Philosophy and Religion), 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adrian Kuzminski, <i>Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism</i> 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas McEvilley, <i>The Shape of Ancient Thought</i> 2002 pp. 499–505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004094712/http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol1/god_is_dead.html">"God Is Dead: What Next"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=God+Is+Dead%3A+What+Next&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westernbuddhistreview.com%2Fvol1%2Fgod_is_dead.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723211924/http://www.moralobjectivity.net/thesis_index.html">Robert Ellis A Buddhist theory of moral objectivity (Ph.D. thesis)</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1999" class="citation cs2">Anderson, Carol (1999), <i>Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon</i>, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pain+and+Its+Ending%3A+The+Four+Noble+Truths+in+the+Theravada+Buddhist+Canon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBronkhorst1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Bronkhorst, Johannes</a> (1993), <i>The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India</i>, Motilal Banarsidass</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Traditions+of+Meditation+in+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bronkhorst&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCapriles" class="citation cs2">Capriles, Elías, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717191150/http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/elicap/en/uploads/Biblioteca/philosophical_schools.pdf"><i>The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/elicap/en/uploads/Biblioteca/philosophical_schools.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Four+Schools+of+Buddhist+Philosophy%3A+Clear+Discrimination+of+Views+Pointing+at+the+Definitive+Meaning&rft.aulast=Capriles&rft.aufirst=El%C3%ADas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebdelprofesor.ula.ve%2Fhumanidades%2Felicap%2Fen%2Fuploads%2FBiblioteca%2Fphilosophical_schools.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCousins1996" class="citation cs2">Cousins, L. 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(1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110226184207/http://indology.info/papers/cousins/">"The dating of the historical Buddha: a review article"</a>, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 3, <b>6</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">57–</span>63, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186300014760">10.1017/S1356186300014760</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162929573">162929573</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indology.info/papers/cousins">the original</a> on 26 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=The+dating+of+the+historical+Buddha%3A+a+review+article&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1356186300014760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162929573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cousins&rft.aufirst=L.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findology.info%2Fpapers%2Fcousins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEdelglassGarfield2009" class="citation cs2">Edelglass, William; Garfield, Jay (2009), <i>Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532817-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532817-2"><bdi>978-0-19-532817-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Philosophy%3A+Essential+Readings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532817-2&rft.aulast=Edelglass&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Garfield%2C+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGombrich1997" class="citation cs2">Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), <i>How Buddhism Began</i>, Munshiram Manoharlal</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Buddhism+Began&rft.pub=Munshiram+Manoharlal&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Gombrich&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKalupahana1992" class="citation cs2">Kalupahana, David J. (1992), <i>The Principles of Buddhist Psychology</i>, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Buddhist+Psychology&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Sri+Satguru+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Kalupahana&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKalupahana1994" class="citation cs2">Kalupahana, David J. (1994), <i>A history of Buddhist philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Buddhist+philosophy&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers+Private+Limited&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Kalupahana&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPerdue1992" class="citation cs2">Perdue, Daniel (1992), <i>Debate in Tibetan Buddhism</i>, Snow Lion Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-937938-76-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-937938-76-8"><bdi>978-0-937938-76-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debate+in+Tibetan+Buddhism&rft.pub=Snow+Lion+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-937938-76-8&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVetter1988" class="citation cs2">Vetter, Tilmann (1988), <i>The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism</i>, BRILL</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ideas+and+Meditative+Practices+of+Early+Buddhism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Vetter&rft.aufirst=Tilmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/narada/nutshell.html">Buddhism in a Nutshell</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2500.Years.of.Buddhism.by.Prof.P.Y.Bapat.1956.djvu">2500 Years of Buddhism by Prof. P.Y. 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_tree" title="Bodhi tree">Bodhi tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" class="mw-redirect" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" class="mw-redirect" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheism in Hinduism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_views_on_monotheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu views on monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Philosophy" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Āstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇiniya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism#Philosophy_and_teachings" title="Sikhism">Sikh Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy#Radical_humanist" title="M. N. Roy">Radical Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_utilization_theory" title="Progressive utilization theory">Progressive utilization theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abhinavabharati" title="Abhinavabharati">Abhinavabharati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras"><i>Brahma Sutra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharmashastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmashastra">Dharmashastra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Jain Agamas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muktik%C4%81" title="Muktikā">All 108 texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhya_Upanishads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhya Upanishads">Principal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhyapravachana Sutra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha" title="Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha">Sarvadarsanasangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Sutras_of_Vasugupta" title="Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta">Shiva Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka-Sangraha" title="Tarka-Sangraha">Tarka-Sangraha</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvacintāmaṇi">Tattvacintāmaṇi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dana_Mi%C5%9Bra" title="Maṇḍana Miśra">Maṇḍana Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatsara" title="Avatsara">Avatsara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yājñavalkya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81rg%C4%AB_V%C4%81chaknav%C4%AB" title="Gārgī Vāchaknavī">Gārgī Vāchaknavī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaṇāda (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Ikshvaku" title="Brihadratha Ikshvaku">Brihadratha Ikshvaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshapada_Gotama" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshapada Gotama">Akshapada Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambh%C4%81va" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmasambhāva">Padmasambhāva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadananda_(of_Vedantasara)" title="Sadananda (of Vedantasara)">Sadananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakayanya" title="Sakayanya">Sakayanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_philosophers" title="Category:Indian philosophers">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhava" title="Abhava">Abhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhasavada" title="Abhasavada">Abhasavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-difference_(Abheda)" title="Non-difference (Abheda)">Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adarsana" title="Adarsana">Adarsana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrishta" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrishta">Adrishta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aham_(Kashmir_Shaivism)" title="Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)">Aham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aishvarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aishvarya">Aishvarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksara" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksara">Aksara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananta_(infinite)" title="Ananta (infinite)">Ananta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anavastha" title="Anavastha">Anavastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anupalabdhi" title="Anupalabdhi">Anupalabdhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3hey%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Apauruṣheyā">Apauruṣheyā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiddhatva" title="Asiddhatva">Asiddhatva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asatkalpa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asatkalpa (page does not exist)">Asatkalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avyakta" title="Avyakta">Avyakta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhrama_(Hinduism)" title="Bhrama (Hinduism)">Bhrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhuman" title="Bhuman">Bhuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumika" title="Bhumika">Bhumika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catu%E1%B9%A3ko%E1%B9%ADi" title="Catuṣkoṭi">Catuṣkoṭi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_(consciousness)" title="Chaitanya (consciousness)">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidabhasa" title="Chidabhasa">Chidabhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cittabhumi" title="Cittabhumi">Cittabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhi_(Hindu_thought)" title="Dhi (Hindu thought)">Dhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekagrata" title="Ekagrata">Ekagrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hit%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitā (page does not exist)">Hitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idam" title="Idam">Idam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikshana" title="Ikshana">Ikshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvaratva" title="Ishvaratva">Ishvaratva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivatva" title="Jivatva">Jivatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(attachment)" title="Kasaya (attachment)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshetrajna" title="Kshetrajna">Kshetrajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshana" title="Lakshana">Lakshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Nyaya" title="Matsya Nyaya">Matsya Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithyatva" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithyatva">Mithyatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhyasana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nididhyasana">Nididhyasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvāṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pad%C4%81rtha" title="Padārtha">Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramananda_(Hinduism)" title="Paramananda (Hinduism)">Paramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameshashakti" title="Parameshashakti">Parameshashakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinama-vada_(Hindu_thought)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)">Parinama-vada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradhana" title="Pradhana">Pradhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajna_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajna (Vedic)">Prajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratibimbavada" title="Pratibimbavada">Pratibimbavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajamandala" title="Rajamandala">Rājamaṇḍala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">Ṛta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakshi_(Witness)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakshi (Witness)">Sakshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Satkaryavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda_Brahman" title="Shabda Brahman">Shabda Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiti" title="Sthiti">Sthiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutram" title="Sutram">Sutram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrya" title="Svatantrya">Svātantrya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svecchamrityu_(Iccha-mrityu)" class="mw-redirect" title="Svecchamrityu (Iccha-mrityu)">Iccha-mrityu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taijasa" title="Taijasa">Taijasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajjalan" title="Tajjalan">Tajjalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Tanmatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ty%C4%81ga" title="Tyāga">Tyāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Upekkhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsaha">Utsaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivartavada" title="Vivartavada">Vivartavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vir%C4%81ja" title="Virāja">Viraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_philosophical_concepts" title="Category:Hindu philosophical concepts">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana 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