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id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_and_external_comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_and_external_comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification and external comparison</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_and_external_comparison-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification and external comparison subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_and_external_comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Personal pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistoric_overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistoric_overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prehistoric overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistoric_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Outside influences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dialects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samples_of_the_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samples_of_the_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Samples of the dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samples_of_the_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectal_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectal_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Dialectal differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectal_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colloquial_final_unstressed_vowel_elision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colloquial_final_unstressed_vowel_elision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Colloquial final unstressed vowel elision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colloquial_final_unstressed_vowel_elision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_unstressed_vowel_devoicing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_unstressed_vowel_devoicing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Final unstressed vowel devoicing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_unstressed_vowel_devoicing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_i-glide_deletion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_i-glide_deletion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4</span> <span>Final i-glide deletion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_i-glide_deletion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_negative_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_negative_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Verb negative construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_negative_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_tenses/aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_tenses/aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Verb tenses/aspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_tenses/aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominal_affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominal_affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.3</span> <span>Nominal affixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominal_affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.4</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kauřařaigau_Ya_phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Kauřařaigau Ya phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bisyllabic_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bisyllabic_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1.1</span> <span>Bisyllabic forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bisyllabic_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multisyllabic_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multisyllabic_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1.2</span> <span>Multisyllabic forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multisyllabic_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels_and_diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_and_diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Vowels and diphthongs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_and_diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_ř" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_ř"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Development of <i>ř</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_ř-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllabification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllabification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Syllabification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllabification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Orthography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mission_Spelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mission_Spelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Mission Spelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mission_Spelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Klokheid_and_Bani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Klokheid_and_Bani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Klokheid and Bani</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Klokheid_and_Bani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saibai,_Boigu,_Dauan_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saibai,_Boigu,_Dauan_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Saibai, Boigu, Dauan students</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saibai,_Boigu,_Dauan_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronunciation_of_the_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation_of_the_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Pronunciation of the letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation_of_the_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nominal_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominal_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Nominal morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominal_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common_nominal_declensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_nominal_declensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Common nominal declensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_nominal_declensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irregular_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irregular_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Irregular nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irregular_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstratives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstratives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Demonstratives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstratives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dual_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dual_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4.1</span> <span>Dual pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dual_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plural_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plural_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4.2</span> <span>Plural pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plural_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_names_and_familiar_kinship_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_names_and_familiar_kinship_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Personal names and familiar kinship terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_names_and_familiar_kinship_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_nominal_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kauřařaigau_Ya_nominal_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Kauřařaigau Ya nominal morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_nominal_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nominal_suffixes_and_endings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominal_suffixes_and_endings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6.1</span> <span>Nominal suffixes and endings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominal_suffixes_and_endings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kauřařaigau_Ya_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6.2</span> <span>Kauřařaigau Ya pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Verb morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_verb_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_verb_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>Sample verb declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_verb_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_verbal_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kauřařaigau_Ya_verbal_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.9</span> <span>Kauřařaigau Ya verbal morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kauřařaigau_Ya_verbal_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous_paradigms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous_paradigms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10</span> <span>Miscellaneous paradigms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous_paradigms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sign_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sign_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sign language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sign_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalaw Lagaw Ya</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kala_lagaw_ya" title="Kala lagaw ya – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kala lagaw ya" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kala-lagau-jaa_keel" title="Kala-lagau-jaa keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kala-lagau-jaa keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya" title="Kalaw Lagaw Ya – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kalaw Lagaw Ya" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya" title="Kalaw Lagaw Ya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Kalaw Lagaw Ya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%BC%EB%9D%BC%EC%9A%B0%EB%9D%BC%EA%B0%80%EC%9A%B0%EC%95%BC%EC%96%B4" title="칼라우라가우야어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="칼라우라가우야어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kikala-Lagaw-Ya" title="Kikala-Lagaw-Ya – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kikala-Lagaw-Ya" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_kala_lagaw_ya" title="Lenga kala lagaw ya – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga kala lagaw ya" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_kala_lagaw_ya" title="Język kala lagaw ya – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język kala lagaw ya" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0-%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B2-%D1%8F" title="Кала-лагав-я – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кала-лагав-я" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kala_Lagaw_Ya" title="Kala Lagaw Ya – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kala Lagaw Ya" 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color: black; background-color: #eba9ee;">Kalau Lagau Ya</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #eba9ee;">Western Torres Strait</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #eba9ee;">Mabuiag</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Western and Central <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Badu_Island" title="Badu Island">Badu Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mabuiag" title="Mabuiag">Mabuiag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaurareg" title="Kaurareg">Kaurareg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mualgal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mualgal">Mualgal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saibai_Island" title="Saibai Island">Saibai Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boigu" class="mw-redirect" title="Boigu">Boigu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dauan_Island" title="Dauan Island">Dauan Island</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kulkalgal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kulkalgal (page does not exist)">Kulkalgal</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maluigal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maluigal (page does not exist)">Maluigal</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">888 (2021 census)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <b>Kalau Lagau Ya</b></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Kalau Lagau Ya, alt. Kalaw Lagaw Ya</li> <li>Kalau Kawau Ya, alt. Kalaw Kawaw Ya</li> <li>Kulkalgau Ya</li> <li>Kaiwaligau Ya</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Torres_Strait_Islander_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Torres Strait Islander Sign Language">Western Torres Strait Islander Sign Language</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #eba9ee;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mwp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mwp">mwp</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kala1377">kala1377</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">AIATSIS</a><sup id="cite_ref-AIATSIS_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIATSIS-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collection.aiatsis.gov.au/austlang/language/Y1">Y1</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/4736">Kalaw Kawaw Ya</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=29-RG(A-a)">29-RG(A-a)</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png/320px-Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png/480px-Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png/640px-Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya.png 2x" data-file-width="929" data-file-height="922" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Range of Kalau Lagau Ya (orange) in the Torres Strait</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Kalau Lagau Ya</b>, <b>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</b>, <b>Kala Lagaw Ya</b> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="aus-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Australian_languages" title="Help:IPA/Australian languages">[kala(u)<span class="wrap"> </span>laɡau<span class="wrap"> </span>ja]</a></span>), or the <b>Western Torres Strait language</b> (also several other names, <a href="#Names">see below</a>) is the language indigenous to the central and western <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. On some islands, it has now largely been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a>. </p><p>Before <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonisation of Australia">colonization</a> in the 1870s–1880s, the language was the major <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the Torres Strait cultural area of Northern Cape York <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, Torres Strait and along the coast of the Western Province/<a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. It is still fairly widely spoken by neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Papuans" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuans">Papuans</a> and by some <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a>. How many non-first language speakers it has is unknown. It also has a 'light' (simplified/foreigner) form, as well as a <a href="/wiki/Pidginised" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidginised">pidginised</a> form. The simplified form is fairly prevalent on <a href="/wiki/Badu_Island" title="Badu Island">Badu</a> and neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Moa_Island_(Queensland)" title="Moa Island (Queensland)">Moa</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language is known by several names besides <i>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</i>, most of which (including <i>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</i>) are names of dialects, spelling variants, dialect variants and the like — and include translations of the English terms, <i>Western Island Language</i> and <i>Central Island Language</i>: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language name (with regional and spelling variants) </th> <th>English </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td> <p>Kalaw Lagaw Ya / Kalau Lagau Ya / Kala Lagaw Ya<br /> Kalaw Kawaw Ya / Kalau Kawau Ya <br /> Kala Lagaw Langgus / Kala Lagau Langgus / Kalaw Lagaw Langgus / Kalau Lagau Langgus </p> </td> <td>Western Island Language </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lagaw Ya / Lagau Ya </td> <td>Home Island Language </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p>Langgus<br /> Linggo </p> </td> <td>Language, Lingo </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kaywalgaw Ya / Kaiwaligau Ya / Kawalgaw Ya </td> <td>Islanders' Language </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kowrareg (<a href="/wiki/Kaurareg" title="Kaurareg">Kaurareg</a>) </td> <td>Islander </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kulkalgau Ya </td> <td>Blood-Peoples' Language </td> <td><i>kulka</i> 'blood' was an important Central Islands cult figure, and brother to Malo-Bumai of Mer. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mabuiag/Mabuyag </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mabuiag_Island" title="Mabuiag Island">Mabuiag Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Badu_Island" title="Badu Island">Badu Island</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p>Westen<br /> West Torres<br /> Western Torres Strait </p> </td> <td>Western Torres Strait </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> <p>Dhadhalagau Ya<br /> Sentral / Central Islands </p> </td> <td>Mid-Island, Central Island Language </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One term used by Eastern Islanders and neighbouring Papuans for Kala Lagaw Ya is <i>Yagar Yagar</i>, from the word <i>yagar</i> (<i>yá</i> 'speech, etc.' + <i>gár</i> 'sympathy clitic' ('dear', 'please', etc.), often used by Western and Central Islanders in speech to show a sympathetic or nostalgic frame of mind. </p><p>In literature on the language the abbreviations KLY (Kalaw Lagaw Ya), KKY (Kalau Kawau Ya), KulY (Kulkalgau Ya), MY (Muwalgau Ya) and KY (Kaiwaligau Ya) are often used as abbreviations. The name <i>Mabuiag</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mabujaɡ/</span>, in English pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span></span>/</a></span></span>, is fairly widespread as a name for the language, this having been established by the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Strait, whose main research on the language was with Mabuiag material. Though the preferred term in English in Academia for some time was <i>Kala Lagaw Ya</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to Ober, the form was always regarded as "colloquial" by native speakers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In a High Court decision on 7 August 2013, the decision was taken to officially term the language <i>Kalau Lagau Ya</i>, using the formal form.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When speaking to each other, speakers generally refer to the language as <i>Langgus</i> 'language' or use phrases such as KLY/KulY <i>ngalpudh muli</i>, MY-KY <i>ngalpudh/ngalpadh muli</i>, KKY <i>ngalpadh muliz</i> "speak(s) our language", e.g. KLY/KulY <i>ngalpudh muuli, thanamunungu tidailai!</i>, MY-KY <i>ngalpudh/ngalpadh muuli, thanamuningu tidailai!</i>, KKY <i>ngalpadh muli, thanamulngu tidaile!</i> 'Speak in our language so they don't understand!'. <i>Ngalpudh/ngalpadh</i> literally means 'like us'. The construction <i>X-dh mula+i-</i> 'speak X-like' is used to refer to speaking in a language, e.g. KKY <i>markaidh muliz</i> 'speak [in] English',<i> zapanisadh muliz</i> 'speak [in] Japanese', <i>dhaudhalgadh muliz</i> 'speak [in] Papuan', <i>mœyamadh muliz</i> 'speak [in] Meriam Mìr', <i>thanamudh muliz</i> 'speak like them, speak [in] their language'. It is otherwise common for speakers to use nominal phrases like KLY/KulY <i>ngalpun ya</i>, MY-KY <i>ngalpun/ngalpan ya</i>, KKY <i>ngalpan ya</i> 'our language' to refer to the language when speaking to each other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/220px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/330px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg/440px-Torres_Strait_Islander_Languages_used_at_home.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5726" data-file-height="5682" /></a><figcaption>Languages used at home by Torres Strait Islanders in localities with significant share of Torres Strait islander population.<sup id="cite_ref-Australian_2021_Census_dataset_“2021_Census_-_Cultural_Diversity,_2021_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Australian_2021_Census_dataset_“2021_Census_-_Cultural_Diversity,_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Kalau Lagau Ya is spoken on the western and central <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">islands of Torres Strait</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> (<i>Naigay Dœgam Dhaudhai</i> "North-side Mainland/Continent", also called <i>Mœgi Dhaudhai</i> "Small Mainland/Continent", KKY <i>Mœgina Dhaudhai</i>) and the Australian mainland (<i>Zey Dœgam Dhaudhai</i> "South-side Mainland/Continent", also known as <i>Kœi Dhaudhai</i> "Big Mainland/Continent"), though on some islands it has now been largely replaced by Brokan (<a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a>). </p><p>There is some folk history evidence that the language was spoken as a first language in a few villages neighbouring Torres Strait in Papua. It was also formerly spoken by the Hiámo (Hiámu, Hiáma) of Daru (Dhaaru) to the north-east of Torres Strait, who were originally settlers from Yama [Yam Island] in Torres Strait, Hiámu/Hiámo/Hiáma being a Kiwai pronunciation of Yama. The main body of the Hiámo moved to the Thursday Island group to escape the Kiwai colonisation of Daru some centuries ago. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_external_comparison">Classification and external comparison</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification and external comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language is classified as being part of the <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a>. Mitchell regard it as a mixed language with an Australian core (Pama–Nyungan) and <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> overlays,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Capell and Dixon classify it among the <a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan languages</a>. The personal pronouns are typically Australian, most kin terms are Papuan, and significant sea/canoe and agricultural vocabulary is Austronesian.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kalaw Lagaw Ya has only 6% cognation with its closest Australian neighbour, <a href="/wiki/Uradhi_language" title="Uradhi language">Urradhi</a>, with a further 5% 'common' vocabulary (loans of various origins) — and about 40% common vocabulary with its Papuan neighbour, <a href="/wiki/Meriam_language" title="Meriam language">Meriam Mìr</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2015_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of 279 Proto-<a href="/wiki/Paman_languages" title="Paman languages">Paman</a> forms only 18.9% have definite realisations in Kalaw Lagaw Ya, with a further 2.5% which may be present.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One word that illustrates the problems of 'may-be' relationship is <i>kùlbai</i> (KKY <i>kùlba</i>) 'old', which may be a metathetic realisation of CA <i>*bulgan</i> 'big; old'. Potentially 80% of the vocabulary of the language is non-Australian, and includes Papuan and Austronesian items.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Bouckaert, Bowern and Atkinson (2018) found that Kalaw Lagaw Ya had the highest number of 'unique' (that is, non-Pama-Nyungan) forms of any Australian language in their sample.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Australian <br /> (Common Australian)</th> <th>Papuan <br />(Proto–East Trans-Fly)</th> <th>Austronesian <br /> (Proto–Central District) </th></tr> <tr> <td>*nya-ga 'look' <br /> <i>nagai-/nage-/nagi-</i> id.</td> <td>*nyily 'name' <br /> <i>nel</i> id.</td> <td>*gamo 'belly' <br /> <i>gamu</i> 'body' </td></tr> <tr> <td>*jana 'they' <br /> <i>thana</i> id.</td> <td>*p[ae]- 'that, there' <br /> <i>pi-/pe-</i> 'specifically yonder'</td> <td>*[w]aura 'trade wind, south-east trades' <br /> <i>wœur(a)</i> id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ganyarra 'reptile' <br /> <i>kœnara</i> 'k.o. tree snake'</td> <td>*gabo 'cold' <br /> <i>gabu</i> id.</td> <td>*boro-ma 'pig' <br /> <i>bùrùm(a)</i> id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*galga 'spear' <br /> <i>kœlak(a)</i> id.</td> <td>*biro 'side' <br /> <i>bero</i> 'rib; side of boat, hillside, river bank, etc.'</td> <td>*pu[lr]i 'magic' <br /> <i>puy(i)</i> (older <i>puuři</i>) 'magic, plant' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Oral tradition and cultural evidence recorded by Haddon and Laade,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> backed by archaeological evidence<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and linguistic evidence, shows that Austronesian trade and settlement in South-West Papua, Torres Strait and <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_Peninsula" title="Cape York Peninsula">Cape York</a> occurred; the languages have significant Austronesian vocabulary content,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> including items such as the following: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>meaning</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Meriam_M%C3%ACr" class="mw-redirect" title="Meriam Mìr">Meriam Mìr</a></th> <th>meaning</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bine_language" title="Bine language">Bine</a><br />(Papua)</th> <th>meaning</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Oceanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Oceanic">Proto-Oceanic</a><br />Austronesian</th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i> maapu </i></td> <td>heavy</td> <td>(beberbeber)</td> <td>id.</td> <td><i>mæpu</i></td> <td>id.</td> <td>*mapa</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>maalu</i></td> <td>deep, deep water, sea, deep water beyond edge of reef~shallows</td> <td><i>malo</i></td> <td>id.</td> <td><i>malu</i></td> <td>id.</td> <td>*mwaloq</td> <td>submerged rock~reef (where it disappears into sea depths) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>laba-</i></td> <td>cut, hack, strike (human)</td> <td>---</td> <td>---</td> <td>---</td> <td>---</td> <td>*la(m)pak</td> <td>strike (as with sword or flat weapon), slam something down, slap </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>wœiwi </i></td> <td>mango</td> <td><i>waiwi </i></td> <td>id.</td> <td><i> wiwi</i></td> <td>id.</td> <td>*waiwai</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>waaku </i></td> <td>mat; sail</td> <td><i> papék</i></td> <td>id.</td> <td><i> waaku </i></td> <td>id.<br />(Kalaw Lagaw Ya loan)</td> <td>*paqu</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>waaru </i></td> <td>turtle</td> <td>(<i>nam</i>)</td> <td>id.</td> <td><i>waaru </i></td> <td>id. <br />(Kalaw Lagaw Ya loan)</td> <td>*ponu</td> <td>id. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some of the Austronesian content is clearly South-East Papuan Austronesian: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>word</th> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gudang_language" title="Gudang language">Gudang</a> <br /> (Australia)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kiwai_language" title="Kiwai language">Kiwai</a> <br /> (Papua)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Motu_language" title="Motu language">Motu</a> <br /> (Central District, Papua)</th> <th>Proto–SE Papuan</th> <th>Proto-Oceanic </th></tr> <tr> <td>nacre, mother-of-pearl</td> <td>maay(i) <br /> (OKY maaři)</td> <td>maari</td> <td>mari</td> <td>mairi</td> <td>*mwa[lr]i</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td>outrigger</td> <td>sayim(a) <br /> OKY sařima</td> <td>charima</td> <td>sarima <br /> SE Kiwai harima</td> <td>darima</td> <td>*nsarima</td> <td>*saRaman </td></tr> <tr> <td>pig</td> <td>bùrùm(a)</td> <td>— </td> <td>boroma</td> <td>boroma</td> <td>*boro-ma</td> <td>*mporok </td></tr> <tr> <td>rope, cord</td> <td>wœru <br /> KKY wœrukam(i)</td> <td>uuru</td> <td>waro</td> <td>varo</td> <td>*waro</td> <td>*waro </td></tr> <tr> <td>head, origin, base of tree, etc.</td> <td>kuik(u) <br /> KLY kuiiku</td> <td>---</td> <td>— </td> <td>PCD *quiqui id.</td> <td>*kulikuli</td> <td>*kulukulu 'head-end, upper part' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The linguistic history of the Torres Strait area is complex, and interaction of well over 2500 years has led to many layers of relationship between the local languages, including many words that are obviously common, such as the following 'trade' words in Torres Strait area languages. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>Meriam Mìr</th> <th>Kiwai <br />(Papua)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ag%C3%B6b_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Agöb language">Agöb</a> <br />(Papua)</th> <th>Gudang <br />(Australia)</th> <th>Urradhi <br /> (Australia)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Anguthimri_language" title="Anguthimri language">Anguthimri</a> <br /> (Australia)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mpakwithi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mpakwithi language">Mpakwithi</a> <br /> (Australia) </th></tr> <tr> <td>gii <br /> <i>tusk, knife, tusk/knife-life formation</i></td> <td>gir <br /> <i>tusk/knife-life formation</i></td> <td>giri <br /> <i>tusk, knife, tusk/<br />knife-life formation</i></td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>kiri/ghiri <br /> <i>knife</i></td> <td>kiri <br /> <i>knife</i></td> <td>kiri <br /> <i>knife</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sœguba <br /> <i>tobacco</i></td> <td>sogob <br /> <i>tobacco</i></td> <td>suguba <br /> <i>tobacco</i></td> <td>?</td> <td>—<sup id="cite_ref-m_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-m-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>tyughubha <br /> <i>tobacco</i></td> <td>tyughubhu <br /> <i>tobacco</i></td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td>yœuth(a) <br /> <i>long house, hall; church</i></td> <td>ìut (alt- eut) <br /> <i>church</i></td> <td>— </td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>yutha <br /> <i>house</i></td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>mœruka <br /><i>any strange four-legged animal</i></td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>murruku <br /> <i>horse</i></td> <td>?</td> <td>marruku <br /> <i>horse</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mœrap(i) <br /> <i>bamboo</i></td> <td>marep</td> <td>marabo</td> <td>?</td> <td>marrapi</td> <td>marrapi</td> <td>?</td> <td>marrapi </td></tr> <tr> <td>eso <br /> <i>thanks</i></td> <td>esoau</td> <td>?</td> <td>eso</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td>paaudh(a) <br /> <i>peace</i></td> <td>paud</td> <td>?</td> <td>piuda</td> <td>paaudha</td> <td>?</td> <td>?</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td>warup(a) <br /> <i>drum</i></td> <td>warup</td> <td>warupa</td> <td>(w)arapa</td> <td>warrupa</td> <td>(w)arrupa</td> <td>(w)arrupa</td> <td>(w)arrupa </td></tr> <tr> <td>thuurik(a) <br /> <i>cutting tool</i></td> <td>tulik</td> <td>turika</td> <td>turika <br /> <i>Bine</i> turi/turikæ</td> <td>?</td> <td>thurriya <br /> <i>crowbar</i></td> <td>thurriya <br /> <i>crowbar</i></td> <td>thurriya <br /> <i>crowbar</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-m-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-m_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The only Gudang word recorded in the mid-1800s by Europeans was <i>choki</i>, from the Malay-based English Pidgin English used by the British (and other) sailors of the time. The Malay word is variously <i>coki</i> or <i>cuki</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>However, the question of external relationships of Kalaw Lagaw Ya is also complicated by resemblances between both the Paman (<a href="/wiki/Pama-Nyungan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pama-Nyungan">Pama-Nyungan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian languages</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a> (Papuan) languages. Though few, these may be significant, and include forms such as those noted below, not all of which appear in Kalaw Lagaw Ya. Such resemblances could point to a deep-level relationship dating back to before the flooding of Torres Strait at the end of the last age, as claimed by Mitchell<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell2015_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or they could point to genetic inheritance and subsequent language contact, as discussed by Alpher, Bowern, and O'Grady 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Paman <br /> (or a specific North Cape York language)</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>Proto-Trans-Fly</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>*kaalu</td> <td><i>ear</i></td> <td>*Vtkuru</td> <td><i>hear</i></td> <td>kaura; <br /> kùrusai- (compounds only)</td> <td><i>ear</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ŋaa(na)</td> <td><i>who</i></td> <td>*ŋana</td> <td>id.</td> <td>ngaa</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*mini</td> <td><i>good</i></td> <td>*mi:nji</td> <td>id.</td> <td>miina</td> <td><i>real, true, very</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>anha <br /> Urradhi, Gudang</td> <td><i>breath</i></td> <td>*ŋana</td> <td>id.</td> <td>ngœna</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>wintamwintama <br /> Urradhi</td> <td><i>star</i></td> <td>*mpintom</td> <td>id.</td> <td>(thithuy(i) <br /> OKY thithuri)</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*nyupun</td> <td><i>one</i></td> <td>*[ni/yi/dVr]ponV</td> <td>id.</td> <td>wœrapùn(i) <br /> ùrapùn <br /> (wara 'one of a group')</td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*pama</td> <td><i>man, person</i></td> <td>*pyama</td> <td>id.</td> <td>(mabaig <i>lit.</i> 'walker')</td> <td>id. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A comparison of the Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Meriam Mìr, Kiwai and Uradhi personal pronouns show similarities and differences in <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typology</a>. In comparison to Uradhi, Kalaw Lagaw Ya has an archaic typology — or, rather, Uradhi has innovated, having lost the Common Australian 1, 2 and 3 plurals. Kiwai does not have 1–2 pronouns, while Meriam Mìr does not have a dual and trial/paucal set of pronouns which correspond to its verb system. The Kalaw Lagaw Ya system, like that of Uradhi, is Australian: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Kalaw Lagaw Ya (KKY dialect) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>dual </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngai</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngalbe</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngœi</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st–2nd person </th> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngœba</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngalpa</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngipel</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ngitha</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th> <th>masc </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nui</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">palai</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">thana</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>fem </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">na</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Meriam Mìr </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>non-singular </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ka</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ki</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st–2nd person </th> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">mi</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ma</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">wa</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">e</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">wi, i</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>Note that except for Meriam Mìr, the Trans Fly languages also have two-gender masculine-feminine systems, though not marked on the pronouns themselves.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Kiwai </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>dual </th> <th>trial </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">mai</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nimoto</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nimoibi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nimo</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">rai</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">rigoto</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">rigoibi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">rigo</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nowai</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">neito</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">neibi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">nei</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Urradhi </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>singular </th> <th>dual </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ayu(va)</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ampu(la)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st–2nd person </th> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ali(va)</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ana(va)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">antu(va)</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ipu(la)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ulu(va)</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Kala Lagaw Ya-language text"><i lang="mwp">ula(va)</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>However, even though the system has no real surprises for Australian linguistics, it is clear that Kalaw Lagaw Ya has innovated in the 1st and 2nd pronouns, which have the following CA origins: </p> <ul><li>CA *ngali 'we, inclusive' > <i>ngœy</i> [stem: <i>ngœlmu-</i> (old style singing <i>ngalimu-, ngalemu-</i>), <i>ngœimu-</i>] 'we, exclusive'; and with stem extensions <i>ngalpa</i> 'you and I/we' (old-style singing <i>ngalipa/ngalepa</i>), <i>ngalbai/ngalbe</i> 'we <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">dual</span> (exclusive)', (old style singing <i>ngalebai/ngalibai</i>)</li> <li>CA *ngana+pulV 'we, exclusive dual' > <i>ngœba</i> 'you and I'.</li></ul> <p>The 2nd person dual and plural pronouns are based on forms that literally mean 'you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>' (<i>ngipel</i>) and 'you-they' (<i>ngitha[na]</i>), in much the same way as the demonstratives mark the dual and plural (see further below in Nominal Morphology). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The Kalaw Lagaw Ya pronouns and their Australian origins </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>KLY</th> <th>KulY</th> <th>KY</th> <th>KKY</th> <th>Old KY<br /> (Kowrareg)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_language" title="Proto-Pama–Nyungan language">Proto-Pama–Nyungan</a> origin </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>ngay <br /> stem: nga-</td> <td>ngai <br /> stem: nga-</td> <td>ngai <br /> stem: nga-</td> <td>ngai <br /> stem: nga-</td> <td>ngai <br /> stem: nga-</td> <td>*ngayi </td></tr> <tr> <th>you and I </th> <td>ngœba</td> <td>ngœba</td> <td>ngœba</td> <td>ngœba</td> <td>ngœba</td> <td>*ngana+pulV<br />'we <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>, exclusive' </td></tr> <tr> <th>we <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span> (exclusive)<sup id="cite_ref-ex_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ex-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>ngalbay</td> <td>ngalbai</td> <td>ngalbai/ngalbe</td> <td>ngalbe</td> <td>ngalbai/ngalbe</td> <td>*ngali+[?]<br />'you and me, you and us' </td></tr> <tr> <th>we (inclusive)<sup id="cite_ref-ex_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ex-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>ngalpa <br /> stem: ngalpu-</td> <td>ngalpa <br /> stem: ngalpu-</td> <td>ngalpa <br /> stem: ngalpu-</td> <td>ngalpa <br /> stem: ngalpa-</td> <td>ngalpa <br /> stem: ngalpa-</td> <td>*ngali+[?]<br />'we inclusive' </td></tr> <tr> <th>we (exclusive)<sup id="cite_ref-ex_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ex-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>ngœy <br /> stem: ngœlmu-</td> <td>ngœi <br /> stem: ngœlmu-</td> <td>ngœyi <br /> stem: ngœymu-</td> <td>ngœi <br /> stem: ngœimu-</td> <td>ngœři <br /> stem: ngœři(mu)-</td> <td>*ngali<br />'we inclusive' </td></tr> <tr> <th>you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">sing</span> </th> <td>ni</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ngi/ni</td> <td>ngi</td> <td>ngi</td> <td>*NHiin </td></tr> <tr> <th>you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span> </th> <td>nipel <br /> stem: nipe-</td> <td>nipel <br /> stem: nipe-</td> <td>ngipel <br /> stem: ngipe-</td> <td>ngipel/nipel <br /> stem: ngipe-/nipe-</td> <td>ngipel <br /> stem: ngipe-</td> <td>*NHiin+pulV 'you dual' </td></tr> <tr> <th>you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">pl</span> </th> <td>nitha <br /> stem: nithamu-</td> <td>nitha <br /> stem: nithamu-</td> <td>ngitha <br /> stem: ngithamu-</td> <td>ngitha/nitha <br /> stem: ngithamu-/nithamu-</td> <td>ngithana <br /> stem: ngithana(mu)-</td> <td>*NHiin + *DHana 'they plural' </td></tr> <tr> <th>he </th> <td>nuy <br /> stem: nu-</td> <td>nui <br /> stem: nu-</td> <td>nui <br /> stem: nu-</td> <td>nui <br /> stem: nu-</td> <td>nui <br /> stem: nu-</td> <td>*NHu- </td></tr> <tr> <th>she </th> <td>na</td> <td>na</td> <td>na</td> <td>na</td> <td>na</td> <td>*NHaan </td></tr> <tr> <th>they <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span> </th> <td>palay <br /> stem: palamu-</td> <td>palai <br /> stem: palamu-</td> <td>pale <br /> stem: palamu-</td> <td>palai <br /> stem: palamu-, <br /> Boigu pale <br /> stem: palemu-</td> <td>pale <br /> stem: palamu-</td> <td>*pula 'they dual, two' </td></tr> <tr> <th>they </th> <td>thana <br /> stem: thanamu-</td> <td>thana <br /> stem: thanamu-</td> <td>thana <br /> stem: thanamu-</td> <td>thana <br /> stem: thanamu-</td> <td>thana <br /> stem: thanamu-</td> <td>*DHana 'they plural' </td></tr> <tr> <th>who </th> <td>nga</td> <td>nga</td> <td>nga</td> <td>nga</td> <td>nga</td> <td>*ngaaNH </td></tr> <tr> <th>what<br /><sup id="cite_ref-noind_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noind-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>mi-, <br /> midha- (midhi-)</td> <td>mi-</td> <td>mi-</td> <td>mi-</td> <td>mi-</td> <td>*miNHa 'food; what' </td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ex-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ex_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ex_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ex_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Exclusive does not include the second person, i.e. 'you', while inclusive does.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-noind-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-noind_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is no independent nominative-accusative form for this pronoun.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_overview">Prehistoric overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prehistoric overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An examination of the various sub-systems (vocabulary, syntax, morphology) suggests the following: </p> <dl><dt>Australian (Paman)</dt></dl> <p>Some basic and abstract vocabulary, all personal pronouns (inc. <i>who</i> and <i>what/which</i>), some verbs. Some grammar, such as nominal and verb morphology (subject, agent, object, genitive, <b>-l</b> locative, <b>-ka</b> dative, perfective attainative, imperfective, <b>-i/-iz(i)</b> perfective active. These typological categories also exist in the Trans-Fly languages; the forms in Kalaw Lagaw Ya are clearly Australian. </p> <dl><dt>Papuan (Trans-Fly)</dt></dl> <p>Some basic and abstract vocabulary, some verbs. Some grammar, such as verb number and different stems for different number forms of some verbs. Use of state/movement verbs as existential and stative 'be' verbs. Two non-personal pronominals: <i>naag/naga</i> 'how', <i>namuith</i> 'when' (both in KKY, the dialect of the islands off the Papuan coast). </p> <dl><dt>Austronesian</dt></dl> <p>Some basic vocabulary, terminology dealing with agriculture, canoes, the weather, the sky and the sea, some abstract nouns, some verbs. Possibly some grammar in the form of function words, such as <i>waadh</i> (KKY <i>waaza</i>) 'existential emphasis' (i.e. 'it is true that ... '), Proto Oceanic Austronesian *waDa 'existential'. </p><p>The Australian word forms and structure found in Kalaw Lagaw Ya appear to be retentions, i.e. inherited; the original Australian forms appear to be unchanged at the core level. This suggests that the language is not a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a> in origin, but an Australian language which has undergone strong external lexical and grammatical influence. The language appears to be a classic case of shift,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereby speakers of one language retained multilingualism over a long period of time, absorbing aspects of another language. The Austronesian and Papuan overlays modified the Australian phonology and syntax profoundly. The contrast of Australian laminal <i>nh/ny</i> and <i>lh/ly</i> and apical <i>n</i> and <i>l</i> has been lost, voicing has become phonemic and <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>o</i> and <i>òò</i> have developed. This also affected the phonology of Australian vocabulary, where these 'foreign' sounds also occur. </p><p>The non-Australian content appears to be mainly lexicon (including verbs), particularly dealing with the sea, farming, canoe and sky/weather/astrology, with possible some syntactic words. This presents a picture<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of a typically extensive borrowing situation with much lexical borrowing and some structural borrowing with a large amount of passive bilingualism and little active bilingualism. </p><p>Laade's picture (1968) of Australian and Papuan settlement in <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> supports the above scenario of Papuan and Austronesian speakers who shifted to an Australian language over a long period of time, the Austronesians being culturally a <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">superstratum</a>, however not in a position to impose their language. He presented folk history evidence that a few Austronesian traders (men) settled at Parema (north-east of Daru) and married local [Proto–Trans Fly speaking] women. To avoid further miscegenation, they soon moved and settled in Torres Strait, first to the Eastern Islands, then to the Central Islands, then to <a href="/wiki/Moa_Island_(Queensland)" title="Moa Island (Queensland)">Moa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Badu_Island" title="Badu Island">Badu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mabuiag_Island" title="Mabuiag Island">Mabuiag</a>. At Mabuiag, Badu and Moa they found Aboriginal people, killed the men and kept the women (and presumably the children). Some moved on up to Saibai, Dœwan and Bœigu to avoid this new miscegenation, hence the lighter colour of many Saibai, Dœwan and Bœigu people. Bœigu folk history collected by Laade also shows direct East Austronesian genetic influence on Bœigu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaade1968_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaade1968-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The social context was that of a few Austronesian men who settled on the outskirts of an East Trans-Fly group, intermarried, and whose children were either bilingual, or speakers of their mothers' language, with some knowledge of their fathers' language. The local people did not need to speak the traders' language, who in turn had to speak the local language. The children in turn would then speak the local language, with varying ability in the fathers' language, particularly in areas that were culturally important for the fathers. </p><p>These people then shifted to Torres Strait — maintaining established ties with Papua as well as with Austronesian speakers further east (this latter being suggested by various characteristics of the Austronesian content in Kalau Lagaw Ya) — and overlaid an Australian population in such a way that the majority of women spoke an Australian language, with a significant number, mainly men, who spoke a South-East Papuan Austronesian language, accompanied by their Papuan wives and their perhaps bilingual children. Over time, the core structure of the local mothers' language dominated, with retention of the newcomers' Papuo-Austronesian content in the appropriate cultural subsystems. In essence this would have been a 'replay' of the original settlement by Austronesian traders at Parema, with the women understanding the language of the men, but not really needing to speak it while retaining parts of their language for significant areas. The children then created a new language shift to an Australian language with a Papuan-Austronesian admixture. </p><p>Kalaw Lagaw Ya is thus a mixed language in that a significant part of its lexicon, phonology and grammar is not Australian in origin. The core nominal, pronominal and verb morphology is Australian in both form and grammar — though a certain amount of the grammar is common to <a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly%E2%80%93Bulaka_River_languages" title="Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages">Trans-Fly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paman_languages" title="Paman languages">Paman languages</a> in the first place. Some semantic categories, verb number morphology, and some other morphology are non-Australian in origin. Potentially 80% of its vocabulary is non-Australian. The interplay of the above within the subsystems of Kalaw Lagaw Ya lexicon, phonology and grammar points more to mixing through shift and borrowing rather than pidginisation and creolisation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_influences">Outside influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Outside influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language also has some vocabulary from languages outside the Torres Strait area, from the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>, Philippine, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and other 'outsiders'. Where loan words from the Western Austronesian (Indonesian, etc.) loans are concerned, it is possible that some such came into the language in pre-European contact days, with the Makassans and similar fishermen/traders who visited northern Australia and Torres Strait. </p><p>Examples of post-European contact Western Austronesian loan words: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>word</th> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>origin </th></tr> <tr> <td>coconut toddy</td> <td><i>thúba</i></td> <td>tuba (Eastern Indonesian or Philippine language) </td></tr> <tr> <td>trumps (in cards)</td> <td><i>záru</i></td> <td>zaru/jaru (Eastern Indonesian or Philippine language) </td></tr> <tr> <td>mate, friend, brother</td> <td><i>bala</i> <br /> Boigu variants: <i>bœra, baya</i></td> <td>bela/bala (Eastern Indonesian or Philippine language) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Blachan" class="mw-redirect" title="Blachan">blachan</a></td> <td><i>bœlasan</i></td> <td>Malay: <i><i lang="ms"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/belacan#Malay" class="extiw" title="wikt:belacan">belacan</a></i></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some words in the language, assuming that they are Western Austronesian loans, appear to be pre-contact words. This is suggested by form and use in the language and in neighbouring languages (some of these words may ultimately be from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENgajedan1987_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENgajedan1987-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>possible source</th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>aya</i> (KKY) <br /> <i>aye</i> (KLY,KulY,KY)</td> <td>come! (singular)</td> <td>Malay: <i lang="ms"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ayo#Malay" class="extiw" title="wikt:ayo">ayo</a></i></td> <td>come! </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thurik(a)</i></td> <td>cutting tool</td> <td>Tetun: <i>tudik</i></td> <td>knife </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ádhi</i></td> <td> <ul><li>huge, great (also as an honorific)</li> <li>story (with cultural, religious or similar significance)</li> <li>'story stone or rock', i.e. a rock or stone that represents someone or something with sacred or cultural aignificance</li></ul> </td> <td>Malay: <i><i lang="ms"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adi#Malay" class="extiw" title="wikt:adi">adi</a></i></i><br />(<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">अधि</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Sanskrit">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">adhi</i></span>)</td> <td>huge, great <br />(also as an honorific) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kœdal(a)</i></td> <td>crocodile</td> <td>Malay: <i><i lang="ms"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kadal#Malay" class="extiw" title="wikt:kadal">kadal</a></i></i><br />Makassarese: <i lang="mak"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ka%C9%96alaq#Makasar_(Buginese_script)" class="extiw" title="wikt:kaɖalaq">kaɖalaq</a></i></td> <td>lizard </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>pawa</i></td> <td>deed, action, custom</td> <td>Malay: <i><i lang="ms"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paal#Malay" class="extiw" title="wikt:paal">paal</a></i></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[paʔal]</span> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">فَعَلَ</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">faʿala</i></span>)</td> <td>deed, action </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Loans from modern Eastern Austronesian (Polynesian and Melanesian) into the language are mainly of religious or 'academic' use. In general, such words are terms for objects that are strictly speaking European goods. One exception is the last in the following table, which is commonly used instead of the traditional words <i>imi</i> 'spouse's opposite-sex sibling', 'opposite sex sibling's spouse' and <i>ngaubath</i> 'spouse's same-sex sibling', 'same-sex sibling's spouse'. These have also similarly been replaced in common usage by the English loan <i>woman</i> (pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[woman]</span>) in the meaning of 'sister/daughter-in-law'. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>source</th> <th>meaning in originating language </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>thúsi</i></td> <td>book, document, letter, etc.</td> <td>Samoan: <i lang="sm"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tusi#Samoan" class="extiw" title="wikt:tusi">tusi</a></i></td> <td>(same meaning) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>laulau</i></td> <td>table</td> <td>Samoan: <i><i lang="sm"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/laulau#Samoan" class="extiw" title="wikt:laulau">laulau</a></i></i></td> <td>plaited coconut leaf used as a tray </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>wakasu</i></td> <td>anointment oil</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Drehu_language" title="Drehu language">Drehu</a>: <i>wakacu</i></td> <td>coconut oil </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>thawiyan</i> <br />(emotive form <i>thawi</i>)</td> <td>brother/son-in-law</td> <td>Vanuatu: <i>tawean</i></td> <td>brother-in-law </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other biblical loans are from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>source</th> <th>meaning in originating language </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>basalaya</i></td> <td>kingdom</td> <td>Ancient Greek: <i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:βασιλεία">βασιλείᾱ</a></span></i></td> <td>id. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>aretho</i></td> <td>holy communion</td> <td>Ancient Greek: <i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%84%CF%81%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἄρτος">ἄρτος</a></span></i></td> <td>wheaten bread </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Sathana</i></td> <td>Satan</td> <td>Biblical Hebrew: <span lang="he"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%9F#Hebrew" class="extiw" title="wikt:שטן">שטן</a></span></td> <td>Satan, opponent, adversary </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Sabadh(a)</i>, <i>Sabadhi</i></td> <td>Sunday</td> <td>Biblical Hebrew: <span lang="he"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%AA#Hebrew" class="extiw" title="wikt:שבת">שבת</a></span></td> <td>Saturday (Sabbath) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Two early English loans of interest show back formation from what in the language appeared to be a plural. Most nouns (a) form the plural with an <i>-l</i> suffix, and (b) in the nominative-accusative singular elide the stem final vowel, thus <i>tukuyapa-</i> 'same-sex sibling', plural <i>tukuyapal</i>, nominative-accusative <i>tukuyap</i>. Under this model 'custard-apple' became <i>katitap</i>, plural <i>katitapal</i>, and 'mammy-apple' (pawpaw/papaya) became <i>mamiyap</i>, plural <i>mamiyapal</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Torres_Strait_Islands" title="List of Torres Strait Islands">List of Torres Strait Islands</a></div> <p>There are four main dialects, two of which are on probably the verge of extinction, one (Kaiwaligau Ya) through convergence to the neighbouring Kalaw Lagaw Ya. Within the dialects there are two or more subdialects. The average mutual intelligibility rate, based on a <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh</a> count, is around 97%. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>Western Torres Strait language <ul><li>Northern dialect: Kalau Kawau Ya (Kalaw Kawaw Ya) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Saibai_Island" title="Saibai Island">Saibai</a> (Saibai Village and Aith, also Bamaga/Seisia on Cape York), Dœwan (Dauan), Bœigu (Boigu);</dd></dl></li> <li>Western dialect: Kalau Lagau Ya (Kalaw Lagaw Ya) <dl><dd>Mabuyag (<a href="/wiki/Mabuiag" title="Mabuiag">Mabuiag</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Badhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Badhu">Badhu</a> (Badu). The western dialect also has a simplified form, particularly on Badhu, where quite a few foreign men of <a href="/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)" title="Malays (ethnic group)">Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Islander" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sea Islander">South Sea Islander</a> origin settled with their Island wives in the late 1800s and early 1900s;</dd></dl></li> <li>Eastern dialect (Central Island dialect, spoken by the Kulkulgal nation<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>): Kulkalgau Ya <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Masig" class="mw-redirect" title="Masig">Masig</a>, Yama, Waraber, Puruma, and associated islands, now uninhabited, such as Nagi, Tudu and Gebar;</dd></dl></li> <li>Southern dialect (South-West Islands): Kaiwaligau Ya [Kauraraigau Ya] <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Muralag" class="mw-redirect" title="Muralag">Muralag</a>, Ngœrupai (alt. Ngurupai) and the other islands of the <a href="/wiki/Thursday_Island" title="Thursday Island">Thursday Island</a> group, Mua (alt. Moa), Muri (Mt Adolphus — now uninhabited); Muwalgau Ya / Italgau Ya — Mua. Now converging with Kalaw Lagaw Ya.</dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>The Southern dialect has certain characteristics that link it closely to the northern dialect, and folk history dealing with the Muralag group and Mua reflects this, in that the ancestors of the Kowrareg (the Hiámo) originally came from Dharu (Daru, to the north east of Torres Strait) — and who had previously settled on Dharu from Yama in Central Torres Strait.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence1989_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrence1989-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samples_of_the_dialects">Samples of the dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Samples of the dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <p><i>They cut down a big tree earlier today to make a canoe.</i> </p> <dl><dd>Kalau Kawau Ya: Thana kayb kœi puy pathanu gulpa aymœipa.</dd> <dd>Kalaw Lagaw Ya: Thana kayib kœi puuyi pathanu gulka ayimka.</dd> <dd>Kulkalgau Ya: Thana kayb kœi puy pathanu[l] gulka aymœika.</dd> <dd>Kaiwaligau Ya/Muwalgau Ya: Thana kayib kœi puy pathanu[l] gulpa aymaipa.</dd> <dd>Old Kaiwaligau Ya (Kowrareg): Thana kayiba kœi puuři pathanulai gulpa[ri] ayimařipa[ri].</dd> <dd>Simplified Kalaw Lagaw Ya: Thana kaib kœi puy pathai gulka aymaik.</dd></dl> <p>Underlying form: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Thana+∅</p><p style="margin: 0px;">They <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kayiba∅</p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kœi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">big</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">puuRi+∅</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tree+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">patha+∅+∅+nulai</p><p style="margin: 0px;">chop+<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="attenuative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ATT</abbr>+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>+<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">today</span> <abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gul+ka/pari</p><p style="margin: 0px;">canoe+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ayima+[R]i+ka/pari</p><p style="margin: 0px;">make+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="verbal noun" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">VN</abbr>+<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Thana+∅ kayiba∅ kœi puuRi+∅ patha+∅+∅+nulai gul+ka/pari ayima+[R]i+ka/pari</p><p style="display: none;">{They PL+NOM} today big tree+ACC {chop+ATT+SG+<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">today</span> PST} canoe+DAT make+VN+DAT</p><p style="clear: left;">They cut down a big tree earlier today to make a canoe.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Some isolect markers of the four dialects of Kalaw Lagaw Ya: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Kalau Kawau Ya</th> <th>Kaiwaligau Ya</th> <th>Kalaw Lagaw Ya</th> <th>Kulkalgau Ya</th> <th>Kauraraigau Ya <br /> (Kowrareg) </th></tr> <tr> <th>you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">sing</span> </th> <td>ngi</td> <td>ngi</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ngi </td></tr> <tr> <th>house </th> <td>laag</td> <td>laag, <br /> mùdh</td> <td>mùùdha</td> <td>mùdh</td> <td>laaga, <br /> mùdha </td></tr> <tr> <th>thunder </th> <td>gigi</td> <td>dhuyum</td> <td>dhuyum</td> <td>dhuyum</td> <td>dhuyuma </td></tr> <tr> <th>end, finish </th> <td>muasi- <br /> (B muyasi-)</td> <td>muasi-</td> <td>minasi-</td> <td>minasi-</td> <td>moasi- </td></tr> <tr> <th>heat </th> <td>kom</td> <td>kœmàn</td> <td>kœmààna</td> <td>kom</td> <td>kœmàna </td></tr> <tr> <th>steam </th> <td>kœman</td> <td>kœmàn</td> <td>kœmààna</td> <td>kœmàn</td> <td>kœmàna </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>-pa</td> <td>-pa <br /> (-ka)</td> <td>-ka <br /> (-pa)</td> <td>-ka <br /> (-pa)</td> <td>-pa, -pari <br /> (-ka) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>-ngu(z), <br /> -z(i)</td> <td>-ngu, <br /> -z(i)</td> <td>-ngu, <br /> -zi</td> <td>-ngu, <br /> -z(i)</td> <td>-nguzi, <br /> -zi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Present Perfective <br /> Active Singular </th> <td>-iz, <br /> -izi, -izin</td> <td>-i (Badhu -in), <br /> -izi (Badhu -izin)</td> <td>-i, <br /> -izi</td> <td>-i, <br /> -izi</td> <td>-izi, <br /> -iziři </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialectal_differences">Dialectal differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dialectal differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonology">Phonology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phonological differences between the dialects are rare, and in general sporadic. The only regular differences are the following: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colloquial_final_unstressed_vowel_elision">Colloquial final unstressed vowel elision</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Colloquial final unstressed vowel elision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Found in Kulkalgau Ya and Kaiwalgau Ya: </p> <ul><li><i>maalu</i> 'sea' > <i>maal’</i></li> <li><i>waapi</i> 'fish' > <i>waap’</i></li> <li><i>thathi</i> 'father' > <i>thath’</i></li> <li><i>waaru</i> 'turtle' > <i>waar’</i></li> <li><i>ngadha</i> 'appearance, looks' > <i>ngadh’</i></li> <li><i>mœràpi</i> 'bamboo' (<i>à</i> shows the stressed syllable) > <i>mœràp’</i></li> <li><i>bera</i> 'rib' > <i>ber’</i></li> <li><i>kaaba</i> 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > <i>kaab’</i></li> <li><i>kaba</i> 'oar, paddle' > '<i>kab’</i></li></ul> <p>Such elision is rare or sporadic in Kalau Kawau Ya. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_unstressed_vowel_devoicing">Final unstressed vowel devoicing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Final unstressed vowel devoicing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kalaw Lagaw Ya, such final vowels in correct language are devoiced, and deleted in colloquial language, except in a small class of words which include <i>bera</i> 'rib', where there is a short vowel in the stem and in which the final vowel is permanently deleted, with compensatory lengthening of the final consonant (thus <i>berr</i>). </p><p>Strictly speaking, the process is not final vowel devoicing, but rather stressed vowel lengthening accompanied by final vowel devoicing — except in the case of words such as <i>bera</i> 'rib' > <i>berr</i>, where the process is final consonant lengthening by the final vowel being 'incorporated' into the consonant. Note that in the following the word-final capital letter represents a devoiced vowel: </p> <ul><li><i>maalu</i> 'sea' > <i>maalU</i> > <i>maal’</i></li> <li><i>waapi</i> 'fish' > <i>waapI</i> > <i>waap’</i></li> <li><i>thaathi</i> 'father' > <i>thaathI</i> > <i>thaath’</i> (Badhu variant <i>thath’</i>)</li> <li><i>waaru</i> 'turtle' > <i>waarU</i> > <i>waar’</i></li> <li><i>ngadha</i> 'appearance, looks' > <i>ngaadhA</i> > <i>ngaadh’</i></li> <li><i>mœràpi</i> 'bamboo' > <i>mœrààpI</i> > <i>mœrààp’</i></li> <li><i>bera</i> 'rib' > <i>berr</i></li> <li><i>kaba</i> 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > <i>kaabA</i> > <i>kaab</i></li> <li><i>kaba</i> 'oar, paddle' > <i>kabb</i></li></ul> <p>In declined forms of such words, the long vowel is shortened, and the final vowel voiced, and in words like <i>ber</i> 'rib' the final vowel often reappears: </p> <ul><li><i>maalU</i> 'sea' + <i>-ka</i> 'dative' > <i>maluka</i></li> <li><i>waapI</i> 'fish' > <i>wapika</i></li> <li><i>thaathI</i> 'father' > <i>thathika</i></li> <li><i>waarU</i> 'turtle' > <i>waruka</i></li> <li><i>ngaadhA</i> 'appearance, looks' > <i>ngadhaka</i></li> <li><i>mœrààpI</i> 'bamboo' > <i>mœràpika</i></li> <li><i>ber</i> 'rib' > <i>beraka, berka</i></li> <li><i>kaabA</i> 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > <i>kabaka</i></li> <li><i>kab</i> 'oar, paddle' > <i>kabaka, kabka</i></li></ul> <p>This vowel shortening in affixed/modified forms exists in all dialects, however the other dialects have retained contrastive length to some extent, whereas Kalaw Lagaw Ya has largely lost it for 'morphophonological' length, where the stressed vowel in non-emotive words (see below) of one or two syllables is automatically lengthened in the nominative-accusative; this also applies to words of three syllables with second syllable stress (as in <i>mœrààpI</i> 'bamboo'). </p><p>One of the very few length contrasts in the Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect is <i>kaaba</i> 'dance performance, knot in bamboo etc.' vs <i>kaba, kab</i> 'paddle, oar' (Old Kaiwaligaw Ya [Kauraraigau Ya] <i>kœRaba</i>; <i>œRa</i> has regularly given short <i>a</i> in Kalaw Lagaw Ya in <i>kaba, kab</i>). Such length contrasts are more widespread in the other dialects. </p><p>The exceptions are (1) the small class or words that include <i>ber</i> 'rib' and <i>kab</i> 'oar, paddle', and (2) emotive words. Emotive words are those that equate to a certain extent to diminutives in languages such as Irish, Dutch and German, where specific suffixes are added to show 'diminutive' status (<i>-ín</i>, <i>-je</i> and <i>-chen</i>/<i>-el</i>/-<i>lein</i> respectively). Emotive words include familiar kinship terms [the equivalent of English <i>Mum</i>, <i>Dad</i> and the like] and words used in emotive contexts such as singing/poetry. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word</th> <th>Non-Emotive</th> <th>Emotive </th></tr> <tr> <th>Mum </th> <td>(apuuwa, apùù, àpu — <i>mother</i>)</td> <td>Ama </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dad </th> <td>(thaathi, thaath — <i>father</i>)</td> <td>Baba </td></tr> <tr> <th>child </th> <td>kaazi, kaaz</td> <td>kazi </td></tr> <tr> <th>wife </th> <td>iipi, iip</td> <td>ipi </td></tr> <tr> <th>home (island) </th> <td>laaga, laag</td> <td>laga </td></tr> <tr> <th>dust, spray </th> <td>pœœya, pœœy</td> <td>pœya, paya </td></tr> <tr> <th>bamboo </th> <td>mœrààpi, mœrààp</td> <td>mœràpi, marapi </td></tr> <tr> <th>head </th> <td>kuwììku, kuwììk</td> <td>kuwìku, kuiku </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_i-glide_deletion">Final i-glide deletion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Final i-glide deletion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A small class of words in Kalau Kawau Ya do not have the final i-glide found in the other dialects, including the following: </p> <ul><li>banana plant: KLY/KulY/KY <i>dawa<b>i</b></i>, KKY <i>dawa</i></li> <li>spot, stain: KLY/KulY/KY <i>burku<b>i</b></i> (<i>bœrku<b>i</b></i>), KKY <i>bœrku</i> (<i>burku</i>)</li> <li>blank skink: KLY/KulY/KY <i>moga<b>i</b></i>, KKY Saibai/Dœwan <i>mogo</i>, Bœigu <i>moga</i></li> <li>old: KLY/KulY/KY <i>kulba<b>i</b></i>, KKY <i>kulba</i></li> <li>a short while, first before doing something else: KLY/KulY/KY <i>mamu<b>i</b></i>, KKY <i>mamu</i></li> <li>birth cord: KLY/KulY/KY <i>kùpa<b>i</b></i>, KKY <i>kùpa</i></li></ul> <p>Word forms in neighbouring languages as well in the Kauraraigau Ya (Kowrareg) of the mid-to-late 19th century, such as the Meriam Mìr <i>kopor</i> and Kauraraigau Ya <i>kupar</i>/<i>kopar</i> 'birth cord' show that in such words the final <i>-i</i>/<i>Ø</i> are the modern forms of older <i>*ɾ</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main syntactic differences are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_negative_construction">Verb negative construction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Verb negative construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In all dialects except Kalau Kawau Ya, the verb negative is the nominalised privative form of the verbal noun. As this form in itself a noun, its subject and direct object are cast in the genitive: </p> <ul><li><i>Ngath waapi purthanu</i> 'I ate a fish'</li> <li><i>Ngai stuwaka uzarima</i> 'I went to the store'</li> <li><i>Ngau wapiu purthaiginga</i> 'I didn't eat a fish'</li> <li><i>Ngau stuwaka uzaraiginga</i> 'I didn't go to the store'</li></ul> <p>The Kalau Kawau Ya dialect uses the verbal noun privative form as an invariable verb negative: </p> <ul><li><i>Ngath waapi purthanu</i> 'I ate a fish'</li> <li><i>Ngai stuwapa uzarima</i> 'I went to the store'</li> <li><i>Ngath waapi purthaiginga</i> 'I didn't eat a fish'</li> <li><i>Ngai stuwapa uzaraiginga</i> 'I didn't go to the store'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_tenses/aspects"><span id="Verb_tenses.2Faspects"></span>Verb tenses/aspects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Verb tenses/aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Kalau Kawau Ya dialect has the tenses and aspects listed in the section on verb morphology. The other dialects have largely lost the remote future tense, using the habitual instead; the remote future in the other dialects is retained most commonly as a 'future imperative', where the imperative refers to a vague period in the future. The Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect also has a 'last night' tense, where the adverb <i>bungil</i>/<i>bungel</i> (reduced form <i>bel</i>) 'last night' has become a verb postclitic, following the model of the adverb <i>ngùl</i> 'yesterday', which had previously become grammaticalised as a 'recent past' tense marker in all dialects, with reduction to <i>-ngu</i> in Kalau Kawau Ya. In the other dialects <i>bongel</i> 'last night' is a fully functioning temporal adverb used in conjunction with either the today past or the recent past. </p><p>The dialects differ in the forms of the following affixes: </p> <ol><li>present imperfective/<a href="/wiki/Near_future_(grammar)" title="Near future (grammar)">near future</a> perfective/verbal noun dative: <dl><dd>KKY/KY <b>-pa</b>, KLY/KulY <b>-ka</b></dd></dl></li> <li>Recent past <dl><dd>KKY <b>-ngu</b>, KLY/KY/KulY <b>-ngul</b></dd></dl></li> <li>Today past <dl><dd>KKY/KLY/KulY <b>-nu</b>, KY <b>-nul</b> (older <b>-nulai</b>)</dd></dl></li> <li>Habitual <dl><dd>KKY <b>-paruig/paruidh/-parui/-paru/-pu</b> (<b>-pu</b> most commonly on stems of two or more syllables, and the bi-syllabic forms on stems of one syllable [the consonant final forms are emphatic forms])</dd> <dd>KLY/KulY <b>-kuruig</b></dd> <dd>KY <b>-kurui</b></dd></dl></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nominal_affixes">Nominal affixes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nominal affixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main nominal affix difference is the dative ending, which has the following forms in the various dialects: </p> <ul><li>KLY/KulY <b>-ka</b>; <b>-pa</b> with <i>kipa</i> 'to here', <i>sipa</i> 'to there', <i>paipa</i> 'to ahead', <i>pawupa</i> 'to behind, off to one side'; <b>-pa</b> (sometimes in poetry/singing)</li> <li>KY <b>-pa</b>; <b>-ka</b> in <i>ngaikika</i> 'to/for/towards me'; <b>-ka</b> (often in poetry/singing)</li> <li>KKY <b>-pa</b> in all cases; <b>-ka</b> (often in poetry/singing)</li></ul> <p>The plural/HAVE suffix <i>-LAI</i> (underlying form) also shows a small amount of dialect variation with stems of two syllables, where Kulkalgau Ya differs from the other dialects in retaining the full form of the suffix <i>-lai</i>, reduced to <i>-l</i> in the other dialects. In stems of three or more syllables, the suffix is reduced to <i>-l</i> in all dialects, while retained as <i>-lai</i> (variants according to noun sub-class <i>-thai</i>, <i>-ai</i>, <i>-dai</i>) with stems of one syllable. </p> <dl><dt>Three+ syllable stem</dt></dl> <p><i>burum</i> 'pig', stem: <i>buruma-</i>, plural <i>burumal</i> </p> <dl><dt>Bisyllabic stem</dt></dl> <p><i>lag</i>, KLY <i>laaga</i> 'place, home, home island', stem: <i>laga-</i>, plural <i>lagal</i>, KulY <i>lagalai</i> </p> <dl><dt>Monosyllabic stems</dt></dl> <ol><li>Regular vowel final: <i>ma</i> 'spider', plural <i>malai</i></li> <li>Regular -i glide final: <i>mui</i> 'fire', plural <i>muithai</i>, KLY <i>muithail</i></li> <li>Regular -l final: <i>pel</i> 'fish tail', plural <i>pelai</i></li> <li>Regular -r final: <i>wœr/wur/uur</i> 'water', plural <i>wœlai/wulai/ulai</i>, KKY <i>wœrai</i></li> <li>Irregular vowel final stem: <i>ya</i> 'speech, word(s), message, language, etc.', plural <i>yadai</i>, KLY <i>yadail</i></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main differences between the dialects are to do with vocabulary, as can be seen in the following examples: </p> <ul><li>house/building: KLY <i>mùùdha</i> (<i>laaga</i>), KulY <i>mùdh</i> (<i>laag</i>), KY <i>laag</i> (<i>mùdh</i>), KKY <i>laag</i></li> <li>mud: KLY/KulY/KY <i>berdhar</i> (<i>sœœya</i> 'sandy mud/silt'), KKY <i>sœœi</i> (<i>berdhar</i> 'softness of food, mud, etc.')</li> <li>grandad: KLY/KulY/KY <i>athe</i>, KKY <i>pòpu</i></li> <li>frog: KLY/KulY <i>kœtube</i>, <i>kœtak</i>, <i>kaata</i>, KY <i>kat</i>, KLY (Saibai-Dœwan) <i>kat</i>, (Bœigu) <i>kœtuke</i>, <i>kat</i></li> <li>axe: KLY/KulY/KY <i>aga</i>, KKY <i>agathurik</i> (<i>thurik</i> 'cutting tool')</li> <li>namesake: KLY/KulY <i>natham</i>, KKY/KY <i>nasem</i></li> <li>small, little: KLY/KulY/KY <i>mœgi</i>, Saibai/Dœwan <i>mœgina</i>, Bœigu <i>mœgina, kœthuka</i></li> <li>woman, female: KKY <i>yipkaz/yœpkaz</i> [stem <i>yipkazi-/yœpkazi-</i>], KLY/KulY <i>ipikaz</i> (KLY variant <i>iipka</i>) [stem <i>ipkazi-</i>], KY <i>ipkai/ipikai</i> [stem <i>ipkazi-/ipikazi-</i>]</li> <li>man, male: KKY <i>garkaz</i> [stem <i>garkazi-</i>], KLY/KulY <i>garka</i> [stem <i>garkazi-</i>], KY <i>garkai</i> [stem <i>garkazi-</i>]</li> <li>unmarried young/teenage woman: KKY <i>ngawakaz</i> [stem <i>ngawakazi-</i>], KLY/KulY <i>ngawka/ngoka</i> [stem <i>ngawkazi-/ngokazi-</i>], KY <i>ngawakaz</i> [stem <i>ngawakazi-</i>]</li> <li>song: KLY <i>naawu</i> (plural <i>nawul</i>), KulY <i>nawu</i> (plural <i>nawulai</i>), KY <i>nawu</i> (plural <i>nawul</i>), KKY <i>na</i> (plural <i>nathai</i>)</li> <li>moon, month: KLY <i>kisaayi</i>, poetry <i>mœlpal</i>, KulY/KY <i>kiisay</i>, poetry <i>mœlpal</i>, KKY <i>mœlpal</i>, poetry <i>kiisay</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology_2">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kala Lagaw Ya is the only Australian language to have the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/</span>. However, these have <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophonic</a> variants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>/</span>, which are the norm in Australian languages (usually <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a>/</span> but non-contrasting). These latter two are allophones in that in all environments <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> can appear, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʒ/</span> can not appear at the end of a word; note that this allophony is very similar to that of the neighbouring Papuan language <a href="/wiki/Bine_language" title="Bine language">Bine</a>. All the stops, except for the alveolars <span class="nowrap">⟨t⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span>, have fricative allophones, thus <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span> can be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ]</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> can be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[β]</span>, and so on. Furthermore, it is one of the few Australian languages with fully functioning voiced-voiceless distinctions (<span class="nowrap">⟨p/b⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨t/d⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨s/z⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨k/g⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨th/dh⟩</span>) — and one of the few without <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> stops. </p><p>The language is also one of the few Australian languages with only one rhotic, one <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span> and one <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span>. The earliest recorded dialect, Kaiwalgau Ya (Kauraraigau Ya [Kowrareg]), however, did have two rhotics, the tap and the glide; the rhotic glide has in general become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/w/</span> or zero in the other dialects (and Modern Kaiwaligau Ya), rarely <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>. Neighbouring languages retain an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> in related words, such as: </p> <ul><li><i>sayima</i>, <i>sayim</i>, <i>sayma</i> 'outrigger' - Kauraraigau Ya <i>sařima</i>, Kiwai (Papua) <i>harima</i>, Gudang (Australia) <i>charima</i></li> <li><i>babath</i> 'opposite-sex sibling' - Kauraraigau Ya <i>bœřabatha</i> 'opposite-sex sibling', Meriam Mìr <i>berbet</i> 'sibling'</li> <li><i>kupai</i>, KKY <i>kupa</i> 'birth cord' - Kauraraigau Ya <i>kupař</i>, MM <i>kopor</i></li></ul> <p>However, in singing, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> are pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɹ]</span>, are virtually never as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʒ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">Palato-alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨m⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n̪</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Obstruent_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruent consonant">Obstruent</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨t⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨s⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></span> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental plosive">d̪</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨dh⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">Sonorant</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨w⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental lateral approximant">l̪</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note: </p> <ol><li>The consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> varies to some extent with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span>, particularly in KKY/KY <i>kadai-</i>/<i>karai-</i>, KLY/KulY <i>kad[a]</i>/<i>kad[a]</i>/<i>kadai</i>/<i>karai</i> 'upwards'.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">Unrounded</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">Rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long</a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ii⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨uu⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ee⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ù⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ùù⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨œ⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">əː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨œœ⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨oo⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨aa⟩</span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ò⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨òò⟩</span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ol><li>The long vowel <span class="nowrap">⟨ùù⟩</span> is only found in Kala Lagaw Ya.</li> <li>Length is to a certain extent contrastive, and partly allophonic.</li> <li>The +/-round contrast is reminiscent of Papuan phonology.</li> <li>The mid long vowels are allophonic variants of the mid short vowels that are in the process of developing phonemic status, while the short vowel <span class="nowrap">⟨ò⟩</span> is similarly in origin an allophone of <span class="nowrap">⟨òò⟩</span>.</li></ol> <p>Internal reconstruction and comparison with neighbouring languages suggests an underlying four vowel structure with contrasting vowel length, where underlying <i>*i</i> typically gives surface <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span>, underlying <i>*a</i> typically gives surface <i>a</i> and <i>œ</i>, underlying <i>*ò</i> typically gives surface <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ù⟩</span>, and underlying <i>*u</i> typically gives surface <span class="nowrap">⟨ù⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span> (there are other realisations as well, depending on rules of assimilation etc.): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Underlying Vowels</th> <th>-round</th> <th>+round </th></tr> <tr> <th>+high </th> <td>*i,*ii</td> <td>*u,*uu </td></tr> <tr> <th>-high </th> <td>*a,*aa</td> <td>*o,*oo </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The language undergoes low-level vowel shifts, caused by stress domination within words and phrases. Long vowels are shortened, and short vowels raise when the word is preceded by morphemes such as adjectives, demonstrative articles, prefixes and the like; the changes also occur within words when these are suffixed: </p> <ul><li><i>laag</i> 'place' — <i>senabi lag</i> 'that place'</li> <li><i>lagal</i> 'places' — <i>sethabi lœgal</i> 'those places' (also <i>sethabi lagal</i>)</li> <li><i>mœrap</i> 'bamboo' — <i>mœrœpil</i> 'bamboo plants/poles/sticks' (also <i>mœrapil</i>)</li> <li><i>guul</i> 'sailing canoe' — <i>senaubi gul</i> 'that canoe'</li> <li><i>thonaral</i> 'times' — <i>sethabi thunaral</i> 'those times' (also <i>sethabi thonaral</i>)</li> <li><i>zageth</i> 'work' — <i>zagithapa</i> 'to/for work [dative]' (also <i>zagethapa</i>) (compound of <i>za</i> 'thing' + <i>geth</i> 'hand')</li></ul> <p>The processes are low-level in that they are not 'automatic' — the changes do not have to occur and can be consciously 'blocked'. In normal speech, vowel shortening and the change of <b>a</b> to <b>œ</b> normally occur, while the changes of <b>e</b> to <b>i</b> and <b>o</b> to <b>u</b> are sporadic, and most common in unstressed syllables. </p><p>Assimilation of vowels to other vowels in the vicinity and consonants is also widespread, particularly of the vowel <b>œ</b>: </p> <ul><li><i>wœrab</i> 'coconut' — <i>wurab</i> — <i>urab</i></li> <li><i>yœlpai</i> 'lead' [verbal noun] — <i>yilpai</i> — <i>ilpai</i></li> <li><i>ngœnu</i> 'whose' — <i>ngunu</i></li> <li><i>kœu</i> 'belonging to here' — <i>kou</i></li> <li><i>ngœba</i> 'you and I' — <i>ngaba</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kauřařaigau_Ya_phonology"><span id="Kau.C5.99a.C5.99aigau_Ya_phonology"></span>Kauřařaigau Ya phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Kauřařaigau Ya phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following summary of the phonology of Old Kauraregau Ya is compiled from MacGillivray (1852), Brierly (in Moore 1978), Ray and Haddon (1897) and Ray (1907). In general, there does not to appear to have been any great phonological difference between OKY and the modern dialects of Kalau Lagau Ya (apart from the retention of <b>ř</b>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stress">Stress</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a> appears to have been similar to that of the modern dialects, with stress patterns being most similar to that of modern Bœigu and Ngœrupai speech, the most conservative dialects in this respect. In the following the standardised forms are in <b>bold</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bisyllabic_forms">Bisyllabic forms</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bisyllabic forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress is initial: </p> <ul><li><i>baba, baba, bapa</i>: <b>baba</b> 'dad'</li> <li><i>kawp</i>: <b>kaapu</b> 'seed'</li> <li><i>buai, bua, bue, booi, boy, boi, booee, boye</i>: <b>buwai</b> 'clan; prow'</li></ul> <p>A few forms (such as <i>gru</i>: <b>gœrú</b> 'sugar cane') show that contrastive stress existed in bisyllabic words. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Multisyllabic_forms">Multisyllabic forms</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Multisyllabic forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stress is either on the initial or second syllable: </p><p>(1) initial: </p> <ul><li><i>gugure</i>: <b>gagaři</b> 'bow'</li> <li><i>myrabada</i>: <b>ngœiřabatha</b> 'father's sister'</li> <li><i>tukiapalli</i>: <b>tukuyapalai</b> 'same sex sibling <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">pl</span>'</li></ul> <p>(2) second: </p> <ul><li><i>bobata</i>: <b>bœbàtha</b> 'grandparent'</li> <li><i>murrag:</i> <b>mœřààga</b> 'sweat'</li></ul> <p>Shifted stress also appears to have occurred as in the modern dialects: </p> <ul><li><i>purteipa</i>: <b>pùrthàipa</b> 'eat' (attainative imperfective present singular / perfective today future)</li> <li><i>pratipa</i>: <b>pùràthipa</b> 'eat' (active imperfective present singular / perfective today future)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels_and_diphthongs">Vowels and diphthongs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vowels and diphthongs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These appear to have been the same as in the modern language. Vowel length in general appeared in the same environments as in KKY, though some amount of <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel lengthening</a> under the KLY model is evident, as in <i>kawp</i>: <b>kaapu</b> 'seed', Kalau Kawau Ya / Kulkalgau Ya <i>kapu</i>, Kalau Lagau Ya <i>kaapu</i>. </p><p>The exact extent of retention of underlying vowel length and the development of variant forms is difficult to measure, as the spelling systems used by Brierly and MacGillivray did not always mark vowel length. Further, as they obtained words through elicitation (which has a common 'lengthening effect' on vowels when words are 'slowed down'), there are a few cases where they marked vowel length wrongly. Ray marked vowel shortness in stressed syllables. </p><p>The various sound changes that the vowels and diphthongs undergo in the modern language also occurred in OKY. One change that occurred much more than in the modern dialects was that of <i>ai</i> <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongisation</a> to <i>e</i>. The resulting <i>e</i> then often raised to <i>i</i> in open unstressed syllables. </p><p>No change: </p> <ul><li><i>alai</i>: <b>alai</b> 'husband', <i>amai</i>: <b>amai</b> 'earth oven'</li></ul> <p>Change: </p> <ul><li><i>buai, bua, bue, booi, boy, boi, booee, boye</i>: <b>buwai, buwe, buwi</b> 'clan, prow'</li> <li><i>palai, pale</i>: <b>palai</b>, <b>pale</b> 'they <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>'</li> <li><i>kowraraiga</i>, <i>kowrarega</i>: <b>kauřařaiga</b> ~ <b>kauřařega</b> 'islander'</li> <li><i>kowraraigali</i>, <i>kowraregale</i>, <i>kowrarigali</i>: <b>kauřařaigalai</b> ~ <b>kauřařegale</b> ~ <b>kauřařegali</b> ~ <b>kauřařigali</b> 'islanders'</li> <li><i>wapi</i>, <i>wawpi'</i>: <b>waapi</b> 'fish': plural/proprietive <i>wapilai</i>, <i>wapile</i>, <i>wapili</i></li></ul> <p>In the modern dialects, these forms are: </p> <ul><li>clan, prow: <b>buwai</b></li> <li>they <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>: KLY,KulY,S-D <b>palai</b>, B,KY <b>pale</b></li> <li>islander:KLY,KulY,KY-MY <i>kaiwalaig</i>, plural <i>kaiwaligal</i> / <i>kaiwalgal</i>, KKY <i>kawalaig</i>, plural <i>kawalgal</i></li> <li>fish: <i>waapi</i>, plural <i>wapil</i>, KulY <i>wapilai</i></li></ul> <p>The change of <i>ai</i> to <i>ei</i> appears to have been very common elsewhere in the dialect: </p> <ul><li><i>adaipa, adeipa</i>: <b>adhaipa</b> 'go/put out' attainative perfective today future</li> <li><i>amaipa, ameipa</i>: <b>amayipa</b> 'crawl' imperfective present</li> <li><i>angaipa, angeipa</i>: <b>angaipa</b> 'carry' perfective today future</li> <li><i>batainga, bateinga</i>: <b>bathainga</b> 'tomorrow'</li> <li><i>baidama, beidama</i>: <b>baidhama</b> 'shark'</li></ul> <p>One form shows optional <b>i</b> insertion: </p><p><i>gassumu-, gassima-</i>: <b>gasama- ~ gasœma- ~ gasima-</b> 'catch, get', modern dialects <i>gasama- ~ gasœma-</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_ř"><span id="Development_of_.C5.99"></span>Development of <i>ř</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Development of ř"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>OKY<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This abbreviation was used without having been defined earlier (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a> what does this abbreviation stand for?</i>]</sup> had one more consonant than modern WCL<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="This abbreviation was used without having been defined earlier (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a> what does this abbreviation stand for?</i>]</sup>, transcribed <i>ř</i>. Though the actual pronunciation of this sound and its difference from <i>r</i> was not given by any early writer, it most likely was a <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic glide</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>]</span>, perhaps with a palatal 'hue'. The loss of this sound in the other dialects (and in modern KY) occurred in the following rules; the changes were beginning to be evident already in OKY: </p><p><i>Ř</i> between like vowels or in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]__V</span> deletes. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>burugo</i> (<b>bùřùga</b>) > modern dialects <i>bùg</i>, KLY <i>bùùga</i> 'marsh fly'</li> <li>OKY <i>sřinge, singe</i> > modern dialects <i>singe</i> 'fish/head carrying loop'</li> <li>OKY <i>murrag</i> (<b>mœřaaga</b>) > modern dialects <i>maag</i>, KLY <i>maaga</i> 'sweat, film'</li> <li>OKY <i>dura</i> (<b>dœřàà</b>) > modern dialects <i>daa</i> 'chest'</li></ul> <p><i>Ř</i> sporadically becomes [+hi] when in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə__a</span> and the following syllable is stressed. </p> <ul><li>OKY <b>wœřàtha</b>: KY <i>wœyath</i>, KLY <i>wiyeth</i>/<i>wœyeth</i>, KulY <i>uyeth</i>, KKY <i>wath</i> 'year'</li> <li>OKY <i>norat</i> (<b>nœřàtha</b>): KY <i>nœyath/nath</i>, KLY <i>niyath</i>, KulY <i>niyath</i>, KKY <i>nath</i> 'platform'</li> <li>OKY <i>waraaba</i> (<b>wœřaba</b>): KY <i>uwiba</i>, KLY <i>wiiba</i>, KulY <i>wiiba</i>, KKY <i>waba</i> 'green dove'</li> <li>OKY <i>karrabie</i> (<b>kœřaba</b>): KY <i>kab(a) </i>, KLY <i>kab</i>, KulY <i>kœyaba</i>, KKY <i>kab</i> 'paddle, oar'</li></ul> <p><i>Ř</i> becomes a [+V] glide when between [-hi] and [+hi] vowels, and between [+bak] and [-bak] vowels. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>mari</i> (<b>maaři</b>): KLY <i>maayi</i>, KKY <i>maay</i> 'pearl shell'</li> <li>OKY <i>sarima</i> (<b>sařima</b>): KLY <i>sayim(a)</i>, KKY <i>sayima</i>/<i>sayma</i> 'outrigger float'</li> <li>OKY <i>puri, prui</i> (<b>puuři</b>, <b>pœřuui</b>): KLY <b>puuyi</b>, KKY <b>puuy</b> 'tree, plant, magic'</li> <li>OKY <i>mekari</i> (<b>mekaři</b>): KLY <i>mekey</i>, KKY <i>mekay</i> 'almond'</li> <li>OKY <i>tituri</i> (<b>thithuři</b>): KLY <i>thithúúyi</i>, KKY <i>thithuy</i> 'star'</li> <li>OKY <i>Giralaga</i> (<b>Giřalaga</b>): KLY <i>Giyalaaga</i>, KKY <i>Giyalag</i> 'Friday Island'</li> <li>OKY <i>Mora</i> (<b>Muřa</b>~<b>Mořa</b>): KLY <i>Muwa</i>, KKY <i>Muwa</i>~<i>Mowa</i></li></ul> <p><i>Vuř</i> becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> when intervocalic. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>Maurari</i> (<b>Mauřaři</b>): modern dialects <i>Maway(i)</i> 'Wednesday Island'</li> <li>OKY <i>tura</i> (<b>thuřa</b>~<b>thœuřa</b>): modern dialects <i>thœwa</i> ~ <i>thuwa</i> 'shortness'</li></ul> <p><i>Ř</i> optionally becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> when syllable final and following [-hi] vowels; in at least two words metathesis first occurred. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>kopar</i> (<b>kùpařa</b>): KY,KLY,KulY <i>kùpai</i>, KKY <i>kùpa</i> 'umbilical cord'</li> <li>OKY <i>kaura</i> (<b>kauřa</b>): KKY <i>kawa,</i> KY > *<b>kařua</b> > <i>kawa</i>~<i>kaiwa</i>, KLY,KulY <i>kaiwa</i> 'island'</li> <li>OKY <i>wauri</i> (<b>wauři</b>): KKY <i>wawi,</i> KY,KLY,KulY > *<b>wařua</b> > <i>waiwi</i> 'arm-band shell'</li></ul> <p><i>Ř</i> deletes when syllable final following high vowels and non-final. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>burkera</i> (<b>buřkera</b>): KY <i>bùker</i> 'hot coal'</li></ul> <p><i>Ř</i> disappears when followed by unstressed <i>i</i> and more than one syllable. </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>ngörimuni</i> (<b>ngœřimùni</b>): KKY,KY <i>ngœimùn</i>, KLY,KulY <i>ngœlmùn</i> 'our EXC PL'</li> <li>OKY <i>myrabat</i> (<b>ngœiřabatha</b>): modern dialects <i>ngœibath</i> 'fathers sister'</li> <li>OKY <i>görigar, göriga</i> (<b>gœřigař[i]</b>): modern dialects <i>gœiga</i> 'sun, day'</li> <li>OKY <i>kariki</i> (<b>kařiki</b>): modern dialects <i>kaiki</i> 'here non-specific locative'</li> <li>OKY <i>tyariki</i> (<b>seřiki</b>): modern dialects <i>seiki</i> 'there non-specific locative'</li></ul> <p>Early spellings (e.g. <i>möaga</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[məaga]</span> 'sweat' and <i>neet/naat/nöat/niet</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nejat]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nat]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nəat]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nijet]</span> 'platform' show that <b>ř</b> disappeared first, leaving a hiatus (except in those cases where <b>ř</b> > <b>y~i</b>), with reduction of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[V1-V1]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə-V1]</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[V1]</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə-VV]</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[VV]</span>. </p><p>OKY underwent the same allophony and sound changes as the modern dialects, though <b>z</b> ~ <b>dh</b> and <b>s</b> ~ <b>th</b> variation appears to have been more general in OKY, as in the following (perhaps evidence of older allophony in the language which is now levelling out): </p> <ul><li><i>zaazi</i> 'grass skirt': Brierly <i>juagee, djaajie, djaajie, dadjee, dadji, dadje, dadjie</i>, MacGillivray <i>daje</i>, OKY <b>zaazi</b>, <b>dhaazi</b></li> <li><i>sagul adhamadha ~ azamadha</i> 'be putting put on a dance!': Brierly <i>sagool adzamada</i>, OKY <b>sagul adhamadha ~ azamadha</b></li> <li><i>wœsul</i> 'dirty water': Brierly <i>ootzoo, oodthool</i>, OKY <b>uusul</b>, <b>uuthul</b></li> <li><i>ngœzu</i> 'my <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">fem</span>': Brierly <i>udthu, oldzoo, udzoo</i>, MacGillivray <i>udzu, udz</i>, OKY <b>ngœzu, ngœdhu</b></li></ul> <p>An instance of optional <b>r</b> deletion before <b>s</b> is also attested in the following example, unless the first <b>i</b> in <i>myaichipp</i> is a misprint or misreading of <i>*myarchipp</i>: </p><p><b>maayi-arsipa</b> 'wail, keen, weep': Brierly <i>myaichipp</i>, MacGillivray <i>maierchipa</i>, OKY <b>mayarsipa, mayasipa</b> </p><p>Various forms in OKY showed <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a> of <b>ř</b> and <b>r</b> in the environment of <b>u</b>, <b>i</b> and <b>au</b>: </p> <ul><li><b>ngauřakai ~ ngauřakazi</b> > <i>naroka, nerawkaji</i> 'maiden' (unmarried girl), cf. KKY <i>ngawakaz</i></li> <li><b>gœřiga ~ gœřigař</b> > <i>gyrriegi, gurrigi, goraigor</i> 'day, sun', cf. KKY <i>gœiga</i></li> <li><b>puuři</b> > <i>uperia, oopeere, ooperie, uperi, prui, upiri</i> 'magic gear/charms/produce', cf. KKY <i>puuy</i>, KLY <i>puuyi</i>.</li> <li><i>rigaboo, rugabu</i> (<b>rugœbaw</b>) > modern dialects <i>wœrugœbaw, urugœbaw</i>, Bœigu <i>wœrigœbaw, urigœbaw</i> 'sweet potato', lit. <i>wœru-gabaw</i> 'cord/string-cultivated yam'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabification">Syllabification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Syllabification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Syllabification occurred as in the modern dialects, with the addition of <b>ř</b> also attested as a syllable final consonant. One word was recorded by Brierly and MacGillivray with a [+nas][-son] cluster, namely <i>enti</i> 'spider', however this appears to be a confusion; <i>enti</i> is probably Gudang (Australia) <i>ant[h]i</i> 'sore'. </p><p>Syllables were vowel final or end in <b>r</b>, <b>ř</b>, <b>l</b>, glide <b>i</b> or glide <b>u</b>. Otherwise surface syllable final consonants have an underlying following vowel, in which case all consonants could be syllable initial. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no strict standard spelling, and three slightly different orthographies (and often mixes of them) are in use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mission_Spelling">Mission Spelling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mission Spelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mission Spelling (established at first by <a href="/wiki/Loyalty_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Loyalty Islands">Loyalty Islands</a> missionaries in the 1870s, then modified by Polynesian missionaries in the 1880s): <i>a, b, d, e, g, i, j, k, l, m, n, ng, o, ö, p, r, s, t, u, z</i>, sometimes also <i>th, dh, dth, tr, dr, oe, ë, w, y, j</i>, and sometimes double vowels to show length. This spelling system was based on that used for the <a href="/wiki/Drehu_language" title="Drehu language">Drehu (Lifu) language</a>, though later with the change to Polynesian mission staff, as well as the growing number of indigenous Torres Strait missionaries, the overtly Drehu forms <i>tr</i>, <i>dr</i> and <i>ë</i> were lost; these had no phonological basis in Kalaw Lagaw Ya. The mission system is used in the <i>Reports of the Cambridge Expedition to the Torres Strait</i> (Haddon et al., 1898 and on, University of Cambridge) and in <i>Myths and Legends of Torres Strait</i> (Lawrie, University of Queensland, 1971). Ray, the linguist of the Cambridge Expedition, also used various diacritics to represent short vowels and vowel quality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Klokheid_and_Bani">Klokheid and Bani</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Klokheid and Bani"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Established in the 1970s: <i>a</i>, <i>aa</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i> (alveolar), <i>dh</i> (dental), <i>e</i>, <i>ee</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>ii</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>ng</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>oo</i>,<i>oe</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>), <i>ooe</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əː/</span>), <i>p</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i> (alveolar), <i>th</i> (dental), <i>u</i>, <i>uu</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saibai,_Boigu,_Dauan_students"><span id="Saibai.2C_Boigu.2C_Dauan_students"></span>Saibai, Boigu, Dauan students</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Saibai, Boigu, Dauan students"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Established in the late 1970s: <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i> (alveolar), <i>dh</i> (dental), <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>ng</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>oe</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>), <i>p</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i> (alveolar), <i>th</i> (dental), <i>u</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i> (vowel length, though it exists, is rarely represented). </p><p>People not only use these three slightly differing spelling systems, but also write words more or less as they pronounce them. Words are therefore often spelt in various ways, for example <i>sena/sina</i> 'that, there', <i>kothai/kothay/kothei/kothey/kothe</i> 'back of head, occiput'. Such variation depends on age, family, island, village and other factors such as poetic speech. It can be difficult at times to decide which is most correct — different people have different opinions (and sometimes have very strong opinions). </p><p>In general the pronunciation of older people has priority; however, some people can actually get quite offended if they think the language is written the 'wrong' way. Some insist that the mission spelling should be used, others the Bani spelling, and still others the KKY (Saibai etc.) spelling, and still again others use mixes of two or three, or adaptations thereof. Some writers of the Mabuiag-Badhu dialect (Kalaw Lagaw Ya), for example, write mainly in the Mission system, sometimes use the digraphs <i>oe</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>dh</i> (variant <i>dth</i>) and sometimes use capital letters at the ends of words to show devoiced vowels, such as <i>ngukI</i> 'fresh water/drinking water, fruit juice' <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋʊːki̥/</span>. In the Bani/Klokheid orthograophy <i>nguki</i> is written <i>nguuki</i>, and in the other dialects the final vowel is either fully voiced, <i>nguki</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋʊki/</span>), or elided, <i>nguk</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋʊk/</span>). </p><p>The biggest bone of contention between the advocates of the 'modern' orthographies and the 'traditionalist' orthographies is the use of <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> to show the semi-vowels. In general native speakers in literacy classes seem to find <i>y</i> and <i>w</i> very difficult to learn, and that <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> are the 'logical' letters to use. Syllabification of words by untrained speakers suggests that <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> are really the underlying sounds. Thus, a word like <i>dhaudhai</i>/<i>dhawdhay</i> 'mainland, continent' syllabifies as <i>dha-u-dha-i</i>, not <i>dhau-dhai</i>. In songs, the glide-<i>u</i>/<i>i</i> can also be given full syllable status. Historical considerations also point to the semi-vowels often being vocalic rather than consonantal. Thus, <i>lagau</i>, the genitive of <i>laag[a]</i> 'place' is in underlying form <laaga+ngu>; the full form of the genitive ending <i>-ngu</i> is only retained where the nominal has a monosyllabic stem (see the section on Nominal Morphology). Similarly, verbal nouns end in <i>-i</i>, e.g. <i>lumai</i>, stem <i>luuma-</i> 'search, look for, seek, hunt'. The mid-19th century to early 20th century records of Kauaraigau Ya show that the verbal noun ending was previously <i>-ri</i> (thus <i>lumari</i>), where the <i>-r-</i> was presumably the rhotic glide rather than the rhotic tap/trill. </p><p>A dictionary now in preparation (Mitchell/Ober) uses an orthography based on detailed study of the surface and underlying phonology of the language, as well as on observation of how people write in real life situations. It is a mix of the Mission and Kalau Kawau Ya orthographies with the addition of diacritics (the letters in brackets) to aid correct pronunciation, since many of the people who will use this dictionary will not be speakers of the language: </p><p><i>a (á), b, d, dh, e (é), g, i (í), k, l, m, n, ng, o (ó, ò, òò), œ (œ'), r, s, t, th, u (ú, ù), w, y, z</i> </p><p>Within this orthography, <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> are treated as consonants — this is their phonological status in the language — while <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> are used as the glides where phonological considerations show that the 'diphthong' combination has vocalic status. </p><p>The typewritten forms of <i>œ</i> and <i>œœ</i> are <i>oe</i> and <i>ooe</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronunciation_of_the_letters">Pronunciation of the letters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Pronunciation of the letters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English pronunciations given in the list below are those of Australian English, and are only meant as a guide. The letters in square brackets (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[]</span>) are the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>. </p> <ul><li><b>a</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span>: 'u' as in 'hut' — <i>gath</i> 'shallow, shallows', <i>mathaman</i> 'hit, kill'</li> <li><b>a</b>, <b>á</b> (long) (<b>aa</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː]</span> 'a' as in <i>father</i> — <i>áth</i> 'bottom turtle shell' ('plastron'), <i>ma</i> 'spider', <i>lág, laaga</i> 'place'</li> <li><b>b</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> as in English — <i>Báb</i> 'Dad', <i>bibir</i> 'power, authority'</li> <li><b>d</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> as in English — <i>da</i> 'chest', <i>idi</i> 'oil, grease, fat, dead-calm sea'</li> <li><b>dh</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̪]</span> similar to <b>d</b>, but with the tip of the tongue put against the top teeth- <i>dha</i> 'ladder, stairs', <i>adhal</i> 'outside', <i>Bádhu</i> 'Badu'</li> <li><b>e</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span> 'e' as in <i>bed</i> — <i>bero</i> 'rib, side of boat, river bank, etc.', <i>nge</i> 'then', <i>tete</i> 'animal/bird leg'</li> <li><b>e</b>, <b>é</b> (long) (<b>ee</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eː]</span> 'are' as in <i>bared</i> — <i>gér</i> 'sea snake', <i>dhe</i> 'slime', <i>sei</i> 'there'</li> <li><b>g</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> as in English <i>get</i>, never as in <i>general</i> — <i>gigi</i> 'thunder', <i>gugu</i> 'owl'</li> <li><b>i</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> short 'ee' as in <i>feet</i> — <i>midh</i> 'how', <i>sisi</i> 'gecko', <i>ipi</i> 'wife'</li> <li><b>i</b>, <b>í</b> (long) (<b>ii</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iː]</span> 'ee' as in <i>feed</i> — <i>síb</i> 'liver, centre', <i>gi</i> 'knife', <i>ígil</i> 'life'</li> <li><b>k</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> as in English — <i>kikiman</i> 'hurry up', <i>kakayam</i> 'bird-of-paradise</li> <li><b>l</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> similar to English 'l' in <i>lean</i>, but with the tip of the tongue against the top teeth; never as in English <i>kneel</i> — <i>lág</i> 'place, home', <i>li</i> 'basket', <i>gúl</i> 'double-outrigger sailing canoe'</li> <li><b>m</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> as in English — <i>mám</i> 'love, affection', <i>Ama</i> 'Mum, Aunty', <i>ma</i> 'spider'</li> <li><b>n</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> similar to English 'n' in <i>nun</i>, but with the tip of the tongue against the top teeth — <i>naawu</i>, KKY <i>na</i> 'song', <i>nan</i> 'her, it', <i>nanu</i> 'her(s), its'</li> <li><b>ng</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> as in English <i>sing</i>; never as in English <i>finger</i> — <i>ngai</i> 'I, me', <i>ngœrang</i> 'armpit'</li> <li><b>o</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span> more or less 'o' as is in <i>got</i>, though more rounded — <i>sob</i> 'slowness', <i>mogai</i>, Bœigu <i>moga</i>, Saibai-Dœwan <i>mogo</i> 'blank skink'</li> <li><b>o</b> (long) (<b>oo</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[oː]</span> more or less 'o' as in <i>god</i>, though more rounded — <i>gor</i> 'tie-hole', <i>so</i> 'show'</li> <li><b>ò</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔ]</span> short version of 'oa' in <i>broad</i> — <i>mòdhabil</i> 'costs, prices', <i>gòyal</i> 'bald'</li> <li><b>ò</b> (long) (<b>oo</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɔː]</span> 'oa' in <i>broad</i> — <i>mòs</i> 'lung, spittle', <i>gòy</i> 'baldness'</li> <li><b>œ</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> 'a' as in <i>about</i> — <i>bœtœm</i> 'lean (animals)', <i>bœga</i> 'mallard'</li> <li><b>œ</b> (long) (<b>ooe</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əː]</span> more or less like 'er' in <i>herd</i> — <i>wœr</i> 'water', <i>Wœy</i> 'Venus', <i>bœi</i> 'coming'</li> <li><b>p</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> as in English — <i>papi</i> 'noose, trap', <i>áp</i> 'garden', KKY <i>Pòpu</i> 'Grandad'</li> <li><b>r </b>[r] similar to 'tt' in <i>better</i> when said fast (that is to say, when said as <i>bedder</i>). Before another consonant and at the end of a word, it is often trilled (like in 'stage' Scottish English or 'rr' in Spanish). In singing, however, it is normally pronounced much like the American English 'r' — <i>ári</i> 'rain, louse', <i>rùg</i> 'rag, piece of cloth', <i>ár</i> 'dawn'</li> <li><b>s</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> most commonly like English 's' in <i>sister</i>; sometimes like English 'ch' in <i>chew</i> when at the beginning of a word or in the middle of a word; never like 's' in 'as' (which is a 'z' sound) — <i>sas</i> 'style, showing off', <i>sisi</i> 'gecko', <i>sagul 'game</i>, fun, dance'</li> <li><b>t</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> as in English — <i>tádu</i> 'sand-crab', <i>tídan 'return</i>, understand', <i>ít</i> 'rock oyster'</li> <li><b>th</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪]</span> similar to t, but with the tip of the tongue put against the top teeth — <i>tha</i> 'crocodile tail', <i>thathi</i> 'father', <i>geth</i> 'hand'</li> <li><b>u</b> (short) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> short 'u' as in <i>lute</i> — <i>buthu</i> 'sand', <i>gulai</i>, KLY <i>gulal</i> 'sailing canoes'</li> <li><b>u</b>, <b>ú</b> (long) (<b>uu</b> in the Bani orth.) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[uː]</span> 'oo' in <i>woo</i> — <i>búzar</i> 'fat, blubber', <i>thu</i> 'smoke'</li> <li><b>ù</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ]</span> 'u' as in <i>put</i> — <i>mùdh</i> 'shelter, haven, back-yard, camp', <i>kùt</i> 'late afternoon, early evening', <i>kùlai</i> 'first, before'</li> <li><b>w</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> not as strong as English 'w' in <i>we</i> ; for most speakers of the language the only difference between <b>w</b> and short <b>u</b> is that <b>w</b> is shorter — <i>wa</i> 'yes', <i>kawa</i> 'island', <i>báw</i> 'wave'</li> <li><b>y</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> not as strong as English 'y' in <i>yes</i>; for most speakers of the language the only difference between <b>y</b> and short <b>i</b> is that <b>y</b> is much shorter — <i>ya</i> 'speech, talk, language', <i>aye</i>, KKY <i>aya</i> 'come!', <i>máy</i> 'well, spring; tears; pearl-shell, nacre'</li> <li><b>z</b> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> most commonly like English 'z' in <i>zoo</i>, or English 's' in <i>has</i>; sometimes like English 'j' in <i>jump</i>, or 'dg' in <i>budge</i> when at the beginning or in the middle of a word — <i>zázi</i> 'grass skirt', <i>za</i> 'thing, object', <i>zizi</i> 'crackle, crack, rustling noise'</li></ul> <p>Combinations of vowels ('diphthongs', such as <i>ai</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>œi</i>, <i>eu</i> etc.) are pronounced as written. Thus, for example, <i>ai</i> is <i>a-i</i> (basically very similar to 'i' in 'mine' with a posh accent). In singing and sometimes in slow speech, such vowel combinations can be said separately. In the Bani and Saibai (etc.) orthographies, the last elements can be written as <i>y</i> and <i>w</i> instead of <i>i</i> and <i>u</i>. The diphthongs are: </p> <ul><li><b>ei/ey</b> — <i>sei</i>, <i>sey</i> 'there'</li> <li><b>iu/iw</b> — <i>biuni</i>, <i>biwni</i> 'kookoobuura, kingfisher'</li> <li><b>œi/œy</b> — <i>bœi</i>, <i>bœy</i> 'coconut frond'</li> <li><b>eu/ew</b> — <i>seu</i>, <i>sew</i> 'belonging to there'</li> <li><b>ai/ay</b> — <i>Saibai</i>, <i>Saybay</i> 'Saibai'</li> <li><b>œu/œw</b> — <i>kœubu</i>, <i>kœwbu</i> 'battle, war'</li> <li><b>òi/oy</b> — <i>òi</i>, <i>oy</i> 'hoy!, hey!' (reply to a call, vocative particle)</li> <li><b>au/aw</b> — <i>kaub</i>, <i>kawb</i> 'tiredness'</li> <li><b>ui/uy</b> — <i>mui</i>, <i>muy</i> 'fire'</li> <li><b>ou/ow</b> — <i>berou</i>, <i>berow</i> 'of a/the rib'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nominal_morphology">Nominal morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Nominal morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Where the morphology is concerned, the language is somewhere along the continuum between <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nominal_sentence" title="Nominal sentence">Nominals</a> have the following cases: <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental" title="Instrumental">instrumental</a> (subsumes <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a> (subsumes <a href="/wiki/Allative" class="mw-redirect" title="Allative">allative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Final_case" title="Final case">purposive</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a> (subsumes <a href="/wiki/Elative_case" title="Elative case">elative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aversive_case" title="Aversive case">avoidative</a>), specific <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a>, nonspecific <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a> (subsumes <a href="/wiki/Perlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Perlative">perlative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comitative" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitative">comitative</a>) and global <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a>. Nominals also have the following derived forms: <a href="/wiki/Privative" title="Privative">privative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semblative_case" title="Semblative case">similative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resultative" title="Resultative">resultative</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proprietive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proprietive (page does not exist)">proprietive</a>, which also forms the noun <a href="/wiki/Nominative-accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative-accusative">nominative-accusative</a> plural. All stems end in a vowel or a semi-vowel, except for a few monosyllables ending in <b>-r</b> and <b>-l</b> (which includes the very few reduplicated words, like <i>tharthar</i> 'boiling, seething', as well as <i>ngipel</i> 'you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>' [a compound of <i>ngi</i> 'you singular' and <i>-pal</i> 'two']). For many nouns the surface nominative(-accusative) undergoes a final stem-vowel deletion rule; in the Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect the rule results in final devoiced vowels accompanied by main vowel lengthening. There are three numbers, <a href="/wiki/Singular_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular number">singular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>. Singular and dual are the same form in all nominals except the personal pronouns. Furthermore, the plural is only distinguished in the nominative-accusative — except for the personal pronouns, where the difference in number is shown by the stem. </p><p>There are two nominal classes, Common Nominals (<a href="/wiki/Common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Common nouns">common nouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstratives">demonstratives</a>, locative/temporal/etc. <a href="/wiki/Adverbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverbs">adverbs</a>) and Proper Nominals (<a href="/wiki/Proper_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper names">Proper names</a> [personal names, boat names, emotive kinship terms], <a href="/wiki/Pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronouns">pronouns</a>). The major difference between the two classes are 1) semantic — Proper nominals have <a href="/wiki/Pronominal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronominal">pronominal</a> characteristics, and, 2) <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensional</a>, for example Proper Nominals have one locative case rather than the three of Common Nominals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common_nominal_declensions">Common nominal declensions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Common nominal declensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Note that the following are in the Kalau Kawau Ya dialect. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Case/Suffix</th> <th>Hoe/Adze</th> <th>Place/Home</th> <th>Knife</th> <th>Water</th> <th>Mud</th> <th>Middle</th> <th>looking</th> <th>giving, getting, being, moving, doing, etc. </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">stem type</th> <th>multisyllabic<br />-u final</th> <th>multisyllabic</th> <th>monosyllabic <br /> vowel final</th> <th>monosyllabic <br /> -r/-l final</th> <th>monosyllabic <br /> -i glide final</th> <th>locative nominal<br />(adverb)</th> <th>multisyllabic <br /> verbal noun</th> <th>monosyllabic <br /> verbal noun </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">stem</th> <th>pábu-</th> <th>lága-</th> <th>gi-</th> <th>wœr-</th> <th>sái-</th> <th>dhadha-</th> <th>naga+i-</th> <th>má+i- </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>pábu</td> <td>lág</td> <td>gi</td> <td>wœr</td> <td>sái</td> <td>dhadh<sup id="cite_ref-c_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nœgai</td> <td>mái </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>pabul</td> <td>lagal</td> <td>gilai</td> <td>wœrai</td> <td>saithai</td> <td>dhadhal<sup id="cite_ref-c_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr> </th> <td>pabun</td> <td>lagan</td> <td>ginu/gín</td> <td>wœrnu/wœran</td> <td>saithu</td> <td>dhadhan</td> <td>nœgain</td> <td>main </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr> </th> <td>pabu</td> <td>lagau</td> <td>gingu</td> <td>wœrngu</td> <td>saingu</td> <td>dhadhau</td> <td>nœgai</td> <td>mai <br /> (maingu) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <td>pabupa</td> <td>lagapa</td> <td>gipa</td> <td>wœrpa</td> <td>saipa</td> <td>dhadhapa</td> <td>nœgaipa</td> <td>maipa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <td>pabungu</td> <td>lagangu</td> <td>gingu</td> <td>wœrngu</td> <td>saingu</td> <td>dhadhaz</td> <td>nœgaile</td> <td>maithaile </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SP</abbr> </th> <td>pabunu, pabu'</td> <td>laganu, laga'</td> <td>gilai, ginu</td> <td>wœrai, wœrnu</td> <td>saithai, saithe</td> <td>dhadhal, dhadha'</td> <td>nœgainu</td> <td>mainu </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr> </th> <td>pabuya</td> <td>lagaya</td> <td>giya</td> <td>wœriya</td> <td>saiya</td> <td>dhadhaya</td> <td>nœgaiya</td> <td>maiya </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="global locative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GL</abbr> </th> <td>pabuyab</td> <td>lagayab</td> <td>gipu</td> <td>wœrab, wœrpu</td> <td>saiyab, saipu</td> <td>dhadhayab</td> <td>nœgaiya</td> <td>maiya </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="proprietive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROP</abbr> </th> <td>pabul(ai)</td> <td>lagal(ai)</td> <td>gilai</td> <td>wœrai</td> <td>saithai, <br /> saithe</td> <td>dhadhal(ai)<sup id="cite_ref-c_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nœgail(ai)</td> <td>maithai </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="privative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRIV</abbr> </th> <td>pabugi</td> <td>lagagi</td> <td>gigi</td> <td>wœrgi</td> <td>saigi</td> <td>dhadhagi<sup id="cite_ref-c_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nœgaigi</td> <td>maigi </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="similative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr> </th> <td>pabudh(a)</td> <td>lagadh(a)</td> <td>gidha</td> <td>wœrdha/wœradh</td> <td>saidh(a)</td> <td>dhadhadh(a) <br /><sup id="cite_ref-c_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nœgaidh(a)</td> <td>maidh(a) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="resultative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">RES</abbr> </th> <td>pabuzi</td> <td>lagazi</td> <td>gizi</td> <td>wœrzi</td> <td>saizi</td> <td>dhadhazi<sup id="cite_ref-c_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nœgaizi</td> <td>maizi </td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-c-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">In compounds only.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irregular_nouns">Irregular nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Irregular nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are few irregular nouns, the most common being: </p> <ol><li><i>ai</i> 'food', <i>ya</i> 'speech, language, message, etc.', <i>li</i> 'basket', <i>lu</i> 'mound, bump, hump' (instrumental <i>aidu</i>, <i>yadu</i>, <i>lidu</i>, <i>ludu</i>; specific locative/proprietive-plural <i>aidai/aide</i>, <i>yadai</i>, <i>lidai</i>, <i>ludai</i>)</li> <li>KKY <i>na</i>, KLY <i>naawu</i>, KulY/KY <i>nawu</i> 'song'; KKY <i>yu</i> 'drying rack, cooking rack' (other dialects <i>nuuwa</i>, <i>nu</i>); specific locative/proprietive-plural KKY <i>nathai</i>, KLY/KY <i>nawul</i>, KulY <i>nawlai</i>; KKY <i>yuthai</i> (other dialects <i>nuwanu</i>, <i>nuwa</i>; <i>nuwal</i>, KulY <i>nuwalai</i>))</li> <li><i>za</i> 'thing, object, matter, etc.' This word has a fuller stem form, <i>zapu-</i>, which appears in certain forms: instrumental <i>zapun</i>; genitive <i>zapu</i>; proprietive-plural <i>zapul</i>. In the locative forms both stems (<i>za-</i> and <i>zapu-</i>) appear: specific locative <i>zanu</i>, <i>zapunu</i>, etc.</li> <li><i>gœiga</i> 'sun, day'; <i>bireg/bereg</i> 'shelf'. The stems of these words have different forms to the nominative-accusative: <i>gœiga</i> — stem: <i>gœigœyi-</i>, <i>gœigi-</i>; <i>bireg/bereg</i> — stem: <i>bœreigi-</i>, <i>biregi-</i></li> <li><i>dœgam</i>, KLK <i>dœgaamu</i> 'side, direction, point of compass, aspect'. This word has two stem forms, in free variation: <i>dœgamu-</i>, <i>daguma-</i></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Demonstratives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language has a closed class of demonstrative morphemes with special morphological characteristics: </p> <dl><dt>Prefixes</dt></dl> <ul><li><i>pi-</i>, <i>pe-</i> 'there in the distance in a specific position'</li> <li><i>kai-</i> 'there in the distance in a non-specific position'</li></ul> <dl><dt>Stems</dt></dl> <ul><li><i>ka-</i>, <i>kawu-/kawa-</i> (non-specific), <i>í-</i> (specific) 'here, this'</li> <li><i>se-</i>, <i>si-</i>, <i>sewu-/sewa-</i> 'there, that (not too far away)'</li> <li><i>-gu</i>, KKY <i>-gui</i>, <i>-mulu</i> (KKY <i>-ngùl</i> in combined forms) 'down there'</li> <li><i>-ka</i>, <i>-karai/-kadai</i> 'up there' (variant forms of the one underlying stem)</li> <li><i>-ngapa</i> 'there beyond', 'there on the other side'</li> <li><i>-pai</i>, <i>-pa</i>, <i>-paipa</i> 'ahead there, up close there' (variant forms of the one underlying stem <i>-pai</i>), MY <i>-kupai</i>, KY also <i>-kudhai</i></li> <li><i>-pun[i]</i>, <i>-puwa</i> 'off from there, back from there, back over there, back there' (possibly variant forms of the one underlying stem)</li></ul> <p>The Kauřařaigau Ya forms recorded are the same as in the modern dialects, with the exception of <i>ka-</i>/<i>kařu-</i> 'non-specific here, this', <i>se-</i>/<i>si-</i>/<i>seřu-</i> 'there, that', <i>kařa-</i> 'non-specific yonder', modern dialects <i>kai-</i>, %<i>ka-</i> and <i>-puwai</i> 'ahead there', modern dialects <i>-pai</i>/<i>-pa</i>. </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> can take masculine, feminine and non-singular morphology (as such are pronominal) as well as case forms. <i>Í-</i> 'here, this' and <i>se/si-</i> 'there, that (not too far away)' take the gender/number morphemes as suffixes, and the other demonstratives take them as prefixes. Note that <i>ka-</i> 'non-specifically here' and <i>kai-</i> 'there in the distance in a non-specific position' cannot appear with the gender/number morphemes, these latter being specific. <i>Í-</i> and <i>se/si-</i> also take an <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">article</a> forming affix <i>-bi</i> to become demonstrative articles (e.g. KLY <i>senuubi kaazi</i>, KKY <i>senaubi kaz</i> 'that boy', KLY <i>senaabi kaazi</i>, KKY <i>senabi kaz</i> 'that girl', KLY <i>sepalab kaazi</i>, KKY <i>sepalbi kaz</i> 'those two children', <i>sethabi kœzil</i> 'those children'); <i>kedha</i> 'like this/that, thus' can also take this suffix (e.g. <i>kedhabi puy</i> 'such a tree'). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Case/Suffix </th> <th colspan="2">here </th> <th colspan="2">there </th></tr> <tr> <th>non-specific</th> <th>specific </th> <th>non-specific</th> <th>specific </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="4">kai </td> <td>in </td> <td rowspan="4">sei,<br />sí </td> <td>senau </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ina </td> <td>sena/sina </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>ipal </td> <td>sepal/sipal </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>itha </td> <td>setha/sitha </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr> </th> <td>kedha </td> <td>— </td> <td>kedha </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr> </th> <td>kœu, kœwau </td> <td>— </td> <td>seu, sewau </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <td>kœpa, kœwupa </td> <td>— </td> <td>sepa/sipa, sewupa </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <td>kœzi, kœwuzi </td> <td>— </td> <td>seizi/sizi, sewuzi </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="9"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="4"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="4">kai, kœwa </td> <td>in </td> <td rowspan="4">sei,<br />sí, sewa </td> <td>senau </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ina </td> <td>sena/sina </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>ipal </td> <td>sepal/sipal </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>itha </td> <td>setha/sitha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="4">kaiki, kawuki/kœwuki </td> <td>inuki </td> <td rowspan="4">seiki/siki, sewuki </td> <td>senauki </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>inaki </td> <td>senaki/sinaki </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>ipalki </td> <td>sepalki/sipalki </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>ithaki </td> <td>sethaki/sithaki </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="similative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr>/<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="global locative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GL</abbr> </th> <td>kedha </td> <td>kedha </td> <td>kedha </td> <td>kedha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" colspan="2">article </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="4">(simulative article)<br />kedhabi </td> <td>inubi </td> <td rowspan="4">(simulative article)<br />kedhabi </td> <td>senaubi </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>inabi </td> <td>senabi/sinabi </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>ipalbi </td> <td>sepalbi/sipalbi </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>ithabi </td> <td>sethabi/sithabi </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The other demonstratives </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Case/Suffix </th> <th>gui </th> <th>ka(rai) </th> <th>ngapa </th> <th>pai/pa </th> <th>pun/pawa </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="4"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SP</abbr><sup id="cite_ref-pi_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)nugui </td> <td>(pi)nuka </td> <td>(pi)nungap </td> <td>(pi)nupai </td> <td>(pi)nupun </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)nagui </td> <td>(pi)naka </td> <td>(pi)nangap </td> <td>(pi)napai </td> <td>(pi)napun </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)palgui </td> <td>(pi)palka </td> <td>(pi)palngap </td> <td>(pi)palpai </td> <td>(pi)palpun </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)thagui </td> <td>(pi)thaka </td> <td>(pi)thangap </td> <td>(pi)thapai </td> <td>(pi)thapun </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr> </th> <td>kaigui </td> <td>kaika </td> <td>kaingap </td> <td>kaipai/kaipaipa </td> <td>kaipun, kaipawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="4"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SP</abbr><sup id="cite_ref-pi_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)numulupa </td> <td>(pi)nukaripa </td> <td>(pi)nungapapa </td> <td>(pi)nupaipa </td> <td>(pi)nupawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)namulupa </td> <td>(pi)nakaripa </td> <td>(pi)nangapapa </td> <td>(pi)napaipa </td> <td>(pi)napawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)palmulupa </td> <td>(pi)palkaripa </td> <td>(pi)palngapapa </td> <td>(pi)palpaipa </td> <td>(pi)palpawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)thamulupa </td> <td>(pi)thakaripa </td> <td>(pi)thangapapa </td> <td>(pi)thapaipa </td> <td>(pi)thapawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr> </th> <td>mulupa </td> <td>karaipa/kadaipa </td> <td>kaingapapa </td> <td>(kai)paipa </td> <td>(kai)pawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <td>kizigui </td> <td>kizika </td> <td>kizingap </td> <td>kizipai </td> <td>kizipun </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4" colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr>/<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="global locative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> neutral<sup id="cite_ref-pi_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pi-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)nuguiki </td> <td>(pi)nukaki </td> <td>(pi)nungapaki </td> <td>(pi)nupaiki/(pi)nupaipa </td> <td>(pi)nupuniki/(pi)nupawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)naguiki </td> <td>(pi)nakaki </td> <td>(pi)nangapaki </td> <td>(pi)napaiki/(pi)napaipa </td> <td>(pi)napuniki/(pi)napawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dual number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DU</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)palguiki </td> <td>(pi)palkaki </td> <td>(pi)palngapaki </td> <td>(pi)palpaiki/(pi)palpaipa </td> <td>(pi)palpuniki/(pi)palawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr> </th> <td>(pi)thaguiki </td> <td>(pi)thakaki </td> <td>(pi)thangapaki </td> <td>(pi)thapaiki/(pi)thapaipa </td> <td>(pi)thapuniki/(pi)thapawapa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr>/<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="global locative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <td>kaiguiki </td> <td>kaikaki </td> <td>kaingapaki </td> <td>kaipaiki/kaipaipa </td> <td>kaipunki, kaipawapa </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pi-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pi_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pi_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pi_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Forms without the <i>pi</i> prefix are more pronominal in function.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The personal pronouns are three-way nominative-ergative-accusative in declension. Note that the third person pronouns are also used as definite articles, e.g. <i>Nuidh garkœzin nan yipkaz imadhin</i> 'The man saw the woman'. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Case/Suffix </th> <th>I/me </th> <th>you </th> <th>he/it<br />(the) </th> <th>she/it<br />(the) </th> <th>who </th> <th>what </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr> </th> <td>ngai </td> <td>ngi </td> <td>nui </td> <td>na </td> <td>nga </td> <td>mi- (miai, miza) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr> </th> <td>ngœna </td> <td>ngin </td> <td>nuin </td> <td>nan </td> <td>ngan </td> <td>mi- (miai, miza);<br />min </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr> </th> <td>ngath </td> <td>ngidh </td> <td>nuidh </td> <td>nadh </td> <td>ngadh </td> <td>midh (miaidu/miden/midu/midun, mizœpun) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>ngau </td> <td rowspan="2">nginu </td> <td rowspan="2">nungu </td> <td rowspan="2">nanu </td> <td rowspan="2">ngœnu </td> <td rowspan="2">mingu (miaingu, mizœngu) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœzu </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <td>ngayapa </td> <td>ngibepa </td> <td>nubepa </td> <td>nabepa </td> <td>ngabepa </td> <td>mipa (miaipa, mizœpa) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>ngaungu(z) </td> <td rowspan="2">nginungu(z) </td> <td rowspan="2">nungungu(z) </td> <td rowspan="2">nanungu(z) </td> <td rowspan="2">ngœnungu(z) </td> <td rowspan="2">mingu(zi) (miaingu, mizœngu) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœzungu(z) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SP</abbr> </th> <td>ngaibiya </td> <td>ngibiya </td> <td>nubiya </td> <td>nabiya </td> <td>ngabiya </td> <td>miaide/miainu,<br />mizœpunu </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-specific" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N-SP</abbr> </th> <td>ngaibiya </td> <td>ngibiya </td> <td>nubiya </td> <td>nabiya </td> <td>ngabiya </td> <td>miaiya,<br />mizœpuya </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="global locative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GL</abbr> </th> <td>ngaibiya </td> <td>ngibiya </td> <td>nubiya </td> <td>nabiya </td> <td>ngabiya </td> <td>miaiyab,<br />mizœpuyab </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">proprietive/plural </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>midel, mizœpul </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="privative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRIV</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>ngaugi </td> <td rowspan="2">nginugi </td> <td rowspan="2">nungugi </td> <td rowspan="2">nanugi </td> <td rowspan="2">ngœnugi </td> <td rowspan="2">miaigi,<br />mizœgi </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœzugi </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="similative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr> </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>ngaudh </td> <td rowspan="2">nginudh </td> <td rowspan="2">nungudh </td> <td rowspan="2">nanudh </td> <td rowspan="2">ngœnudh </td> <td rowspan="2">midh (miaidh, mizœpudh) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœzudh </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="resultative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">RES</abbr> </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>miaizi, mizœzi </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dual_pronouns">Dual pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Dual pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dual and plural pronouns are nominative-accusative, the accusative being the same in form as the genitive, except in KKY, where the accusative is unmarked. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case/Suffix</th> <th>we <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span></th> <th>you and I</th> <th>you <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span></th> <th>them <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span><br />(the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>)</th> <th>who <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr> </th> <td>ngalbe</td> <td>ngœba</td> <td>ngipel</td> <td>palai <br />(Boigu pale)</td> <td>ngawal </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr> </th> <td>ngalben</td> <td>ngœban</td> <td>ngipen</td> <td>palamun <br />(Boigu palemun)</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <td>ngalbelpa</td> <td>ngœbalpa</td> <td>ngipelpa</td> <td>palamulpa <br />(Boigu palemulpa)</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <td>ngalbelngu</td> <td>ngœbalngu</td> <td>ngipelngu</td> <td>palamulngu <br />(Boigu palemulngu)</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <td>ngalbeniya</td> <td>ngœbaniya</td> <td>ngipeniya</td> <td>palamuniya <br />(Boigu palemuniya)</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="similative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr> </th> <td>ngalbedh</td> <td>ngœbadh</td> <td>ngipedh</td> <td>palamudh <br />(Boigu palemudh)</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><i>Ngawal</i> 'who <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dual</span>' is constructed from <i>nga</i> 'who' plus the clitic <i>-wal</i> 'both (dual conjunction)'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plural_pronouns">Plural pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Plural pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case/Suffix</th> <th>we (exclusive)</th> <th>we (inclusive)</th> <th>you</th> <th>they <br />(the)</th> <th>who </th></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrumental case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr> </th> <td>ngœi</td> <td>ngalpa</td> <td>ngitha</td> <td>thana</td> <td>ngaya </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr> </th> <td>ngœimun</td> <td>ngalpan</td> <td>ngithamun</td> <td>thanamun</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr> </th> <td>ngœimulpa</td> <td>ngalpalpa</td> <td>ngithamulpa</td> <td>thanamulpa</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ablative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABL</abbr> </th> <td>ngœimulngu</td> <td>ngalpalngu</td> <td>ngithamulngu</td> <td>thanamulngu</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr> </th> <td>ngœimuniya</td> <td>ngalpaniya</td> <td>ngithamuniya</td> <td>thanamuniya</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="similative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœimudh</td> <td>ngalpadh</td> <td>ngithamudh</td> <td>thanamudh</td> <td>(as for singular) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><i>Ngaya</i> 'who many' is constructed from <i>nga</i> 'who' plus the clitic <i>-ya</i> 'and others (plural conjunction)'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_names_and_familiar_kinship_terms">Personal names and familiar kinship terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Personal names and familiar kinship terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Familiar kinship terms are the equivalent of English kin terms such as Dad and Mum, while non-familiar terms are the equivalent of Father and Mother; these latter are treated as common nouns in the language.</i> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case/Suffix</th> <th>Tom (mas.)</th> <th>Anai (fem.)</th> <th>Dad/Uncle <br /> (cf. father/uncle)</th> <th>Mum/Aunty <br /> (cf. mother/aunt) </th></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">nom</span>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">inst</span> </th> <td>Tom</td> <td>Anai</td> <td>Báb <br /> (thathi)</td> <td>Ama <br /> (ápu) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">acc</span>-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">gen</span> </th> <td>Toman</td> <td>Anaina</td> <td>Baban <br /> (thathiu)</td> <td>Amana <br /> (apuwau) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">dat</span> </th> <td>Tomalpa</td> <td>Anailpa</td> <td>Babalpa <br /> (thathipa)</td> <td>Amalpa <br /> (apuwapa) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">abl</span> </th> <td>Tomalngu</td> <td>Anailngu</td> <td>Babalngu <br /> (thathingu)</td> <td>Amalngu <br /> (apuwangu) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">loc</span> </th> <td>Tomaniya</td> <td>Anainiya</td> <td>Babaniya <br /> (thathiya)</td> <td>Amaniya <br /> (apuwaya) </td></tr> <tr> <th>proprietive/plural </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>babal <br /> (thathil)</td> <td>amal <br /> (apuwal) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">priv</span> </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>babagi <br /> (thathigi)</td> <td>amagi <br /> (apuwagi) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">sim</span> </th> <td>Tomadh</td> <td>Anaidh</td> <td>babadh <br /> (thathidh)</td> <td>amadh <br /> (apuwadh) </td></tr> <tr> <th><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">res</span> </th> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>babazi <br /> (thathizi)</td> <td>amazi <br /> (apuwazi) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kauřařaigau_Ya_nominal_morphology"><span id="Kau.C5.99a.C5.99aigau_Ya_nominal_morphology"></span>Kauřařaigau Ya nominal morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Kauřařaigau Ya nominal morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest grammatical records of the language are those of the mid-1800s Kauřařaigau Ya dialect. This dialect is identical to the modern dialects, apart from having more archaic forms of some endings and suffixes as well as stem forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nominal_suffixes_and_endings">Nominal suffixes and endings</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Nominal suffixes and endings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Common Nominals</dt></dl> <ul><li>Nominative-Accusative: unmarked</li> <li>Ergative-Instrumental: <b>-n,-na,-nu,-Cu</b>; demonstratives unmarked</li> <li>Genitive: monosyllable stems: <b>-ngu</b>, multisyllables <b>-u</b></li> <li>Dative-Allative: <b>-pa ~ -pari</b></li> <li>Ablative-Causative: nouns, pronouns <b>-nguzi</b>, verbal nouns <b>-lai</b>, adverbs/demonstratives <b>-zi</b></li> <li>Specific Locative: monosyllabic stem nouns <b>-lai~-dai~-thai~-ai~-řai~-rai</b>, multisyllabic stem nouns <b>-nulai~-nule~-nuli~-nul</b>, adverbs <b>-lai~-l(a)</b> , demonstratives <b>-ři</b></li> <li>Non-Specific Locative: <b>-ya</b>, adverbs/demonstratives <b>-ki~-kidha</b></li> <li>Proprietive/Plural: monosyllabic stem nouns <b>-lai~-dai~-thai~-ai~-řai~-rai</b>, multisyllabic stem nouns, adverbs <b>-lai</b> (><b>-le~-li</b>), <b>-rai</b> (> <b>-re~-ri</b>), <b>-řai</b> (> <b>-ře~-ři</b>)</li> <li>Privative: <b>-gi</b></li> <li>Imitative-Similative: <b>-dha</b></li> <li>Resultative: <b>-zi</b></li></ul> <dl><dt>Proper Nominals</dt></dl> <p>No early writer recorded declined feminine forms, apart from the genitive. Ray (1907:20-21) implies (by default) that the OKY paradigm is basically the same as that of OKLY. </p> <ul><li>Nominative-Ergative-Instrumental: unmarked</li> <li>Accusative-Genitive: masculine <b>-ni</b>, feminine <b>-na-</b>, dual-plural pronoun <b>-ni~-mùni</b></li> <li>Dative-Allative: masculine <b>-nipa[ri]</b> , feminine ?<b>-napa[ri]</b>, dual-plural pronoun <b>-nipa[ri]~-mùnipa(ri)</b></li> <li>Ablative-Causative: masculine <b>-ninguzi ~-nunguzi</b>, feminine ?<b>-nanguzi</b>, dual-plural pronoun <b>-ninguzi~-nunguzi~-mùninguzi~-mùnunguzi</b></li> <li>Locative: masculine <b>-niya</b>, feminine ? <b>-naya</b>, dual-plural pronoun <b>-niya~-mùniya</b></li> <li>Imitative-Similative: <b>-dha</b>, dual-plural pronoun <b>-dha~-mùdha</b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kauřařaigau_Ya_pronouns"><span id="Kau.C5.99a.C5.99aigau_Ya_pronouns"></span>Kauřařaigau Ya pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Kauřařaigau Ya pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brierly (B), MacGillivray (M) and Ray (R) recorded the following forms of the singular pronouns of OKY: </p> <dl><dt>Nominative</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st — Brierly <i>gni, ngi</i>; Macgillivray <i>ngai</i>; Ray <i>ngai</i></li> <li>2nd — Macgillivray <i>ngi</i>; Ray <i>ngi</i></li> <li>3rd masculine — Macgillivray <i>nue</i>; Ray <i>nui</i></li> <li>3rd feminine — Macgillivray <i>na, nga</i>; Ray <i>na</i></li> <li>'who' — Brierly <i>gua</i>; Macgillivray <i>nga</i>; Ray <i>nga</i></li> <li>'what' — Macgillivray <i>[]mi</i>; Ray <i>mi-</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Accusative</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st — Brierly <i>ana</i>; Macgillivray <i>ana</i>; Ray <i>ngana</i></li> <li>2nd — Brierly <i>gin</i>; MacGillivray <i>ngi</i>; Ray <i>nginö, ngin</i></li> <li>3rd masculine — Brierly <i>nooano</i>; MacGillivray <i>nudu</i>; Ray <i>nuinö, nuin</i></li> <li>3rd feminine — Ray <i>nanö, nan</i></li> <li>'who' — Ray <i>nganö, ngan</i></li> <li>'what' — not recorded</li></ul> <dl><dt>Instrumental-Ergative</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st — Brierly <i>nath, nut</i>; Macgillivray <i>ngatu</i>; Ray <i>ngata, ngatö, ngat</i></li> <li>2nd — Brierly <i>needtha, needthoo</i>; Macgillivray <i>ngidu</i>; Ray <i>ngida, ngidö, ngid</i></li> <li>3rd masculine — Brierly <i>nooide</i> ; MacGillivray <i>nudu</i>; Ray <i>nuida, nuidö, nuid</i></li> <li>3rd feminine — Macgillivray <i>nadu</i>; Ray <i>nada, nadö, nad</i></li> <li>'who' — Macgillivray <i>ngadu</i>; Ray <i>ngada, ngadö, ngad</i></li> <li>'what' — Brierly <i>meedan</i>; Macgillivray <i>mida</i>; Ray <i>mida, midö, mid</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Genitive</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st — Brierly <i>ngau, gnau, ngow</i> masculine, <i>udthu, oldzoo, udzoo</i> feminine; Macgillivray <i>ngow</i> masculine, <i>udzu, udz</i> feminine; Ray <i>ngau</i> masculine, <i>ngazu, nguzu</i> feminine</li> <li>2nd — Brierly <i>gnee, ye noo, yeenow, niu, yenoo, meeno</i>; MacGillivray <i>yinu</i>; Ray <i>nginu</i></li> <li>3rd masculine — Brierly <i>noonoo</i>; Ray <i>nungu</i></li> <li>3rd feminine — Macgillivray <i>nanue</i>; Ray <i>nanu</i></li> <li>'who' — Ray <i>ngunu</i></li> <li>'what' — not recorded</li></ul> <p>Based on the above forms and the modern dialects, the OKY pronouns are reconstructed as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">pronoun </th> <th>Nominative </th> <th>Accusative </th> <th>Ergative-<br />Instrumental </th> <th>Genitive </th> <th>Dative </th> <th>Ablative </th> <th>Locative </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td rowspan="2">ngayi </td> <td rowspan="2">ngœna </td> <td rowspan="2">ngathu </td> <td>ngau </td> <td rowspan="2">ngaikika </td> <td>ngaunguzi </td> <td rowspan="2">ngaikiya </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>ngœzu </td> <td>ngœzunguzi </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd </th> <td>ngi </td> <td>ngina </td> <td>ngidhu </td> <td>nginu </td> <td>ngibepa[ri] </td> <td>nginunguzi </td> <td>ngibiya </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr> </th> <td>nui </td> <td>nuina </td> <td>nuidhu </td> <td>nungu </td> <td>nubepa[ri] </td> <td>nungunguzi </td> <td>nubiya </td></tr> <tr> <th><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr> </th> <td>na </td> <td>nana </td> <td>nadhu </td> <td>nanu </td> <td>nabepa[ri] </td> <td>nanunguzi </td> <td>nabiya </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">'who' </th> <td>nga </td> <td>ngana </td> <td>ngadhu </td> <td>ngœnu </td> <td>ngabepa[ri] </td> <td>ngœnunguzi </td> <td>ngabiya </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">'what' </th> <td>miyai </td> <td>miyai </td> <td>midhu </td> <td>mingu </td> <td>mipa[ri] </td> <td>minguzi </td> <td>mizapuya </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The accusatives, the ablatives and imitatives underwent optional final vowel deletion, while the ergatives optionally transformed the final <b>u</b> to <b>a</b> or <b>œ</b>, or deleted it, thus <b>ngathu</b> > <b>ngatha</b> > <b>ngathœ</b> > <b>ngath</b>. </p><p>The recorded dual-plural forms are: </p> <dl><dt>Nominative-Ergative-Instrumental</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st Dual Exclusive — MacGillivray <i>albei</i>; Ray <i>ngalbai</i></li> <li>1st Dual Inclusive — MacGillivray <i>aba</i>; Ray <i>ngaba</i></li> <li>2nd Dual — MacGillivray <i>ngipel</i>; Ray <i>ngipel</i></li> <li>3rd Dual — MacGillivray <i>pale</i>; Ray <i>palai</i></li> <li>'who' Dual — Ray <i>nga wal</i></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li>1st Plural Exclusive — Brierly <i>ari, churri</i>; MacGillivray <i>arri, uri</i>; Ray <i>ngöi</i></li> <li>1st Plural Inclusive — Brierly <i>alpa</i>; MacGillivray <i>alpa</i>; Ray <i>ngalpa</i></li> <li>2nd Plural — MacGillivray <i>ngi-tana</i>; Ray <i>ngita</i></li> <li>3rd Plural — MacGillivray <i>tana</i>; Ray <i>tana</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Accusative-Genitive</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st Dual Exclusive — Brierly <i>abonnie, abuni, abani, aboni</i>; MacGillivray N/A; Ray <i>ngalbaini</i></li> <li>1st Dual Inclusive — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray <i>abane, abeine</i>; Ray <i>ngabani</i></li> <li>2nd Dual — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray <i>ngipeine</i>; Ray <i>ngipeni</i></li> <li>3rd Dual — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray <i>palaman</i>; Ray <i>palamuni</i></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li>1st Plural Exclusive — Brierly <i>areen</i>; MacGillivray <i>arrien</i>; Ray <i>ngöimunu</i></li> <li>1st Plural Inclusive — Ray <i>ngalpanu</i></li> <li>2nd Plural — MacGillivray <i>ngitanaman</i>; Ray <i>ngitamunu</i></li> <li>3rd Plural — MacGillivray <i>tanaman</i>; Ray <i>tanamunu</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Dative</dt></dl> <ul><li>1st Dual Exclusive: MacGillivray <i>albi nipa</i>; Ray <i>ngalbainipa</i></li> <li>1st Dual Inclusive: MacGillivray <i>albynape</i>; Ray <i>ngabanipa</i></li> <li>2nd Dual: Ray <i>ngipenipa</i></li> <li>3rd Dual: MacGillivray <i>pale nipa</i>; Ray <i>palamunipa</i></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li>1st Plural Exclusive: MacGillivray <i>arri nipa</i>; Ray <i>ngöinipa, ngöimunipa</i></li> <li>1st Plural Inclusive: Ray <i>ngalpanipa, ngalpamunipa </i></li> <li>2nd Plural: Ray <i>ngitanipa, ngitamunipa</i></li> <li>3rd Plural: MacGillivray <i>tane nipa</i>; Ray <i>tananipa, tanamunipa</i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Ablative</dt></dl> <ul><li>recorded by Ray as <i>-[mu]nunguzi</i></li></ul> <p>These can be reconstructed as: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">person </th> <th>Nominative-Ergative-Instrumental </th> <th>Accusative-Genitive </th> <th>Dative </th> <th>Ablative </th> <th>Locative </th> <th>Imitative-Similative </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st </th> <th>dual </th> <td>ngalbai </td> <td>ngalbaini </td> <td>ngalbainipa </td> <td>ngalbainingu<br />ngalbainungu </td> <td>ngalbainiya </td> <td>ngalbainidha </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>ngœři </td> <td>ngœři(mù)ni </td> <td>ngœři(mù)nipa </td> <td>ngœři(mù)ningu<br />ngœři(mù)nungu </td> <td>ngœři(mù)niya </td> <td>ngœři(mù)nidha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st-2nd </th> <th>dual </th> <td>ngaba </td> <td>ngabani </td> <td>ngabanipa </td> <td>ngabaningu<br />ngabanungu </td> <td>ngabaniya </td> <td>ngabanidha </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>ngalpa </td> <td>ngalpa(mù)ni </td> <td>ngalpa(mù)nipa </td> <td>ngalpa(mù)ningu<br />ngalpa(mù)nungu </td> <td>ngalpa(mù)niya </td> <td>ngalpa(mù)nidha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th>dual </th> <td>ngipel </td> <td>ngipeni </td> <td>ngipenipa </td> <td>ngipeningu<br />ngipenungu </td> <td>ngipeniya </td> <td>ngipenidha </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>ngitha(na) </td> <td>ngitha(na)(mù)ni </td> <td>ngitha(na)(mù)nipa </td> <td>ngitha(na)(mù)ningu<br />ngitha(na)(mù)nungu </td> <td>ngitha(na)(mù)niya </td> <td>ngitha(na)(mù)nidha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th>dual </th> <td>palai<br />pale </td> <td>palamùni </td> <td>palamùnipa </td> <td>palamùningu<br />palamùnungu </td> <td>palamùniya </td> <td>palamùnidha </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>thana </td> <td>thana(mù)ni </td> <td>thana(mù)nipa </td> <td>thana(mù)ningu<br />thana(mù)nungu </td> <td>thana(mù)niya </td> <td>thana(mù)nidha </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>'Who' in the dual nominative-accusative (and optionally in the ergative-instrumental) had the forms <i>ngawal</i> (dual) and <i>ngaya</i> (plural).</li> <li><b>Mi-</b> 'what, which' was used in much the same way as in the modern dialects.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_morphology">Verb morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Verb morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs can have over 100 different <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">voice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> forms. Verb agreement is with the object (i.e. 'ergative') in transitive clauses, and with the subject in intransitive clauses. Imperatives, on the other hand, agree with both subject and object in transitive clauses. </p><p>There are three aspects ('perfective', 'imperfective', 'habitual'), two telicity forms ('active', which focuses on the verb activity and subsumes many intransitives, many antipassives and some transitives, and 'attainative', which subsumes many transitives, some antipassives and some intransitives), two moods ('non-imperative' and 'imperative' [which resembles a subjunctive in some uses]), 6 tenses ('remote future', 'today/near future', 'present', 'today past', 'recent past', 'remote past' — KLY has developed a 7th tense, a 'last night' tense) and four numbers ('singular', 'dual', 'specific plural', 'animate active plural' — in form the animate active plural is the same as the singular, and is only found on certain verbs). </p><p>In most descriptions of the language the active and attainative forms have been mistermed transitive and intransitive respectively. Transitive, intransitive, passive, antipassive and 'antipassive passive' in the language are syntactic categories, and are formed by the interplay of nominal and verbal morphology, clause/sentence-level characteristics such as word-order, and semantic considerations. </p><p>Verb morphology consists of prefixes (aspect, positioning, etc.), suffixes (telicity, number, and two fossilised multiplicative/causative suffixes) and endings (tense, aspect and mood, and a very limited extent number and telicity). The structural matrix of the verb is as follows. Note that the two fossilised suffixes are mutually exclusive; if a suffix is in the A slot, a suffix cannot appear in the B slot, and vice versa: </p><p><b>(prefix) + (prefix) + stem (+FOSSILISED SUFFIX A) + (TELICITY) (+FOSSILISED SUFFIX B) + (number) + ending (+ending)</b> </p><p>Examples: </p> <ul><li><i>pabalkabuthamadhin</i> 'two were laid down across something' [which would be clear in the context]</li> <li><i>pabalkabuthemadhin</i> 'two lay down (laid themselves down) across something' [which would be clear in the context]</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>prefix: <i>pa-</i> 'telic prefix'</dd> <dd>prefix: <i>bal-</i> 'positional — across'</dd> <dd>stem: <i>kabutha-</i> 'place, lay'</dd> <dd>telicity suffix: <i>-Ø</i> 'attainative', <i>-i</i> 'active'</dd> <dd>number suffix: <i>-ma</i> 'dual' (absolutive agreement)</dd> <dd>tense-aspect-mood ending: <i>-dhin</i> 'remote past perfective'</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><i>garwœidhamemanu</i> 'two met each other earlier today'</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>prefix: <i>gar-</i> 'collective'</dd> <dd>stem: <i>wœidha-</i> 'place, put'</dd> <dd>Fossilised suffix: <i>ma</i> 'intensive'</dd> <dd>telicity suffix: <i>i</i> 'active'</dd> <dd>number suffix: <i>ma</i> 'dual'</dd> <dd>tense-aspect-mood ending: <i>dhin</i> 'remote past perfective'</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_verb_declension">Sample verb declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Sample verb declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The verb here is <i>íma-</i> 'see, observe, supervise, examine, try, test' </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Tensed forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Case/Suffix </th> <th colspan="2">Attainative </th> <th colspan="2">Active </th></tr> <tr> <th>Perfective</th> <th>Imperfective </th> <th>Perfective</th> <th>Imperfective </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">remote future </th> <th>singular </th> <td>imane </td> <td>imaipu (imaiparui) </td> <td>imedhe </td> <td>imepu (imeparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imamane </td> <td>imampu (imamparui) </td> <td>imemadhe </td> <td>imempu (imemparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœine </td> <td>imamœipu (imamœiparui) </td> <td>imemœidhe </td> <td>imemœipu (imemœiparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">near future </th> <th>singular </th> <td>imaipa </td> <td>imaipu (imaiparui) </td> <td>imepa </td> <td>imepu (imeparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imampa </td> <td>imampu (imamparui) </td> <td>imempa </td> <td>imempu (imemparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœipa </td> <td>imamœipu (imamœiparui) </td> <td>imemœipa </td> <td>imemœipu (imemœiparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">present </th> <th>singular </th> <td>iman </td> <td>imaipa </td> <td>imiz </td> <td>imepa </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imaman </td> <td>imampa </td> <td>imeman </td> <td>imempa </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœin </td> <td>imamœipa </td> <td>imemœin </td> <td>imemœipa </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">today past </th> <th>singular </th> <td>imanu </td> <td>imadha </td> <td>imema </td> <td>imedha </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imamanu </td> <td>imamadha </td> <td>imemanu </td> <td>imemadha </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœinu </td> <td>imamœidha </td> <td>imemœinu </td> <td>imemœidha </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">recent past </th> <th>singular </th> <td>imangu </td> <td>imarngu </td> <td>imaingu </td> <td>imairngu </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imamangu </td> <td>imamarngu </td> <td>imemangu </td> <td>imemarngu </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœingu </td> <td>imamœirngu </td> <td>imemœingu </td> <td>imemœirngu </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">remote past </th> <th>singular </th> <td>imadhin </td> <td>imar </td> <td>imaidhin </td> <td>imai </td></tr> <tr> <th>dual </th> <td>imamadhin </td> <td>imamar </td> <td>imemadhin </td> <td>imemar </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>imamœidhin </td> <td>imamœi (imamir) </td> <td>imemœidhin </td> <td>imemœi (imemir) </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Non-tensed forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Case/Suffix </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Habitual </th> <th>Attainative </th> <td>imaipu (imaiparui) </td> <td>imampu (imamparui) </td> <td>imamœipu (imamœiparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Active </th> <td>imepu (imeparui) </td> <td>imempu (imemparui) </td> <td>imemœipu (imemœiparui) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Perfective </th> <th rowspan="2">Attainative </th> <th>Singular Subject </th> <td>imar </td> <td>imamar </td> <td>imamœi (imamir) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Non-Singular Subject </th> <td>imau (imaziu) </td> <td>imamariu </td> <td>imamœi (imamœiziu, imamiu) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Active </th> <td>imi </td> <td>imemariu </td> <td>imemœi (imemœiziu, imemiu) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">Imperfective </th> <th>Attainative </th> <td>imadha </td> <td>imamadha </td> <td>imamœidha </td></tr> <tr> <th>Active </th> <td>imedha </td> <td>imemadha </td> <td>imemœidha </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Nominalised forms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Case/Suffix </th> <th>Verbal Noun </th> <th>Proprietive </th> <th>Privative </th> <th>Resultative </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">unmarked form </th> <td>imai </td> <td>imail </td> <td>imaigi </td> <td>imaizi </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">impersonal<br />(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>) </th> <th>independent form </th> <td>imai </td> <td>imailnga </td> <td>imaiginga </td> <td>imaizinga </td></tr> <tr> <th>stem </th> <td>imai- </td> <td>imailmai- </td> <td>imaigimai- </td> <td>imaizimai- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">personal<br />(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr>) </th> <th>independent form </th> <td>— </td> <td>imailaig </td> <td>imaigig </td> <td>imaizig </td></tr> <tr> <th>stem </th> <td>— </td> <td>imailga- </td> <td>imaigiga- </td> <td>imaiziga- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kauřařaigau_Ya_verbal_morphology"><span id="Kau.C5.99a.C5.99aigau_Ya_verbal_morphology"></span>Kauřařaigau Ya verbal morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Kauřařaigau Ya verbal morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Prefixes</b> </p><p>These were the same as in the modern dialects. </p><p><b>Suffixes</b> </p><p>The only suffix differences with the modern dialects were in the form of the plural and verbal noun suffixes. In OKY these were <b>maři</b> and <b>ři</b> respectively. The dual was <b>ngauma</b> on <b>ma-</b> 'take, give, move etc.' and otherwise <b>uma</b>. </p><p>Class 1: <b>wœidha-</b> 'put, place, cook' </p> <ul><li><b>wœidhamařinu</b> attainative perfective present plural object</li> <li><b>wœidhaumanu</b> attainative perfective present dual object</li> <li><b>wœidhemařinu</b> active perfective present plural subject</li> <li><b>wœidheumanu</b> active perfective present dual subject</li> <li><b>wœidhàři</b> verbal noun</li></ul> <p>Class 2: <b>ni-</b>, <b>niya-</b> 'sit, stay' </p> <ul><li><b>niyamařipa[ri]</b> imperfective present plural</li> <li><b>niyaumapa[ri]</b> imperfective present dual</li> <li><b>niyàři</b>, <b>niyài</b> verbal noun</li></ul> <p><b>Verb endings</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>ATTAINATIVE INDICATIVE</th> <th>perfective</th> <th>singular perfective active<br />(where different)</th> <th>imperfective </th></tr> <tr> <td>remote future</td> <td>-kœrui</td> <td>— </td> <td>-kœrui </td></tr> <tr> <td>future</td> <td>-pa[ri]</td> <td>— </td> <td>-kœrui </td></tr> <tr> <td>present</td> <td>-nu</td> <td>-izi<br /> monosyllabic stem: -iziři</td> <td>-pa[ri] </td></tr> <tr> <td>today past</td> <td>-nulai</td> <td>-ma</td> <td>-adha </td></tr> <tr> <td>recent past</td> <td>-ngùl</td> <td>— </td> <td>-r(a)ngùl </td></tr> <tr> <td>remote past</td> <td>-dhin(i)</td> <td>— </td> <td>-r(a) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ATTAINATIVE IMPERATIVE</td> <td>-r(a) SgS, -u PlS, -riu Dual</td> <td>-i</td> <td>-adha </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>On the whole, the OKY verb seems to have been declined like the Kalau Lagau Ya verb. This includes the loss of the suffix <b>ma</b> in the intransitive imperfective present/perfective today future singular. This loss, however, appears to have been optional in the today past equivalent:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacGillivray1852311_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGillivray1852311-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>OKY <i>daneipa</i> (<b>danaipa</b>) 'rise (sun)' (MacGillivray): KLY <i>danaika</i>, KKY <i>danamipa</i> 'rise (sun, etc.), load (self) up' present imperfective</li> <li>OKY <i>dadeipa</i> (<b>dhœidhaipa</b>) 'die' (MacGillivray): KLY <i>dhœidhaika</i> (base <i>dhœidhama-</i>) 'be dizzy, dead drunk' present imperfective</li> <li>OKY <i>usimema, usima</i> (<b>usimima</b>, <b>usima</b>) 'douse' (MacGillivray): KLY <i>usima</i>, KKY <i>wœsimima</i> 'douse' today past perfective</li></ul> <p>Vowel/diphthong deletion and reduction in class 1b verbs was optional in OKY where it is now optional or obligatory: </p> <ul><li>OKY <b>uzareuma-</b>: KLY <i>uzareuma-</i>, KKY <i>uzarma-</i> 'go dual'</li> <li>OKY <i>delupeipa</i> (<b>dœdupaipa</b>) 'drown, sink': KLY <i>dudupaka</i>, KKY <i>dœdupapa</i></li></ul> <p>The irregular verb <i>yœwi-</i> / <i>iya-</i> / <i>yœuna-</i> 'lie/slant/lean over/down' was recorded in the form <b>iipa</b> (<i>eepah</i>), indicating the stem <b>ii-</b> (the remote past form <i>iir</i> is found in modern KY, though not recorded in OKY). Otherwise, only <i>yœuna-</i> was recorded for OKY. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous_paradigms">Miscellaneous paradigms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous paradigms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three paradigms that have irregular morphology are: </p> <ul><li><i>Si[ ]kai</i> 'perhaps, maybe, possibly' (all dialects except Kalau Kawau Ya). This word modifies for singular gender : masculine <i>sinukai/senukai</i>; feminine <i>sinakai/senakai</i>; general (singular, dual, plural) <i>sikai</i>. In KKY, the word is invariable <i>sike</i>, <i>sikedh</i> (<i>sikedh</i> is more emphatic.)</li> <li><i>yawa</i> 'goodbye, farewell, take care' (cf. <i>yawar</i> 'journey, travel'; <i>yawaya-</i> 'watch over, watch out for, etc.'). This word is only used when speaking to a single person. For two or more people, the form is <i>yawal</i>.</li> <li>masculine <i>kame</i> ~ <i>kamedh</i>, feminine <i>kake</i> ~ <i>kakedh</i>, non-singular <i>kole</i> ~ <i>koledh</i> 'hey!' (word used to attract someone's attention; in <i>kamedh</i>, <i>kakedh</i> and <i>koledh</i> (the <i>-dh</i> final in all these, like in <i>sikedh</i> above, is only found in more emphatic use.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sign_language">Sign language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Sign language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Torres Strait Islanders, neighbouring Papuans and neighbouring Australians have a common sign language,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though early records did not make a detailed study of this (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_sign_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal sign languages">Australian Aboriginal sign languages</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simple conversations and stories can be carried out in the sign language; however, it does not attain the sophistication of a fully developed sign language. It's had some influence on <a href="/wiki/Far_North_Queensland_Indigenous_Sign_Language" title="Far North Queensland Indigenous Sign Language">Far North Queensland Indigenous Sign Language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meriam_language" title="Meriam language">Meriam language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/creative/census-explorer">"SBS Australian Census Explorer"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bureau+of+Meteorology&rft.atitle=Masig+calendar+-+Indigenous+Weather+Knowledge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bom.gov.au%2Fiwk%2Fcalendars%2Fmasig.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalaw+Lagaw+Ya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrence1989-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence1989_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawrence1989">Lawrence 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGillivray1852311-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacGillivray1852311_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacGillivray1852">MacGillivray 1852</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gabriel_Seligman" title="Charles Gabriel Seligman">Seligman, C. G.</a>, and A. Wilkin (1907). <i>The gesture language of the Western Islanders,</i> in "Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits." Cambridge, England: The University Press, v.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Kendon" title="Adam Kendon">Kendon, A.</a> (1988) <i>Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communicative Perspectives.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapell1956" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Capell" title="Arthur Capell">Capell, Arthur</a> (1956), <i>A new approach to Australian linguistics</i>, Sydney: Oceanic Linguistic Monographs, p. 108</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+new+approach+to+Australian+linguistics&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Oceanic+Linguistic+Monographs&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Capell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalaw+Lagaw+Ya" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/R._M._W._Dixon" class="mw-redirect" title="R. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07893-2"><bdi>978-0-520-07893-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact%2C+Creolization%2C+and+Genetic+Linguistics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07893-2&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Grey&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+Terrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8a0wDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalaw+Lagaw+Ya" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWurm1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wurm, S.A. (1975). "The Trans-Fly (Sub-Phylum Level) Stock". In S.A. Wurm (ed.). <i>Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene</i>. Vol. 1, Pacific Linguistics. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. pp. 323–348.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Trans-Fly+%28Sub-Phylum+Level%29+Stock&rft.btitle=Papuan+languages+and+the+New+Guinea+linguistic+scene&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pages=323-348&rft.pub=Research+School+of+Pacific+and+Asian+Studies%2C+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Wurm&rft.aufirst=S.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKalaw+Lagaw+Ya" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalaw_Lagaw_Ya&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/mwp" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/mwp">Kalaw Lagaw Ya test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/11l3i0/alma99183850919702061">Kala Lagaw Ya & Miriam Mir (Torres Strait Islands) Community Language Journey Digital Story</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_Library_of_Queensland" title="State Library of Queensland">State Library of Queensland</a>. Part of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/bumb4u/alma99183673120702061">Spoken: Celebrating Queensland Languages Digital Stories Collection</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pama–Nyungan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Paman_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Paman_languages" title="Paman languages">Paman languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adithinngithigh_language" title="Adithinngithigh language">Adithinngithigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andjingith_language" title="Andjingith language">Andjingith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anguthimri_language" title="Anguthimri language">Anguthimri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arritinngithigh_language" title="Arritinngithigh language">Arritinngithigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awngthim_language" title="Awngthim language">Awngthim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luthigh_language" title="Luthigh language">Luthigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbiywom_language" title="Mbiywom language">Mbiywom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndrangith_language" title="Ndrangith language">Ndrangith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngkoth_language" title="Ngkoth language">Ngkoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uradhi_language" title="Uradhi language">Uradhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Northeast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umpila_language" title="Umpila language">Umpila</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Wik_languages" title="Wik languages">Wik</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayabadhu_language" title="Ayabadhu language">Ayabadhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kugu_Nganhcara_language" title="Kugu Nganhcara language">Kugu-Muminh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakanha_language" title="Pakanha language">Pakanha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wik-Me%27nh_language" title="Wik-Me'nh language">Wik-Me'nh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wik_Mungkan_language" title="Wik Mungkan language">Wik-Mungkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wik-Ngathan_language" title="Wik-Ngathan language">Wik-Ngathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wik_Ompom_language" title="Wik Ompom language">Wik-Ompom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Lamalamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamalama_language" title="Lamalama language">Lamalama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrobolam_language" title="Morrobolam language">Morrobolam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Yalanjic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrow_Point_language" title="Barrow Point language">Barrow Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guugu_Yalandji_language" title="Guugu Yalandji language">Gugu Yalandyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guugu_Yimithirr_language" title="Guugu Yimithirr language">Guugu Yimidhirr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Paman_languages" title="Southwestern Paman languages">Southwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koko-Bera_language" title="Koko-Bera language">Koko-Bera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gugu_Dhaw_language" title="Gugu Dhaw language">Kok Thawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunjen_language" title="Kunjen language">Kunjen</a> <ul><li>Ogh-Undjan</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuuk_Thaayorre_language" title="Kuuk Thaayorre language">Kuuk Thaayorre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuuk_Yak_language" title="Kuuk Yak language">Kuuk Yak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yir-Yoront_language" title="Yir-Yoront language">Yir-Yoront</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Norman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gurdjar_language" title="Gurdjar language">Kurtjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gkuthaarn_language" title="Gkuthaarn language">Kuthant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Thaypan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alungul_language" title="Alungul language">Alungul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angkula_language" title="Angkula language">Angkula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aghu_Tharrnggala_language" title="Aghu Tharrnggala language">Aghu Tharrnggala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikarranggal_language" title="Ikarranggal language">Ikarranggal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalaka_language" title="Tagalaka language">Takalak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gugu_Thaypan_language" title="Gugu Thaypan language">Thaypan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wamin_language" title="Wamin language">Agwamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbara-Yanga_language" title="Mbara-Yanga language">Mbara-Yanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbabaram_language" title="Mbabaram language">Mbabaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walangama_language" title="Walangama language">Walangama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Djabugay_language" title="Djabugay language">Djabugay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flinders_Island_language" title="Flinders Island language">Flinders Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kukatj_language" title="Kukatj language">Gugadj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kok-Nar_language" title="Kok-Nar language">Kok Narr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbariman-Gudhinma_language" title="Mbariman-Gudhinma language">Mbariman-Gudhinma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umpithamu_language" title="Umpithamu language">Umbindhamu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Eastern_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_states_of_Australia" title="Eastern states of Australia">Eastern</a> <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Dyirbalic_languages" title="Dyirbalic languages">Dyirbalic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyirbal_language" title="Dyirbal language">Dyirbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyawaygi_language" title="Nyawaygi language">Nyawaygi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrgamay_language" title="Warrgamay language">Warrgamay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulguru_language" title="Wulguru language">Wulguru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Maric_languages" title="Maric languages">Maric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bidjara_language" title="Bidjara language">Bidjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biri_language" title="Biri language">Biri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingkel_languages" title="Kingkel languages">Kingkel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayali_language" title="Bayali language">Bayali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darumbal_language" title="Darumbal language">Darumbal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrongo_language" title="Warrongo language">Warrongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Waka%E2%80%93Kabic_languages" title="Waka–Kabic languages">Waka–Kabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barunggam_language" title="Barunggam language">Barunggam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulua_language" title="Tulua language">Dappil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gubbi_Gubbi_language" title="Gubbi Gubbi language">Gabi-Gabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taribelang_language" title="Taribelang language">Gureng Gureng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakka_Wakka_language" title="Wakka Wakka language">Wakawaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulli_Wulli_language" title="Wulli Wulli language">Wuliwuli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Durubalic_languages" title="Durubalic languages">Durubalic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guwar_language" title="Guwar language">Guwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janday_language" title="Janday language">Janday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunukul_language" title="Nunukul language">Nunukul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turrbal_language" title="Turrbal language">Turrbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Gumbaynggiric_languages" title="Gumbaynggiric languages">Gumbaynggiric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumbainggar_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumbainggar language">Kumbainggar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaygir_language" title="Yaygir language">Yaygir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Wiradhuric_languages" title="Wiradhuric languages">Wiradhuric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamilaraay_language" title="Gamilaraay language">Gamilaraay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngiyambaa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngiyambaa language">Ngiyambaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiradjuri_language" title="Wiradjuri language">Wiradjuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Yuin%E2%80%93Kuric_languages" title="Yuin–Kuric languages">Yuin–Kuric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awabakal_language" title="Awabakal language">Awabakal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkinjung_language" title="Darkinjung language">Darkinjung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharug_language" title="Dharug language">Dharug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanggati_language" title="Dhanggati language">Dhanggati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarigo_language" title="Ngarigo language">Ngarigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngunnawal_language" title="Ngunnawal language">Ngunnawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharawal_languages" title="Tharawal languages">Tharawal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worimi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Worimi language">Wormi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Gippsland_languages" title="Gippsland languages">Gippsland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhudhuroa_language" title="Dhudhuroa language">Dhudhuroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunaikurnai_language" title="Gunaikurnai language">Gunaikurnai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallanganmiddang_language" title="Pallanganmiddang language">Pallanganmiddang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anewan_language" title="Anewan language">Anewan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugambeh%E2%80%93Bundjalung_languages" title="Yugambeh–Bundjalung languages">Bandjalang</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kalaw Lagaw Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yidiny_language" title="Yidiny language">Yidiny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Southern_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Australia" title="Southern Australia">Southern</a> <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Yotayotic_languages" title="Yotayotic languages">Yotayotic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yabula-Yabula_language" title="Yabula-Yabula language">Yabula-Yabula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorta_Yorta_language" title="Yorta Yorta language">Yotayota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Kulinic_languages" title="Kulinic languages">Kulinic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Gulidjan_language" title="Gulidjan language">Kolakngat</a> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kulin_languages" title="Kulin languages">Kulin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boonwurrung_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Boonwurrung language">Bunurong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djadjawurrung_language" title="Djadjawurrung language">Dja Dja Wurrung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latji-Latji_language" title="Latji-Latji language">Ledji-Ledji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhi_Madhi_language" title="Madhi Madhi language">Madhi-Madhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Wadi_language" title="Wadi Wadi language">Wadi-Wadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadawurrung_language" title="Wadawurrung language">Wathaurong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wemba_Wemba_language" title="Wemba Wemba language">Wemba Wemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woiwurrung%E2%80%93Taungurung_language" title="Woiwurrung–Taungurung language">Woiwurrung–Taungurung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drual_languages" title="Drual languages">Drual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bungandidj_language" title="Bungandidj language">Bungandidj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhauwurd_Wurrung_language" title="Dhauwurd Wurrung language">Dhauwurd Wurrung</a> <ul><li>Kuurn Kopan Noot</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaran_language" title="Yaran language">Yaran</a> (Bindjali)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Murray_languages" title="Lower Murray languages">Lower Murray</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kureinji_language" title="Kureinji language">Keramin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngayawung_language" title="Ngayawung language">Ngayawung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarrindjeri_language" title="Ngarrindjeri language">Yaralde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitha_Yitha_language" title="Yitha Yitha language">Yitha-Yitha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuyu_language" title="Yuyu language">Yuyu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thura-Yura_languages" title="Thura-Yura languages">Thura-Yura</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adnyamathanha_language" title="Adnyamathanha language">Adnyamathanha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barngarla_language" title="Barngarla language">Barngarla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaurna_language" title="Kaurna language">Kaurna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnyamathanha_language" title="Adnyamathanha language">Kuyani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narungga_language" title="Narungga language">Narungga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauo_language" title="Nauo language">Nauo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngadjuri_language" title="Ngadjuri language">Ngadjuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukunu_language" title="Nukunu language">Nukunu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wirangu_language" title="Wirangu language">Wirangu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Mirning_languages" title="Mirning languages">Mirniny</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirning_language" title="Mirning language">Mirning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngadjunmaya_language" title="Ngadjunmaya language">Ngadjunmaya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Nyungic_languages" title="Nyungic languages">Nyungic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galaagu_language" title="Galaagu language">Galaagu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalaamaya_language" title="Kalaamaya language">Kalaamaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natingero_language" title="Natingero language">Natingero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noongar_language" title="Noongar language">Nyungar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Western_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western</a> <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Kartu_languages" title="Kartu languages">Kartu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badimaya_language" title="Badimaya language">Badimaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malgana_language" title="Malgana language">Malgana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaagurda_language" title="Thaagurda language">Thaagurda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhanda_language" title="Nhanda language">Nhanda</a>–<a href="/wiki/Nhanhagardi_language" title="Nhanhagardi language">Nhanhagardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wajarri_language" title="Wajarri language">Wajarri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinggarda_language" title="Yinggarda language">Yinggarda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Kanyara%E2%80%93Mantharta_languages" title="Kanyara–Mantharta languages">Kanyara–Mantharta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanyara_languages" title="Kanyara languages">Kanyara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burduna_language" title="Burduna language">Burduna</a>–Baiyungu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalanyji_language" title="Thalanyji language">Thalanyji</a>–Pinikura</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantharta_language" title="Mantharta language">Mantharta</a> <ul><li>Tharrgari</li> <li>Warriyangka</li> <li>Thiin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiwarli_dialect" title="Jiwarli dialect">Jiwarli</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ngayarda_languages" title="Ngayarda languages">Ngayarta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurruru_language" title="Jurruru language">Jurruru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrama_language" title="Kurrama language">Kurrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martuthunira_language" title="Martuthunira language">Martuthunira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarla_language" title="Ngarla language">Ngarla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarluma_language" title="Ngarluma language">Ngarluma-Kariyarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhuwala_language" title="Nhuwala language">Nhuwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyamal_language" title="Nyamal language">Nyamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyiyaparli_language" title="Nyiyaparli language">Nyiyaparli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyjima_language" title="Panyjima language">Panyjima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinjibarndi_language" title="Yinjibarndi language">Yindjibarndi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinhawangka_language" title="Yinhawangka language">Yinhawangka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Marrngu_languages" title="Marrngu languages">Marrngu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garadjari_language" title="Garadjari language">Karajarri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangarla_language" title="Mangarla language">Mangala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyangumarta_language" title="Nyangumarta language">Nyangumarta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Northern_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Australia" title="Northern Australia">Northern</a> <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ngumpin%E2%80%93Yapa_languages" title="Ngumpin–Yapa languages">Ngumpin–Yapa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngarrkic_languages" title="Ngarrkic languages">Ngarrga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngumbin_languages" title="Ngumbin languages">Ngumbin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Warumungu_language" title="Warumungu language">Warumungu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warumungu_language" title="Warumungu language">Warumungu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ngarna_languages" title="Ngarna languages">Warluwaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wagaya_language" title="Wagaya language">Wagaya</a> <ul><li>Bularnu</li> <li>Yindjilandji</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warluwarra_language" title="Warluwarra language">Warluwarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanyuwa_language" title="Yanyuwa language">Yanyuwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Kalkatungic_languages" title="Kalkatungic languages">Kalkatungic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalkatungu_language" title="Kalkatungu language">Kalkatungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalarnnga_language" title="Yalarnnga language">Yalarnnga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Mayabic_languages" title="Mayabic languages">Mayi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mayi-Kulan_language" title="Mayi-Kulan language">Mayi-Kulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayi-Kutuna_language" title="Mayi-Kutuna language">Mayi-Kutuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngawun_language" title="Ngawun language">Ngawun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Central_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Central_Australia" title="Central Australia">Central</a> <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Wati_languages" title="Wati languages">Wati</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngardi_language" title="Ngardi language">Ngardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warnman_language" title="Warnman language">Wanman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_language" title="Western Desert language">Western Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Arandic_languages" title="Arandic languages">Arandic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrernte_language" title="Arrernte language">Arrernte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaytetye_language" title="Kaytetye language">Kaytetye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Arrernte_language" title="Lower Arrernte language">Lower Arrernte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertame_language" title="Pertame language">Pertame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Karnic_languages" title="Karnic languages">Karnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabana_language" title="Arabana language">Arabana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diyari_language" title="Diyari language">Diyari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithaka_language" title="Mithaka language">Mithaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngamini_language" title="Ngamini language">Ngamini</a> <ul><li>Yarluyandi</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngura_languages" title="Ngura languages">Ngura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitta_Pitta_language" title="Pitta Pitta language">Pitta Pitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanggamala_language" title="Wanggamala language">Wanggamala</a> <ul><li>Wangka-Yutjurru</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_River_language" title="Wilson River language">Wilson River</a> <ul><li>Bundhamara</li> <li>new Wangkumara/Garlali</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yandruwandha_language" title="Yandruwandha language">Yandruwandha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paakantyi_language" title="Paakantyi language">Baagandji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalali_language" title="Kalali language">Bulloo River</a> <ul><li>old Wangkumara/Garlali</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muruwari_language" title="Muruwari language">Muruwari</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barranbinja_language" title="Barranbinja language">Barranbinja</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarli_language" title="Yarli language">Yardli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Other_Pama–Nyungan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other <a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Yol%C5%8Bu_languages" title="Yolŋu languages">Yolŋu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhangu-Djangu_language" title="Dhangu-Djangu language">Dhaŋu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhuwal_language" title="Dhuwal language">Dhuwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhangu-Djangu_language" title="Dhangu-Djangu language">Djaŋu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djinba_language" title="Djinba language">Djinba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djinang_language" title="Djinang language">Djinaŋ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritharrngu_language" title="Ritharrngu language">Ritharrŋu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhangu_language" title="Nhangu language">Nhaŋu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Burdekin_languages" title="Lower Burdekin languages">Lower Burdekin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindal_language" title="Bindal language">Bindal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div id="Macro-Pama–Nyungan?" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Macro-Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Macro-Pama–Nyungan languages">Macro-Pama–Nyungan?</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Macro-Gunwinyguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maningrida_languages" title="Maningrida languages">Maningrida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burarra_language" title="Burarra language">Burarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndj%C3%A9bbana_language" title="Ndjébbana language">Ndjébbana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurr-Goni_language" title="Gurr-Goni language">Gurr-goni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakkara_language" title="Nakkara language">Nakkara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mangarrayi-Marran</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawa_language" title="Alawa language">Alawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangarrayi_language" title="Mangarrayi language">Mangarrayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marra_language" title="Marra language">Marra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warndarrang_language" title="Warndarrang language">Warndarrang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugul_language" title="Yugul language">Yugul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gunwinyguan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jawoyn_language" title="Jawoyn language">Jawoyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uwinymil_language" title="Uwinymil language">Uwinymil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warray_language" title="Warray language">Waray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunwinjku_dialect" title="Kunwinjku dialect">Kunwinjku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalabon_language" title="Dalabon language">Dalabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunbarlang_language" title="Gunbarlang language">Kunbarlang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngalakgan_language" title="Ngalakgan language">Ngalakgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rembarrnga_language" title="Rembarrnga language">Rembarrnga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngandi_language" title="Ngandi language">Ngandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunggubuyu_language" title="Nunggubuyu language">Nunggubuyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anindilyakwa_language" title="Anindilyakwa language">Anindilyakwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaagudju_language" title="Gaagudju language">Gaagudju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kungarakany_language" title="Kungarakany language">Kungarakany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Wardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kayardild_language" title="Kayardild language">Kayardild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lardil_language" title="Lardil language">Lardil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingginda_language" title="Mingginda language">Minkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukulta_language" title="Yukulta language">Gangalidda (Yukulta)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garrwan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garrwa_language" title="Garrwa language">Garrwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunindiri_language" title="Gunindiri language">Gunindiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waanyi_language" title="Waanyi language">Waanyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Australian_Aboriginal_and_Tasmanian_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Template:Australian Aboriginal languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Template talk:Australian Aboriginal languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Australian Aboriginal languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Australian_Aboriginal_and_Tasmanian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian Aboriginal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_languages" title="Tasmanian languages">Tasmanian</a> languages</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a> <br />subgroups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Victorian P–N</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Murray_languages" title="Lower Murray languages">Lower Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yotayotic_languages" title="Yotayotic languages">Yotayotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gippsland_languages" title="Gippsland languages">Gippsland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulin_languages" title="Kulin languages">Kulin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bungandidj_language" title="Bungandidj language">Bungandidj</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New South Wales P–N</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuin%E2%80%93Kuric_languages" title="Yuin–Kuric languages">Yuin–Kuric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhanggati_language" title="Dhanggati language">Dhanggati</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anewan_language" title="Anewan language">Anewan (Nganyaywana)</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_New_South_Wales_languages" title="Central New South Wales languages">Central New South Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wiradhuric_languages" title="Wiradhuric languages">Wiradhuric</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barranbinja_language" title="Barranbinja language">Barranbinja</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muruwari_language" title="Muruwari language">Muruwari</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durubalic_languages" title="Durubalic languages">Durubalic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugambeh%E2%80%93Bundjalung_languages" title="Yugambeh–Bundjalung languages">Bandjalangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumbaynggiric_languages" title="Gumbaynggiric languages">Gumbaynggiric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waka%E2%80%93Kabic_languages" title="Waka–Kabic languages">Waka–Kabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Torres_Strait_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Torres Strait language">Western Torres Strait</a> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kalaw Lagaw Ya</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paman_languages" title="Paman languages">Paman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Cape_York_Paman_languages" title="North Cape York Paman languages">Northern Paman</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Uradhi_language" title="Uradhi language">Uradhi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wik_languages" title="Wik languages">Wik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paman_languages" title="Paman languages">Middle Paman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umpila_language" title="Umpila language">Umpilaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umpithamu_language" title="Umpithamu language">Umbindhamuic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamalamic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamalamic languages">Lamalamic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Umbuygamu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbuygamu language">Umbuygamu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lamalama_language" title="Lamalama language">Mbarrumbathama</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Paman_languages" title="Southwestern Paman languages">Southwest Paman</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kuuk_Thayorre_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuuk Thayorre language">Kuuk Thayorre</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Paman_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Paman languages">Southern Paman</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mbabaram_language" title="Mbabaram language">Mbabaram</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flinders_Island_language" title="Flinders Island language">Flinders Island</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maric_languages" title="Maric languages">Maric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Northern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Warrongo_language" title="Warrongo language">Warrongo</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biri_language" title="Biri language">Biri</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Southern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bidyara_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidyara language">Bidyara–Gungabula</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Margany_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Margany language">Margany–Gunya</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bindal_language" title="Bindal language">Bindal</a></i> ?</li> <li>Guwa–Yanda ? <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guwa_language" title="Guwa language">Guwa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yanda_language" title="Yanda language">Yanda</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingkel_languages" title="Kingkel languages">Kingkel</a> ? <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharumbal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharumbal language">Dharumbal</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bayali_language" title="Bayali language">Bayali</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Burdekin_languages" title="Lower Burdekin languages">Lower Burdekin</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dyirbalic_languages" title="Dyirbalic languages">Dyirbalic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dyirbal_language" title="Dyirbal language">Dyirbal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warrgamay_language" title="Warrgamay language">Warrgamay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nyawaygi_language" title="Nyawaygi language">Nyawaygi</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Burdekin_languages" title="Lower Burdekin languages">Lower Burdekin</a> ?</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Yimidhirr–Yalanji–Yidinic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guugu_Yimidhirr_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guugu Yimidhirr language">Guugu Yimidihirr</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kuku_Yalanji_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuku Yalanji language">Kuku Yalanji</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yidiny_language" title="Yidiny language">Yidiny</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gulf</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalkatungic_languages" title="Kalkatungic languages">Kalkatungic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalkatungu_language" title="Kalkatungu language">Kalkatungu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yalarnnga_language" title="Yalarnnga language">Yalarnnga</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayabic_languages" title="Mayabic languages">Mayi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arandic–Thura–Yura</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arandic_languages" title="Arandic languages">Arandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arrernte_language" title="Arrernte language">Arrernte</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaytetye_language" title="Kaytetye language">Kaytetye</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thura%E2%80%93Yura_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Thura–Yura languages">Thura–Yura</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wirangu_language" title="Wirangu language">Wirangu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaurna_language" title="Kaurna language">Kaurna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adnyamathanha_language" title="Adnyamathanha language">Adnyamathanha</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Karnic_languages" title="Karnic languages">Karnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Northern (Palku) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pitta-Pitta_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitta-Pitta language">Pitta-Pitta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arabana_language" title="Arabana language">Arabana–Wangkangurru</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Central <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diyari_language" title="Diyari language">Diyari</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yandruwandha_language" title="Yandruwandha language">Yandruwandha</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilson_River_language" title="Wilson River language">Wilson River (Wangkumara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bulloo_River_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulloo River language">Bulloo River (Galali)</a></i> ?</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yarli_language" title="Yarli language">Yarli</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paakantyi_(Darling_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paakantyi (Darling language)">Paakantyi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yol%C5%8Bu_languages" title="Yolŋu languages">Yolŋu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhangu-Djangu_language" title="Dhangu-Djangu language">Dhaŋu–Djaŋu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ritharngu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritharngu language">Ritharrŋu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nhangu_language" title="Nhangu language">Nhaŋu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhuwal_language" title="Dhuwal language">Dhuwal–Dhuwala</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Djambarrpuyngu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Djambarrpuyngu language">Djambarrpuyŋu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gupapuyngu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupapuyngu language">Gupapuyŋu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Djinang_language" title="Djinang language">Djinaŋ</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Djinba_language" title="Djinba language">Djinba</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganalbingu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganalbingu language">Ganhalpuyŋu</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ngarna_languages" title="Ngarna languages">Ngarna/Warluwarric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yanyuwa_language" title="Yanyuwa language">Yanyuwa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarna_languages" title="Ngarna languages">Southern</a> <ul><li>Ngarru</li> <li>Thawa</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Desert Nyungic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marrngu_languages" title="Marrngu languages">Marrngu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngumpin%E2%80%93Yapa_languages" title="Ngumpin–Yapa languages">Ngumpin–Yapa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngumpin_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngumpin languages">Ngumpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yapa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yapa languages">Yapa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warumungu_language" title="Warumungu language">Warumungu</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wati_languages" title="Wati languages">Wati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South-West P–N</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Pilbara <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngayarda_languages" title="Ngayarda languages">Ngayarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanyara%E2%80%93Mantharta_languages" title="Kanyara–Mantharta languages">Kanyara–Mantharta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartu%E2%80%93Nhanda_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kartu–Nhanda languages">Kartu–Nhanda</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yinggarda_language" title="Yinggarda language">Yinggarda</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirning_languages" title="Mirning languages">Mirning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyungic_languages" title="Nyungic languages">Nyunga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_language" title="Proto-Pama–Nyungan language">Proto-Pama–Nyungan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lardil_language" title="Lardil language">Lardil</a> (register: <a href="/wiki/Damin" title="Damin">Damin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayardild_language" title="Kayardild language">Kayardild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukulta_language" title="Yukulta language">Yukulta</a> (Ganggalida, Nyangga)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingginda_language" title="Mingginda language">Mingginda</a> (Minkin)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garrwan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Garawa language">Garawa</a> (Garrwa, north)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waanyi_language" title="Waanyi language">Waanyi</a> (Wanji, south)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunindiri_language" title="Gunindiri language">Gunindiri</a> (Kurnindirri, southwest)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Macro-Gunwinyguan</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maningrida_languages" title="Maningrida languages">Maningrida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burarra_language" title="Burarra language">Burarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurr-goni_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurr-goni language">Gurr-goni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndj%C3%A9bbana_language" title="Ndjébbana language">Ndjébbana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakkara_language" title="Nakkara language">Nakkara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marran</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marra_language" title="Marra language">Marra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warndarang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Warndarang language">Warndarang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugul_language" title="Yugul language">Yugul</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawa_language" title="Alawa language">Alawa</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangarrayi_language" title="Mangarrayi language">Mangarrayi</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gunwinyguan proper</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jawoyn_language" title="Jawoyn language">Jawoyn</a> (Djauan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warray_language" title="Warray language">Waray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uwinymil_language" title="Uwinymil language">Uwinymil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bininj_Gun-Wok_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bininj Gun-Wok language">Bininj Kunwok</a> (Kunwinjku, Gunwinggu)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunbarlang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kunbarlang language">Kunbarlang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalabon_language" title="Dalabon language">Dalabon</a> (Ngalkbun)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rembarrnga_language" title="Rembarrnga language">Rembarrnga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngalakgan_language" title="Ngalakgan language">Ngalakgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngandi_language" title="Ngandi language">Ngandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunggubuyu_language" title="Nunggubuyu language">Nunggubuyu</a> (Wubuy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enindhilyagwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Enindhilyagwa language">Anindilyakwa</a> (Enindhilyagwa)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Wardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kungarakany_language" title="Kungarakany language">Kungarakany (Koongurrukuñ)</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaagudju_language" title="Gaagudju language">Gaagudju</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central (Warrkbi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidja_language" title="Iwaidja language">Iwaidja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilgar_language" title="Ilgar language">Garig–Ilgar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garig_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Garig dialect">Garig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilgar_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilgar dialect">Ilgar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern (Goulburn Island)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maung_language" title="Maung language">Maung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manangkari_language" title="Manangkari language">Manangkari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amurdag_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amurdag language">Amurdag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wurrugu_language" title="Wurrugu language">Wurrugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrgu_language" title="Marrgu language">Marrgu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a> ?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laragiya_language" title="Laragiya language">Gulumoerrgin (Larrakia)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Limilngan–Wulna?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limilngan_language" title="Limilngan language">Limilngan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulna_language" title="Wulna language">Wulna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Umbugarlic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umbugarla_language" title="Umbugarla language">Umbugarla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngomburr_language" title="Ngomburr language">Ngurmbur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugurnidja_language" title="Bugurnidja language">Bugurnidja</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Daly_languages" title="Daly languages">Daly River Sprachbund</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic (Anson Bay)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wadjiginy_language" title="Wadjiginy language">Batjamalh (Wadjiginy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandjerramalh_language" title="Kandjerramalh language">Pungu Pungu (Kandjerramalh)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Northern Daly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak (Nguluk Wanggar)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Tyerraty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marringarr_language" title="Marringarr language">Marri Ngarr</a> <ul><li>Magati Ke</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marranj_language" title="Marranj language">Merranunggu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrithiyel_language" title="Marrithiyel language">Marrithiyel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrithiyel_language" title="Marrithiyel language">Marramaninjsji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matngala_language" title="Matngala language">Matngele (Werret/Dakayu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamu_language" title="Kamu language">Kamu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murrinh-patha_language" title="Murrinh-patha language">Murrinh-patha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngan%27gityemerri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngan'gityemerri language">Ngan’gityemerri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jingulu_language" title="Jingulu language">Jingulu</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yirram_languages" title="Yirram languages">Yirram</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nungali_language" title="Nungali language">Nungali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaminjung_language" title="Jaminjung language">Jaminjung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ngurlun_languages" title="Ngurlun languages">Ngurlun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngarnka_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngarnka language">Ngarnka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wambaya_language" title="Wambaya language">Wambaya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kija_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kija language">Kija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriwoong_language" title="Miriwoong language">Miriwoong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gajirrawoong_dialect" title="Gajirrawoong dialect">Gajirrawoong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunuba_language" title="Bunuba language">Bunuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gooniyandi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gooniyandi language">Gooniyandi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wunambal_language" title="Wunambal language">Wunambal</a> (Northern)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarinyin_language" title="Ngarinyin language">Ngarinyin</a> (Eastern)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorra_language" title="Worrorra language">Worrorra</a> (Western)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western (Nyulnyulic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyul_language" title="Nyulnyul language">Nyulnyul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardi_language" title="Bardi language">Bardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_dialect" title="Jawi dialect">Jawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djabirr-Djabirr_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Djabirr-Djabirr language">Djabirr-Djabirr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimanburru_language" title="Nimanburru language">Nimanburru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern (Dyukun)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yawuru_language" title="Yawuru language">Yawuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyugun_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyugun language">Dyugun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrwa_language" title="Warrwa language">Warrwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyigina_language" title="Nyigina language">Nyigina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngumbarl_language" title="Ngumbarl language">Ngumbarl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_languages" title="Tasmanian languages">Tasmanian</a> <br />family-level groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peerapper_language" title="Peerapper language">Northwestern Tasmanian</a> (Peerapper)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toogee_language" title="Toogee language">Southwestern Tasmanian</a> (Toogee) ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tommeginne_language" title="Tommeginne language">Northern Tasmanian</a> (Tommeginne)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Sorell_language" title="Port Sorell language">Port Sorell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyemmairre_language" title="Pyemmairre language">Pyemmairre</a> (Northeastern)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyerrernotepanner_language" title="Tyerrernotepanner language">Tyerrernotepanner</a> (North Midland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhotsky/Blackhouse_Tasmanian_language" title="Lhotsky/Blackhouse Tasmanian language">Lhotsky/Blackhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Tasmanian_language" title="Norman Tasmanian language">Norman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paredarerme_language" title="Paredarerme language">Oyster Bay</a> (Paredarerme)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Swanport_language" title="Little Swanport language">Little Swanport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuenonne_language" title="Nuenonne language">Southeast Tasmanian</a> (Nuenonne)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruny_Island_Tasmanian_language" title="Bruny Island Tasmanian language">Bruny Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Indigenous <br />languages and <br /><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_English" title="Australian Aboriginal English">Aboriginal Englishes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_languages" title="English-based creole languages">Creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol" title="Australian Kriol">Australian Kriol</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Roper River Kriol (<a href="/wiki/Ngukurr" title="Ngukurr">Ngukurr</a>)</li> <li>Bamyili Kriol (<a href="/wiki/Barunga,_Northern_Territory" title="Barunga, Northern Territory">Barunga</a>)</li> <li>Kimberley Kriol (<a href="/wiki/Fitzroy_Crossing" class="mw-redirect" title="Fitzroy Crossing">Fitzroy Valley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daly_River,_Northern_Territory" title="Daly River, Northern Territory">Daly River</a> Kriol</li> <li>Westside Kriol (<a href="/wiki/Victoria_River,_Northern_Territory" title="Victoria River, Northern Territory">Victoria River</a>)</li> <li>Barkly Kriol</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mornington_Island" title="Mornington Island">Mornington Island</a> Creole</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kowanyama" class="mw-redirect" title="Kowanyama">Kowanyama</a> Creole</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northeastern <br />creoles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a> (Yumplatok)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Peninsula_Area_Region#Language" title="Northern Peninsula Area Region">Cape York Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockhart_River,_Queensland" title="Lockhart River, Queensland">Lockhart River</a> Creole</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napranum" class="mw-redirect" title="Napranum">Napranum</a> Creole</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English-based_pidgins" title="List of English-based pidgins">Pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Port_Jackson_Pidgin_English" title="Port Jackson Pidgin English">Port Jackson Pidgin English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broome_Pearling_Lugger_Pidgin" title="Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin">Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Pidgin_English" title="South Australian Pidgin English">South Australian Pidgin English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngarluma_language#dialects" title="Ngarluma language">Pidgin Ngarluma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed languages">Mixed languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_Warlpiri" title="Light Warlpiri">Light Warlpiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurindji_Kriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurindji Kriol">Gurindji Kriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language#Modern_Tiwi" title="Tiwi language">Modern Tiwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warumungu" title="Warumungu">Wumpurrarni</a> English (<a href="/wiki/Tennant_Creek" title="Tennant Creek">Tennant Creek</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alyawarr" class="mw-redirect" title="Alyawarr">Alyawarr</a> English</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nyungar" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Nyungar">Neo-Nyungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunga_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Nunga English">Nunga English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarrabah,_Queensland" title="Yarrabah, Queensland">Yarrie</a> Lingo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Island,_Queensland" title="Palm Island, Queensland">Palm</a> Talk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woorabinda" class="mw-redirect" title="Woorabinda">Woorie</a> Talk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherbourg,_Queensland" title="Cherbourg, Queensland">Cherbourg</a> Talk</li> <li>Murdi Language</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_Torres_Strait_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Torres_Strait" title="Template:Torres Strait"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Torres_Strait" title="Template talk:Torres Strait"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Torres_Strait" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Torres Strait"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_Torres_Strait_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">List of <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Islet" title="Islet">islets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">cays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bellevue_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellevue Islands">Bellevue</a> group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aipus</li> <li>Cap</li> <li>Kamutnab</li> <li>Keatinge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mabuiag_Island" title="Mabuiag Island">Mabuiag</a></li> <li>Pulu</li> <li>Subur</li> <li>Warakuikul Talab</li> <li>Widul</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourke_Isles" title="Bourke Isles">Bourke</a> group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aukane</li> <li>Aureed</li> <li>Kabbikane</li> <li>Layoak</li> <li>Mimi</li> <li>Roberts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_Island" title="Yam Island">Yam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Islands" title="Duncan Islands">Duncan</a> group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Kanig</li> <li>Maitak</li> <li>Meth</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inner group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeta_(Port_Lihou_Island),_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeta (Port Lihou Island), Queensland">Port Lihou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeta_(Port_Lihou_Island),_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeta (Port Lihou Island), Queensland">Yeta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adolphus Channel group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Island" title="Albany Island">Albany</a></li> <li>Bush</li> <li>Eborac</li> <li>Ida</li> <li>Middle Brother</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Talbot_Islands" title="Talbot Islands">Talbot</a> group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aubussi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boigu_Island,_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Boigu Island, Queensland">Boigu</a></li> <li>Moimi</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Sisters_(Queensland)" title="The Three Sisters (Queensland)">The Three Sisters</a> group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Bet</li> <li>Poll</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Islet_(Queensland)" title="Sue Islet (Queensland)">Sue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Yorke group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Keats</li> <li>Marsden</li> <li>Rennel</li> <li>Smith</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Allison</li> <li>Anchor</li> <li>Arden</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badu_Island" title="Badu Island">Badu</a></li> <li>Barn</li> <li>Barney</li> <li>Bond</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booby_Island_(Queensland)" title="Booby Island (Queensland)">Booby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bramble_Cay" title="Bramble Cay">Bramble</a></li> <li>Browne</li> <li>Campbell</li> <li>Canoe</li> <li>Castle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Island_(Queensland)" title="Coconut Island (Queensland)">Coconut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crab_Island_(Queensland)" title="Crab Island (Queensland)">Crab</a></li> <li>Dalrymple</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darnley_Island_(Queensland)" title="Darnley Island (Queensland)">Darnley</a></li> <li>Dauan</li> <li>Dayman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliverance_Island_(Queensland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliverance Island (Queensland)">Deliverance</a></li> <li>Dove</li> <li>Dugong</li> <li>Dumaralug</li> <li>East</li> <li>East Strait</li> <li>Entrance</li> <li>Farewell</li> <li>Flat</li> <li>Friday</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabba_Island_(Queensland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabba Island (Queensland)">Gabba</a></li> <li>Getullai</li> <li>Goods</li> <li>Great Woody</li> <li>Green</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfway_Island_(Queensland)" title="Halfway Island (Queensland)">Halfway</a></li> <li>Hammond</li> <li>Hawkesbury</li> <li>High</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_Island,_Queensland" title="Horn Island, Queensland">Horn</a></li> <li>Kaumag</li> <li>Kerr</li> <li>Lacey</li> <li>Little Adolphus</li> <li>Little Woody</li> <li>Lowry</li> <li>Mai</li> <li>Meddler</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa_Island_(Queensland)" title="Moa Island (Queensland)">Moa</a></li> <li>Morilug</li> <li>Mouinndo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Adolphus_Island" title="Mount Adolphus Island">Mount Adolphus</a></li> <li>Mount Ernest</li> <li>Murangi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Island,_Queensland" title="Murray Island, Queensland">Murray</a></li> <li>Nepean</li> <li>Nicklin</li> <li>North</li> <li>North Possession</li> <li>North West</li> <li>Obelisk</li> <li>Packe</li> <li>Passage</li> <li>Pearce</li> <li>Phipps</li> <li>Portlock</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales_Island_(Queensland)" title="Prince of Wales Island (Queensland)">Prince of Wales</a></li> <li>Quoin</li> <li>Red</li> <li>Red Wallis</li> <li>Roko</li> <li>Saddle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saibai_Island" title="Saibai Island">Saibai</a></li> <li>Salter</li> <li>Sassie</li> <li>Spencer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephens_Island_(Torres_Strait)" title="Stephens Island (Torres Strait)">Stephens</a></li> <li>Suarji</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thursday_Island" title="Thursday Island">Thursday</a></li> <li>Tobin</li> <li>Travers</li> <li>Tree</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochus_Island" title="Trochus Island">Trochus</a></li> <li>Tudu</li> <li>Tukupai</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnagain_Island_(Queensland)" title="Turnagain Island (Queensland)">Turnagain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Head_Island" title="Turtle Head Island">Turtle Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island_(Newcastle_Bay)" title="Turtle Island (Newcastle Bay)">Turtle</a></li> <li>Turu</li> <li>Twin</li> <li>Underdown</li> <li>Wednesday</li> <li>West</li> <li>Whale</li> <li>Woody Wallis</li> <li>York</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorke_Island_(Queensland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorke Island (Queensland)">Yorke</a></li> <li>Zagai</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People, culture,<br />communities and<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Anu" title="Christine Anu">Christine Anu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaman_Dan" title="Seaman Dan">Seaman Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Fa%27aoso" title="Aaron Fa'aoso">Aaron Fa'aoso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Hoffman" title="Josh Hoffman">Josh Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Jawai" title="Nathan Jawai">Nathan Jawai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Jose" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellen Jose">Ellen Jose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lui" title="Robert Lui">Robert Lui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Mabo" title="Eddie Mabo">Eddie Mabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachael_Maza" title="Rachael Maza">Rachael Maza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patty_Mills" title="Patty Mills">Patty Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rita_Mills" title="Rita Mills">Rita Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mills_Sisters" title="Mills Sisters">Mills Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Morseu" title="Danny Morseu">Danny Morseu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanu_Nona" title="Tanu Nona">Tanu Nona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Proud" title="Albert Proud">Albert Proud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Sailor" title="Wendell Sailor">Wendell Sailor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Thaiday" title="Sam Thaiday">Sam Thaiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brent_Webb" title="Brent Webb">Brent Webb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Williams_(American_football)" title="Jesse Williams (American football)">Jesse Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_Australia" title="Indigenous music of Australia">Indigenous music of Australia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mabo_(film)" title="Mabo (film)">Mabo</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(film)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taba_Naba" title="Taba Naba">Taba Naba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamaga" title="Bamaga">Bamaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaurareg" title="Kaurareg">Kaurareg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mabuiag" title="Mabuiag">Mabuiag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meriam_people" title="Meriam people">Meriam</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(people)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seisia,_Queensland" title="Seisia, Queensland">Seisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Island_languages" title="Torres Strait Island languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bine_language" title="Bine language">Bine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Trans-Fly_languages" title="Eastern Trans-Fly languages">Eastern Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gizrra_language" title="Gizrra language">Gizrra</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kalaw Lagaw Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meriam_language" title="Meriam language">Meriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Creole" title="Torres Strait Creole">Torres Strait Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_English" title="Torres Strait English">Torres Strait English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wipi_language" title="Wipi language">Wipi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance and<br />legal matters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shire_of_Torres" title="Shire of Torres">Shire of Torres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islander_Flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Torres Strait Islander Flag">Torres Strait Islander Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Island_Region" title="Torres Strait Island Region">Torres Strait Island Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Regional_Authority" title="Torres Strait Regional Authority">Torres Strait Regional Authority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal cases and principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Akiba_v_Commonwealth" title="Akiba v Commonwealth">Akiba v Commonwealth</a></i></li> <li><i>Mabo v Queensland</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_1)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 1)">No 1</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">No 2</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius#History_in_Australia" title="Terra nullius">Terra nullius</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buildings and structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boigu_Island_Airport" title="Boigu Island Airport">Boigu Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booby_Island_Light" title="Booby Island Light">Booby Island Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Island_Airport" title="Coconut Island Airport">Coconut Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darnley_Island_Airport" title="Darnley Island Airport">Darnley Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eborac_Island_Light" title="Eborac Island Light">Eborac Island Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goods_Island_Light" title="Goods Island Light">Goods Island Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubin_Airport" title="Kubin Airport">Kubin Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Island_Airport" title="Murray Island Airport">Murray Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saibai_Island_Airport" title="Saibai Island Airport">Saibai Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warraber_Island_Airport" title="Warraber Island Airport">Warraber Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyborn_Reef_Light" title="Wyborn Reef Light">Wyborn Reef Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_Island_Airport" title="Yam Island Airport">Yam Island Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorke_Island_Airport" title="Yorke Island Airport">Yorke Island Airport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_Channel" title="Adolphus Channel">Adolphus Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies">Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birds_of_Boigu,_Saibai_and_Dauan_Islands_(Torres_Strait)" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds of Boigu, Saibai and Dauan Islands (Torres Strait)">Birds of Boigu, Saibai and Dauan Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endeavour_Strait" title="Endeavour Strait">Endeavour Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cort_Haddon" title="Alfred Cort Haddon">Alfred Cort Haddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Lawrie" title="Margaret Lawrie">Margaret Lawrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Swift" title="Sea Swift">Sea Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warul_Kawa_Indigenous_Protected_Area" title="Warul Kawa Indigenous Protected Area">Warul Kawa Indigenous Protected Area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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