CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Refractive error - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"8e8c0642-1255-4938-a5f4-f66b1ce4f19d","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Refractive_error","wgTitle":"Refractive error","wgCurRevisionId":1273136588,"wgRevisionId":1273136588,"wgArticleId":866988,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024","Pages using div col with small parameter","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023","Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate","Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate","Vision", "Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction","Refraction","Corrective lenses"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Refractive_error","wgRelevantArticleId":866988,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true, "wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q470427","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready", "jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.15"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1472"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="981"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="785"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Refractive error - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_error"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_error"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Refractive_error rootpage-Refractive_error skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Refractive+error" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Refractive+error" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Refractive+error" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Refractive+error" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Risk factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Risk factors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Risk_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Environmental</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normal_Refraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normal_Refraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Normal Refraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normal_Refraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Screening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Glasses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_lenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_lenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Contact lenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_lenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Medical treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cost</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Refractive error</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B7%D8%A3_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="خطأ انكسار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خطأ انكسار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropia" title="Ametropia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ametropia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrak%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_vada" title="Refrakční vada – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Refrakční vada" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropie" title="Ametropie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ametropie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaegn%C3%A4gemine" title="Vaegnägemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vaegnägemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametrop%C3%ADa" title="Ametropía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ametropía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ناسازبینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناسازبینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubles_de_la_r%C3%A9fraction" title="Troubles de la réfraction – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Troubles de la réfraction" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%B4%EC%A0%88_%EC%9D%B4%EC%83%81" title="굴절 이상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="굴절 이상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuskuren_ratsawa" title="Kuskuren ratsawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kuskuren ratsawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC" title="Բեկման սխալ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բեկման սխալ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7" title="अपवर्तन दोष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपवर्तन दोष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrakcijska_gre%C5%A1ka" title="Refrakcijska greška – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Refrakcijska greška" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelainan_refraksi" title="Kelainan refraksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelainan refraksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropia" title="Ametropia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ametropia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%AA%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="טעות תשבורת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טעות תשבורת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%82" title="അപവർത്തന ദോഷം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അപവർത്തന ദോഷം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerabunan" title="Kerabunan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerabunan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropie" title="Ametropie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ametropie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B1%88%E6%8A%98%E7%95%B0%E5%B8%B8" title="屈折異常 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="屈折異常" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraksjonsfeil" title="Refraksjonsfeil – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Refraksjonsfeil" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9A%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B7%E0%AD%81_%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%A3_%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B7" title="ଚକ୍ଷୁ ପ୍ରତିସରଣ ଦୋଷ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଚକ୍ଷୁ ପ୍ରତିସରଣ ଦୋଷ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropiya" title="Ametropiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ametropiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropia" title="Ametropia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ametropia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametropia" title="Ametropia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ametropia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Аметропия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аметропия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomna_napaka" title="Lomna napaka – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Lomna napaka" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Рефракционе аномалије ока – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рефракционе аномалије ока" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taittovika" title="Taittovika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taittovika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Аметропія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аметропія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BA%ADt_kh%C3%BAc_x%E1%BA%A1" title="Tật khúc xạ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tật khúc xạ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B1%88%E5%85%89%E4%B8%8D%E6%AD%A3" title="屈光不正 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="屈光不正" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q470427#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Refractive_error" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Refractive_error" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Refractive_error" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&oldid=1273136588" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Refractive_error&id=1273136588&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRefractive_error"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRefractive_error"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Refractive_error&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Refractive_errors" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q470427" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Problem with focusing light accurately on the retina due to the shape of the eye</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Refractive error</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Refraction error</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg/220px-Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg/330px-Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg/440px-Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A correctly-focused eye (top), and two showing refractive error: In the middle image, the <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> is focused too far forward; in the bottom image, the focal point is behind the eye.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optometry" title="Optometry">optometry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blurry_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Blurry vision">Blurry vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Double_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Double vision">double vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Headaches">headaches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eye_strain" title="Eye strain">eye strain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">amblyopia</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Myopia" title="Myopia">Near-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperopia">far-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">astigmatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">presbyopia</a><sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eyeball" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeball">Eyeball</a> length, problems with <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> shape, aging of the <a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">lens</a><sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">Eye examination</a><sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eyeglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeglass">Eyeglasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contact_lenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact lenses">contact lenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refractive_surgery" title="Refractive surgery">refractive surgery</a><sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">~1.5 billion<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Refractive error</b> is a problem with <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focusing</a> light accurately on the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> due to the shape of the <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common types of refractive error are <a href="/wiki/Myopia" title="Myopia">near-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperopia">far-sightedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">astigmatism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">presbyopia</a>. Near-sightedness results in far away objects being <a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">blurry</a>, far-sightedness and presbyopia result in close objects being blurry, and astigmatism causes objects to appear stretched out or blurry. Other symptoms may include <a href="/wiki/Double_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Double vision">double vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Headaches">headaches</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eye_strain" title="Eye strain">eye strain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Near-sightedness is due to the length of the eyeball being too long; far-sightedness the eyeball too short; astigmatism the cornea being the wrong shape, while presbyopia results from aging of the <a href="/wiki/Lens_of_the_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens of the eye">lens of the eye</a> such that it cannot change shape sufficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some refractive errors occur more often among those whose parents are affected. Diagnosis is by <a href="/wiki/Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">eye examination</a>. </p><p>Refractive errors are corrected with <a href="/wiki/Eyeglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeglass">eyeglasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contact_lenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact lenses">contact lenses</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider <a href="/wiki/Field_of_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of vision">field of vision</a>; however they are associated with a risk of infection. <a href="/wiki/Refractive_surgery" title="Refractive surgery">Refractive surgery</a> may consist of either permanently changing the shape of the cornea or, alternatively, implanting <a href="/wiki/Intraocular_lens" title="Intraocular lens">intraocular lenses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of people globally with refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion.<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of Europeans and 80% of Asians affected.<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near-sightedness is the most common disorder.<sup id="cite_ref-Fos2014_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fos2014-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children and the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-Cas2014_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cas2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gro2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gro2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of people with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these 9.5 million were <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blind</a> due to the refractive error.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is one of the most common causes of <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">vision loss</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">vitamin A deficiency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan2015_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan2015-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refractive_error.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Refractive_error.jpg/290px-Refractive_error.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Refractive_error.jpg/435px-Refractive_error.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Refractive_error.jpg/580px-Refractive_error.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Top: farsighted corrected using convex lens Bottom: nearsighted corrected using concave lens.</figcaption></figure> <p>Refractive error – sometimes called "ametropia" – is when the refractive power of an eye does not match the length of the eye, so the image is focused away from the central retina, instead of directly on it.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Types of refractive error include myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism. </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nearsightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Nearsightedness">Nearsightedness</a></b>: When the refractive power is too strong for the length of the eyeball, this is called <a href="/wiki/Myopia" title="Myopia">myopia</a> or nearsightedness. People with myopia typically have blurry vision when viewing distant objects because the eye is refracting more than necessary. Myopia can be corrected with a concave lens, which causes the divergence of light rays before they reach the cornea.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Farsightedness" title="Farsightedness">Farsightedness</a></b>: When the refractive power is too weak for the length of the eyeball, one has <a href="/wiki/Hyperopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperopia">hyperopia</a> or farsightedness. People with hyperopia have blurry vision when viewing near objects because the eye is unable to focus the light sufficiently. This can be corrected with convex lenses, which cause light rays to converge prior to hitting the cornea.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></b>: When the flexibility of the lens declines, typically due to age. The individual would experience difficulty in near vision, often relieved by reading glasses, bifocal, or progressive lenses.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></b> is when the refractive power of the eye is not uniform across the surface of the cornea because of asymmetry. In other words, the eye focuses light more strongly in one direction than another, leading to distortion of the image.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Children are typically born hyperopic and shift toward emmetropia or myopia as their eyes lengthen through childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other terminology include <a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">anisometropia</a>, when the two eyes have unequal <a href="/wiki/Refractive_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractive power">refractive power</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">aniseikonia</a> which is when the <a href="/wiki/Magnification" title="Magnification">magnification</a> power between the eyes differ.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Refractive errors are typically measured using three numbers: sphere, cylinder, and axis.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Sphere:</b> This number denotes the strength of the lens needed to correct your vision. A "–" indicates nearsightedness while a "+" indicates farsightedness. Higher numbers indicate more power in either direction.</li> <li><b>Cylinder:</b> This number denotes the amount of astigmatism, if any.</li> <li><b>Axis:</b> This number notes the direction of the astigmatism and is written in degrees between 1 and 180.</li></ul> <p>An eye that has no refractive error when viewing distant objects is said to have <i><a href="/wiki/Emmetropia" title="Emmetropia">emmetropia</a></i> or be <i>emmetropic</i> meaning the eye is in a state in which it can focus parallel rays of light (light from distant objects) on the retina, without using any accommodation. A distant object, in this case, is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters, or 20 feet, from the eye, since the light from those objects arrives as essentially parallel rays when considering the limitations of human perception.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_factors">Risk factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Risk factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa,_early_stage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg/290px-Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg/435px-Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg/580px-Fundus_of_patient_with_retinitis_pigmentosa%2C_early_stage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>Fundus of person with <a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">retinitis pigmentosa</a>, early stage</figcaption></figure> <p>There is evidence to suggest genetic predilection for refractive error. Individuals that have parents with certain refractive errors are more likely to have similar refractive errors.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (<a href="/wiki/OMIM" class="mw-redirect" title="OMIM">OMIM</a>) database has listed 261 genetic disorders in which myopia is one of the symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan_1739–1748-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Myopia may be present in heritable connective tissue disorders such as: <a href="/wiki/Knobloch_syndrome" title="Knobloch syndrome">Knobloch syndrome</a> (OMIM 267750); <a href="/wiki/Marfan_syndrome" title="Marfan syndrome">Marfan syndrome</a> (OMIM 154700); and <a href="/wiki/Stickler_syndrome" title="Stickler syndrome">Stickler syndrome</a> (type 1, OMIM 108300; type 2, OMIM 604841).<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Myopia has also been reported in <a href="/wiki/X-linked_recessive_inheritance" title="X-linked recessive inheritance">X-linked disorders</a> caused by mutations in <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">loci</a> involved in retinal <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptor</a> function (<a href="/wiki/NYX_(gene)" class="mw-redirect" title="NYX (gene)">NYX</a>, <a href="/wiki/RP2_(gene)" title="RP2 (gene)">RP2</a>, MYP1) such as: autosomal recessive <a href="/wiki/Congenital_stationary_night_blindness" title="Congenital stationary night blindness">congenital stationary night blindness</a> (<a href="/wiki/CSNB" class="mw-redirect" title="CSNB">CSNB</a>; OMIM 310500); <a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">retinitis pigmentosa</a> 2 (RP2; OMIM 312600); Bornholm eye disease (OMIM 310460).<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many genes that have been associated with refractive error are clustered into common biological networks involved in connective tissue growth and extracellular matrix organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although a large number of chromosomal localisations have been associated with myopia (MYP1-MYP17), few specific genes have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan_1739–1748-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental">Environmental</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Environmental"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In studies of the genetic predisposition of refractive error, there is a correlation between environmental factors and the risk of developing myopia.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Myopia has been observed in individuals with visually intensive occupations.<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a> has also been found to be a predictor of myopia in children. It has been reported that children with myopia spent significantly more time reading than non-myopic children who spent more time playing outdoors.<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, focusing on near objects for long periods of time - such as when reading, looking at close screens, or writing - has been associated with myopia.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic status</a> and higher levels of education have also been reported to be a risk factor for myopia.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">Blepharoptosis</a> can also induce refractive errors.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Normal_Refraction">Normal Refraction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Normal Refraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to see a clear image, the eye must focus rays of light on to the light-sensing part of the eye – the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, which is located in the back of the eye. This focusing – called <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> – is performed mainly by the <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lens_(vertebrate_anatomy)" title="Lens (vertebrate anatomy)">lens</a>, which are located at the front of the eye, the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_segment_of_eyeball" title="Anterior segment of eyeball">anterior segment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When an eye focuses light correctly on to the retina when viewing distant objects, this is called <i><a href="/wiki/Emmetropia" title="Emmetropia">emmetropia</a></i> or being <i>emmetropic.</i> This means that the refractive power of the eye matches what is needed to focus parallel rays of light onto the retina. A distant object is defined as an object located beyond 6 meters (20 feet) from the eye.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When an object is located close to the eye, the rays of light from this object no longer approach the eye parallel to each other. Consequently, the eye must <i>increase</i> its refractive power to bring those rays of light together on the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. This is called <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(vertebrate_eye)" title="Accommodation (vertebrate eye)">accommodation</a>, and is accomplished by the eye thickening the lens.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refrarction_error_test.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Refrarction_error_test.JPG/290px-Refrarction_error_test.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Refrarction_error_test.JPG/435px-Refrarction_error_test.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Refrarction_error_test.JPG/580px-Refrarction_error_test.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A doctor uses a trial frame and trial lenses to measure the person's refractive error.</figcaption></figure> <p>Blurry vision may result from any number of conditions not necessarily related to refractive errors. The diagnosis of a refractive error is usually confirmed by an <a href="/wiki/Eye_care_professional" title="Eye care professional">eye care professional</a> during an <a href="/wiki/Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">eye examination</a> using a large number of lenses of different optical powers, and often a <a href="/wiki/Retinoscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinoscope">retinoscope</a> (a procedure entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Retinoscopy" title="Retinoscopy">retinoscopy</a></i>) to measure objectively in which the person views a distant spot while the clinician changes the lenses held before the person's eye and watches the pattern of reflection of a small light shone on the eye. Following that "objective refraction" the clinician typically shows the person lenses of progressively higher or weaker powers in a process known as <i><a href="/wiki/Subjective_refraction" title="Subjective refraction">subjective refraction</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Cycloplegic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycloplegic">Cycloplegic</a> agents are frequently used to more accurately determine the amount of refractive error, particularly in children<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Automated_refractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated refractor">automated refractor</a> is an instrument that is sometimes used in place of retinoscopy to objectively estimate a person's refractive error.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shack%E2%80%93Hartmann_wavefront_sensor" title="Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor">Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor</a> and its inverse<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can also be used to characterize <a href="/wiki/Aberrations_of_the_eye" title="Aberrations of the eye">eye aberrations</a> in a higher level of resolution and accuracy. </p><p>Vision defects caused by refractive error can be distinguished from other problems using a <a href="/wiki/Pinhole_occluder" title="Pinhole occluder">pinhole occluder</a>, which will improve vision only in the case of refractive error.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Screening">Screening</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Screening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When refractive errors in children are not treated, the child may be at risk of developing <a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">ambylopia</a>, where vision may remain permanently blurry.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because young children typically do not complain of blurry vision, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children have yearly vision screening starting at three years old so that unknown refractive errors or other ophthalmic conditions can be found and treated if deemed necessary by healthcare professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The management of refractive error is done post-diagnosis of the condition by either optometrists, ophthalmologists, refractionists, or ophthalmic medical practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-Cochrane_c1711_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cochrane_c1711-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>How refractive errors are treated or managed depends upon the amount and severity of the condition. Those who possess mild amounts of refractive error may elect to leave the condition uncorrected, particularly if the person is asymptomatic. For those who are symptomatic, <a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">glasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contact_lenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact lenses">contact lenses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refractive_surgery" title="Refractive surgery">refractive surgery</a>, or a combination are typically used.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan_1739–1748-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glasses">Glasses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Glasses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These are the most effective ways of correcting the refractive error. However, the availability and affordability of eyeglasses can present a difficulty for people in many low income settings of the world. Glasses also pose a challenge to children to whom they are prescribed to, due to children's tendency to not wear them as consistently as recommended.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As mentioned earlier refractive errors are because of the improper focusing of the light in the retina. Eyeglasses work as an added lens of the eye serving to bend the light to bring it to focus on the retina. Depending on the eyeglasses, they serve many functions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Reading glasses</dt> <dd>These are general over-the-counter glasses which can be worn for easier reading, especially for defective vision due to aging called presbyopia.</dd> <dt>Single vision prescription lenses</dt> <dd>They can correct only one form of defective vision, either far-sightedness or near-sightedness.</dd> <dt>Multifocal lenses</dt> <dd>The multifocal lenses can correct defective vision in multiple focus, for example: near-vision as well as far-vision. This are particularly beneficial for presbyobia.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contact_lenses">Contact lenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Contact lenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alternatively, many people choose to wear contact lenses. One style is hard contact lenses, which can distort the shape of the cornea to a desired shape. Another style, soft contact lenses, are made of silicone or hydrogel. Depending on the duration they are designed for, they may be worn daily or may be worn for an extended period of time, such as for weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Cochrane_c1711_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cochrane_c1711-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a number of complication associated with contact lenses. Typically the ones that are used daily.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Complications of contact lens wear </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td>Conjunctivitis (giant papillary form) </td> <td>Caused in response to the allergen present in the material from which the contact lens is made from. There is often discomfort in the eye after wearing and vision may be affected. Choosing the right lens material and changing it regularly might prevent conjunctivitis. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corneal abrasion </td> <td>Caused by a foreign body, dust, sand, or grit trapped under the lens. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corneal edema </td> <td>Caused by decreased oxygen delivery to the tissue compressed by the lens. Usually resolved after the removal of the lenses. Discomfort upon lens removal may be seen. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neovascularization </td> <td>New blood vessels may form in the iris region and the limbus. This may impair vision. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infections </td> <td>Various viral, bacterial, and fungal infection may be seen in the eye post-contact-lens wear, if proper lens hygiene is not maintained. Acanthamoeba are the most common infections in the people using contact lenses. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>If redness, itching, and difficulty in vision develops, the use of the lenses should be stopped immediately and the consultation of ophthalmologists may be sought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surgery">Surgery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and photo-refractive keratectomy (PRK) are popular procedures; while use of laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK) is increasing. Other surgical treatments for severe myopia include insertion of implants after <a href="/wiki/Clear_lens_extraction" title="Clear lens extraction">clear lens extraction</a> (refractive lens exchange). Full thickness corneal graft may be a final option for patients with advanced kerataconus although currently there is interest in new techniques that involve collagen crosslinking. As with any surgical procedure complications may arise post-operatively Post-operative monitoring is normally undertaken by the specialist ophthalmic surgical clinic and optometry services. Patients are usually informed pre-operatively about what to expect and where to go if they suspect complications. Any patient reporting pain and redness after surgery should be referred urgently to their ophthalmic surgeon.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_treatment">Medical treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Medical treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atropine has believed to slow the progression of near-sightedness and is administered in combination with multifocal lenses. These, however, need further research.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevention">Prevention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strategies being studied to slow worsening include adjusting working conditions, increasing the time children spend outdoors,<sup id="cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and special types of contact lenses.<sup id="cite_ref-Li2017_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li2017-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In children special contact lenses appear to slow worsening of nearsightedness.<sup id="cite_ref-Li2017_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li2017-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of questionnaires exist to determine <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> impact of refractive errors and their correction.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/435px-Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/580px-Refractive_errors_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">DALYs</a> per 100,000 people due to refractive errors in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b3b3b3; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> No data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff65; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Less than 100</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fff200; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 100–170</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffdc00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 170–240</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc600; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 240–310</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffb000; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 310–380</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9a00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 380–450</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff8400; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 450–520</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff6e00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 520–590</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff5800; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 590–660</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff4200; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 660–730</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff2c00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> 730–800</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cb0000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> More than 800</div> </div></figcaption></figure> <p>It is estimated that at least 2 billion people in the world have refractive errors.<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of people globally with refractive errors that have not been corrected was estimated at 660 million (10 per 100 people) in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Refractive errors are the first common cause of visual impairment and second most common cause of visual loss .<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assessment of refractive error is now done in DALY (Disability Adjusted Life Years) which showed an 8% increase from 1990 to 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag relies on an unreliable source. Source states it shouldn't be used as a reference for validated info. (March 2023)">unreliable source</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The number of people globally with significant refractive errors has been estimated at one to two billion.<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rates vary between regions of the world with about 25% of Europeans and 80% of Asians affected.<sup id="cite_ref-OUP2014_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near-sightedness is one of the most prevalent disorders of the eye.<sup id="cite_ref-Fos2014_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fos2014-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rates among adults are between 15 and 49% while rates among children are between 1.2 and 42%.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan2012_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Far-sightedness more commonly affects young children, whose eyes have yet to grow to their full length, and the elderly, who have lost the ability to compensate with their <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">accommodation system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cas2014_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cas2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gro2007_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gro2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presbyopia affects most people over the age of 35, and nearly 100% of people by the ages of 55–65.<sup id="cite_ref-NIH2010_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uncorrected refractive error is responsible for visual impairment and disability for many people worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-GBD2015_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GBD2015-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is one of the most common causes of <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">vision loss</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">vitamin A deficiency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan2015_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan2015-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cost">Cost</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The yearly cost of correcting refractive errors is estimated at 3.9 to 7.2 billion dollars in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuryan_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuryan-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioptre" title="Dioptre">Dioptre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_power" title="Optical power">Optical power</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819153508/https://www.aoa.org/documents/optometrists/QRG-4.pdf">"Care of the Patient with Amblyopia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aoa.org/documents/optometrists/QRG-4.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Care+of+the+Patient+with+Amblyopia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aoa.org%2Fdocuments%2Foptometrists%2FQRG-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandonaDandona2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dandona, R; Dandona, L (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2566380">"Refractive error blindness"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the World Health Organization</i>. <b>79</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">237–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2566380">2566380</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11285669">11285669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Refractive+error+blindness.&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2566380%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11285669&rft.aulast=Dandona&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Dandona%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2566380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2010-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2010_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160728000730/https://nei.nih.gov/health/errors/errors">"Facts About Refractive Errors"</a>. <i>NEI</i>. October 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nei.nih.gov/health/errors/errors">the original</a> on 28 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NEI&rft.atitle=Facts+About+Refractive+Errors&rft.date=2010-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnei.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Ferrors%2Ferrors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OUP2014-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OUP2014_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennistonMurray2018" class="citation book cs1">Denniston, Alastair; Murray, Philip (2018). <i>Oxford Handbook of Ophthalmology</i> (4 ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 926. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198816751" title="Special:BookSources/9780198816751"><bdi>9780198816751</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Ophthalmology&rft.pages=926&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780198816751&rft.aulast=Denniston&rft.aufirst=Alastair&rft.au=Murray%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKookKohnen2012" class="citation book cs1">Kook, Daniel; Kohnen, Thomas (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978143772250500031X">"31 - Refractive lens exchange"</a>. In Spaeth, George L.; Danesh-Meyer, Helen V.; Goldberg, Ivan; Kampik, Anselm (eds.). <i>Ophthalmic Surgery: Principles and Practice</i> (Fourth ed.). W.B. Saunders. pp. <span class="nowrap">187–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-1-4377-2250-5.00031-X">10.1016/B978-1-4377-2250-5.00031-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781437722505" title="Special:BookSources/9781437722505"><bdi>9781437722505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=31+-+Refractive+lens+exchange&rft.btitle=Ophthalmic+Surgery%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=W.B.+Saunders&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-1-4377-2250-5.00031-X&rft.isbn=9781437722505&rft.aulast=Kook&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Kohnen%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB978143772250500031X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fos2014-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fos2014_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fos2014_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterJiang2014" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, PJ; Jiang, Y (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930282">"Epidemiology of myopia"</a>. <i>Eye</i>. <b>28</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">202–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Feye.2013.280">10.1038/eye.2013.280</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930282">3930282</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24406412">24406412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eye&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+myopia.&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E202-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2014-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3930282%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24406412&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Feye.2013.280&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Jiang%2C+Y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3930282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pan2012-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pan2012_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pan2012_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanRamamurthySaw2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pan, CW; Ramamurthy, D; Saw, SM (January 2012). "Worldwide prevalence and risk factors for myopia". <i>Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics</i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-1313.2011.00884.x">10.1111/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22150586">22150586</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32397628">32397628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ophthalmic+%26+Physiological+Optics&rft.atitle=Worldwide+prevalence+and+risk+factors+for+myopia.&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32397628%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22150586&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-1313.2011.00884.x&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=CW&rft.au=Ramamurthy%2C+D&rft.au=Saw%2C+SM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cas2014-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cas2014_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cas2014_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastagnoFassaCarretVilela2014" class="citation journal cs1">Castagno, VD; Fassa, AG; Carret, ML; Vilela, MA; Meucci, RD (23 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4391667">"Hyperopia: a meta-analysis of prevalence and a review of associated factors among school-aged children"</a>. <i>BMC Ophthalmology</i>. <b>14</b>: 163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2415-14-163">10.1186/1471-2415-14-163</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4391667">4391667</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25539893">25539893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Hyperopia%3A+a+meta-analysis+of+prevalence+and+a+review+of+associated+factors+among+school-aged+children.&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=163&rft.date=2014-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4391667%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25539893&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2415-14-163&rft.aulast=Castagno&rft.aufirst=VD&rft.au=Fassa%2C+AG&rft.au=Carret%2C+ML&rft.au=Vilela%2C+MA&rft.au=Meucci%2C+RD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4391667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gro2007-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gro2007_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gro2007_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosvenor2007" class="citation book cs1">Grosvenor, Theodore (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uEmQKPAOwccC&pg=PA70"><i>Primary care optometry</i></a> (5 ed.). St. Louis (Miss.): Butterworth Heinemann, Elsevier. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750675758" title="Special:BookSources/9780750675758"><bdi>9780750675758</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160815211218/https://books.google.ca/books?id=uEmQKPAOwccC&pg=PA70">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primary+care+optometry&rft.place=St.+Louis+%28Miss.%29&rft.pages=70&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Butterworth+Heinemann%2C+Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780750675758&rft.aulast=Grosvenor&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuEmQKPAOwccC%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GBD2015-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GBD2015_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GBD2015_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GBD2015_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GBD2015_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVosBarberBellBertozzi-Villa2015" class="citation journal cs1">Vos, Theo; Barber, Ryan M; Bell, Brad; Bertozzi-Villa, Amelia; Biryukov, Stan; Bolliger, Ian; et al. (Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators) (22 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4561509">"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"</a>. <i>Lancet</i>. <b>386</b> (9995): <span class="nowrap">743–</span>800. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2815%2960692-4">10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4561509">4561509</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26063472">26063472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Global%2C+regional%2C+and+national+incidence%2C+prevalence%2C+and+years+lived+with+disability+for+301+acute+and+chronic+diseases+and+injuries+in+188+countries%2C+1990-2013%3A+a+systematic+analysis+for+the+Global+Burden+of+Disease+Study+2013.&rft.volume=386&rft.issue=9995&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E743-%3C%2Fspan%3E800&rft.date=2015-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4561509%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26063472&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2815%2960692-4&rft.aulast=Vos&rft.aufirst=Theo&rft.au=Barber%2C+Ryan+M&rft.au=Bell%2C+Brad&rft.au=Bertozzi-Villa%2C+Amelia&rft.au=Biryukov%2C+Stan&rft.au=Bolliger%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4561509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pan2015-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pan2015_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pan2015_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanDiraniChengWong2015" class="citation journal cs1">Pan, CW; Dirani, M; Cheng, CY; Wong, TY; Saw, SM (March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fopx.0000000000000516">"The age-specific prevalence of myopia in Asia: a meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Optometry and Vision Science</i>. <b>92</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">258–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fopx.0000000000000516">10.1097/opx.0000000000000516</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25611765">25611765</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42359341">42359341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optometry+and+Vision+Science&rft.atitle=The+age-specific+prevalence+of+myopia+in+Asia%3A+a+meta-analysis.&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E258-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2015-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42359341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25611765&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2Fopx.0000000000000516&rft.aulast=Pan&rft.aufirst=CW&rft.au=Dirani%2C+M&rft.au=Cheng%2C+CY&rft.au=Wong%2C+TY&rft.au=Saw%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252Fopx.0000000000000516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrensonShahHuntjensDownie2023" class="citation journal cs1">Lawrenson, John G; Shah, Rakhee; Huntjens, Byki; Downie, Laura E; Virgili, Gianni; Dhakal, Rohit; Verkicharla, Pavan K; Li, Dongfeng; Mavi, Sonia; Kernohan, Ashleigh; Li, Tianjing; Walline, Jeffrey J (2023-02-16). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9933422">"Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</i>. <b>2023</b> (2): CD014758. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD014758.pub2">10.1002/14651858.CD014758.pub2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9933422">9933422</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36809645">36809645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Interventions+for+myopia+control+in+children%3A+a+living+systematic+review+and+network+meta-analysis&rft.volume=2023&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=CD014758&rft.date=2023-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9933422%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36809645&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD014758.pub2&rft.aulast=Lawrenson&rft.aufirst=John+G&rft.au=Shah%2C+Rakhee&rft.au=Huntjens%2C+Byki&rft.au=Downie%2C+Laura+E&rft.au=Virgili%2C+Gianni&rft.au=Dhakal%2C+Rohit&rft.au=Verkicharla%2C+Pavan+K&rft.au=Li%2C+Dongfeng&rft.au=Mavi%2C+Sonia&rft.au=Kernohan%2C+Ashleigh&rft.au=Li%2C+Tianjing&rft.au=Walline%2C+Jeffrey+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9933422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallineLindsleyVedulaCotter2020" class="citation journal cs1">Walline, Jeffrey J; Lindsley, Kristina B; Vedula, S Swaroop; Cotter, Susan A; Mutti, Donald O; Ng, Sueko M; Twelker, J. Daniel (2020-01-13). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6984636">"Interventions to slow progression of myopia in children"</a>. <i>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews</i>. <b>2021</b> (9): CD004916. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD004916.pub4">10.1002/14651858.CD004916.pub4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6984636">6984636</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31930781">31930781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Interventions+to+slow+progression+of+myopia+in+children&rft.volume=2021&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=CD004916&rft.date=2020-01-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6984636%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31930781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD004916.pub4&rft.aulast=Walline&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J&rft.au=Lindsley%2C+Kristina+B&rft.au=Vedula%2C+S+Swaroop&rft.au=Cotter%2C+Susan+A&rft.au=Mutti%2C+Donald+O&rft.au=Ng%2C+Sueko+M&rft.au=Twelker%2C+J.+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6984636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosvenor2007" class="citation book cs1">Grosvenor, Theodore (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uEmQKPAOwccC&pg=PA17"><i>Primary care optometry</i></a> (5 ed.). St. Louis (Miss.): Butterworth Heinemann, Elsevier. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750675758" title="Special:BookSources/9780750675758"><bdi>9780750675758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primary+care+optometry&rft.place=St.+Louis+%28Miss.%29&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Butterworth+Heinemann%2C+Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780750675758&rft.aulast=Grosvenor&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuEmQKPAOwccC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhurana2008" class="citation book cs1">Khurana, AK (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qYeD3VHi8OsC&pg=PA100">"Asthenopia, anomalies of accommodation and convergence"</a>. <i>Theory and practice of optics and refraction</i> (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">100–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-312-1132-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-312-1132-8"><bdi>978-81-312-1132-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Asthenopia%2C+anomalies+of+accommodation+and+convergence&rft.btitle=Theory+and+practice+of+optics+and+refraction&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2008-09&rft.isbn=978-81-312-1132-8&rft.aulast=Khurana&rft.aufirst=AK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqYeD3VHi8OsC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosvenor2007" class="citation book cs1">Grosvenor, Theodore (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uEmQKPAOwccC&pg=PA17"><i>Primary care optometry</i></a> (5 ed.). St. Louis (Miss.): Butterworth Heinemann, Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750675758" title="Special:BookSources/9780750675758"><bdi>9780750675758</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primary+care+optometry&rft.place=St.+Louis+%28Miss.%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Butterworth+Heinemann%2C+Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780750675758&rft.aulast=Grosvenor&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuEmQKPAOwccC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalujaKaur2023" class="citation cs2">Saluja, Gunjan; Kaur, Kirandeep (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK587350/">"Childhood Myopia and Ocular Development"</a>, <i>StatPearls</i>, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36508524">36508524</a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-31</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Childhood+Myopia+and+Ocular+Development&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36508524&rft.aulast=Saluja&rft.aufirst=Gunjan&rft.au=Kaur%2C+Kirandeep&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK587350%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aapos.org/glossary/anisometropia">"Anisometropia - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"</a>. <i>aapos.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aapos.org&rft.atitle=Anisometropia+-+American+Association+for+Pediatric+Ophthalmology+and+Strabismus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faapos.org%2Fglossary%2Fanisometropia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eyewiki.aao.org/Aniseikonia">"Aniseikonia - EyeWiki"</a>. <i>eyewiki.aao.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eyewiki.aao.org&rft.atitle=Aniseikonia+-+EyeWiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feyewiki.aao.org%2FAniseikonia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2023" class="citation web cs1">Porter, Daniel (2023-04-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/glasses-contacts/how-to-read-eyeglasses-prescription">"How to Read an Eyeglasses Prescription"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Ophthalmology" title="American Academy of Ophthalmology">American Academy of Ophthalmology</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=How+to+Read+an+Eyeglasses+Prescription&rft.date=2023-04-18&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aao.org%2Feye-health%2Fglasses-contacts%2Fhow-to-read-eyeglasses-prescription&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBopeKellerman2015" class="citation book cs1">Bope, Edward T.; Kellerman, Rick D. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_x_mCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT390"><i>Conn's Current Therapy 2016</i></a>. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780323355353" title="Special:BookSources/9780323355353"><bdi>9780323355353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conn%27s+Current+Therapy+2016&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780323355353&rft.aulast=Bope&rft.aufirst=Edward+T.&rft.au=Kellerman%2C+Rick+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_x_mCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan_1739–1748-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_1739–1748_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorganKyoko_Ohno-Matsui2012" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan, Ian; Kyoko Ohno-Matsui (May 2012). "Myopia". <i>The Lancet</i>. <b>379</b> (9827): <span class="nowrap">1739–</span>1748. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2812%2960272-4">10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60272-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22559900">22559900</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208793136">208793136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=Myopia&rft.volume=379&rft.issue=9827&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1739-%3C%2Fspan%3E1748&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208793136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22559900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2812%2960272-4&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Kyoko+Ohno-Matsui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wojciechowski_301–320-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wojciechowski_301–320_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWojciechowski2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wojciechowski, Robert (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3058260">"Nature and Nurture: the complex genetics of myopia and refractive error"</a>. <i>Clinical Genetics</i>. <b>79</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">301–</span>320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-0004.2010.01592.x">10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3058260">3058260</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21155761">21155761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Genetics&rft.atitle=Nature+and+Nurture%3A+the+complex+genetics+of+myopia+and+refractive+error&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E301-%3C%2Fspan%3E320&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3058260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21155761&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1399-0004.2010.01592.x&rft.aulast=Wojciechowski&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3058260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2013" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, Katherine (Feb 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3740568">"Genome-wide meta-analyses of multiancestry cohorts identify multiple new susceptibility loci for refractive error and myopia"</a>. <i>Clinical Genetics</i>. <b>45</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">314–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1399-0004.2010.01592.x">10.1111/j.1399-0004.2010.01592.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3740568">3740568</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23396134">23396134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genome-wide+meta-analyses+of+multiancestry+cohorts+identify+multiple+new+susceptibility+loci+for+refractive+error+and+myopia&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E314-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3740568%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23396134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1399-0004.2010.01592.x&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3740568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuangChangWu2015" class="citation journal cs1">Huang, Hsiu-Mei; Chang, Dolly Shuo-Teh; Wu, Pei-Chang (2015-10-20). Jhanji, Vishal (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4618477">"The Association between Near Work Activities and Myopia in Children—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>10</b> (10): e0140419. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1040419H">2015PLoSO..1040419H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0140419">10.1371/journal.pone.0140419</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4618477">4618477</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26485393">26485393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=The+Association+between+Near+Work+Activities+and+Myopia+in+Children%E2%80%94A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-Analysis&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e0140419&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4618477%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1040419H&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26485393&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0140419&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Hsiu-Mei&rft.au=Chang%2C+Dolly+Shuo-Teh&rft.au=Wu%2C+Pei-Chang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4618477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutheilOueslatiDelamarreCastanon2023" class="citation journal cs1">Dutheil, Frédéric; Oueslati, Tharwa; Delamarre, Louis; Castanon, Joris; Maurin, Caroline; Chiambaretta, Frédéric; Baker, Julien S.; Ugbolue, Ukadike C.; Zak, Marek; Lakbar, Ines; Pereira, Bruno; Navel, Valentin (2023-01-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9820324">"Myopia and Near Work: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"</a>. <i>International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 875. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph20010875">10.3390/ijerph20010875</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1660-4601">1660-4601</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9820324">9820324</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36613196">36613196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Research+and+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Myopia+and+Near+Work%3A+A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-Analysis&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=875&rft.date=2023-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9820324%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1660-4601&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36613196&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijerph20010875&rft.aulast=Dutheil&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Oueslati%2C+Tharwa&rft.au=Delamarre%2C+Louis&rft.au=Castanon%2C+Joris&rft.au=Maurin%2C+Caroline&rft.au=Chiambaretta%2C+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Baker%2C+Julien+S.&rft.au=Ugbolue%2C+Ukadike+C.&rft.au=Zak%2C+Marek&rft.au=Lakbar%2C+Ines&rft.au=Pereira%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Navel%2C+Valentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9820324&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterJiang2014" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, P J; Jiang, Y (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930282">"Epidemiology of myopia"</a>. <i>Eye</i>. <b>28</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">202–</span>208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Feye.2013.280">10.1038/eye.2013.280</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-222X">0950-222X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930282">3930282</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24406412">24406412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eye&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+myopia&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E202-%3C%2Fspan%3E208&rft.date=2014-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3930282%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0950-222X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24406412&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Feye.2013.280&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=P+J&rft.au=Jiang%2C+Y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3930282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwjiKhaliliBazrafkanHeydari2022" class="citation journal cs1">Owji, N; Khalili, MR; Bazrafkan, H; Heydari, M (September 2022). "Long-term outcome of refractive errors in patients with congenital blepharoptosis who have undergone ptosis surgery". <i>Clinical & Experimental Optometry</i>. <b>105</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">715–</span>720. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08164622.2021.1973344">10.1080/08164622.2021.1973344</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34538220">34538220</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237573319">237573319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+%26+Experimental+Optometry&rft.atitle=Long-term+outcome+of+refractive+errors+in+patients+with+congenital+blepharoptosis+who+have+undergone+ptosis+surgery.&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E715-%3C%2Fspan%3E720&rft.date=2022-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237573319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34538220&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08164622.2021.1973344&rft.aulast=Owji&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Khalili%2C+MR&rft.au=Bazrafkan%2C+H&rft.au=Heydari%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydTurbert2023" class="citation web cs1">Boyd, Kierstan; Turbert, David (2023-04-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/anatomy/parts-of-eye">"Eye Anatomy: Parts of the Eye and How We See"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Ophthalmology" title="American Academy of Ophthalmology">American Academy of Ophthalmology</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Eye+Anatomy%3A+Parts+of+the+Eye+and+How+We+See&rft.date=2023-04-29&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Kierstan&rft.au=Turbert%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aao.org%2Feye-health%2Fanatomy%2Fparts-of-eye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyee.edu/faqlist.html?tablename=faq&key=36">"Frequently Asked Questions: How do you measure refractive errors?"</a>. <i>The New York Eye And Ear Infirmary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901064328/http://www.nyee.edu/faqlist.html?tablename=faq&key=36">Archived</a> from the original on 2006-09-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Eye+And+Ear+Infirmary&rft.atitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions%3A+How+do+you+measure+refractive+errors%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyee.edu%2Ffaqlist.html%3Ftablename%3Dfaq%26key%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111221185852/http://web.media.mit.edu/~pamplona/NETRA/">"NETRA: Inverse Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor using High Resolution Mobile Phone Display"</a>. <i>Vitor F. Pamplona, Ankit Mohan, Manuel M. Oliveira, Ramesh Raskar</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.media.mit.edu/~pamplona/NETRA/">the original</a> on 2011-12-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vitor+F.+Pamplona%2C+Ankit+Mohan%2C+Manuel+M.+Oliveira%2C+Ramesh+Raskar&rft.atitle=NETRA%3A+Inverse+Shack-Hartmann+Wavefront+Sensor+using+High+Resolution+Mobile+Phone+Display&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.media.mit.edu%2F~pamplona%2FNETRA%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchieferKrausBaumbachUngewiß2016" class="citation journal cs1">Schiefer, Ulrich; Kraus, Christina; Baumbach, Peter; Ungewiß, Judith; Michels, Ralf (2016-10-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5143802">"Refractive errors"</a>. <i>Deutsches Ärzteblatt International</i>. <b>113</b> (41): <span class="nowrap">693–</span>702. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3238%2Farztebl.2016.0693">10.3238/arztebl.2016.0693</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1866-0452">1866-0452</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5143802">5143802</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27839543">27839543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deutsches+%C3%84rzteblatt+International&rft.atitle=Refractive+errors&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E693-%3C%2Fspan%3E702&rft.date=2016-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5143802%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1866-0452&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27839543&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3238%2Farztebl.2016.0693&rft.aulast=Schiefer&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.au=Kraus%2C+Christina&rft.au=Baumbach%2C+Peter&rft.au=Ungewi%C3%9F%2C+Judith&rft.au=Michels%2C+Ralf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5143802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aapos.org/glossary/refractive-errors-in-children">"Refractive Errors in Children - American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus"</a>. <i>aapos.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aapos.org&rft.atitle=Refractive+Errors+in+Children+-+American+Association+for+Pediatric+Ophthalmology+and+Strabismus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faapos.org%2Fglossary%2Frefractive-errors-in-children&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam2020" class="citation journal cs1">Adam, Henry (2020-04-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542/aap.ppcqr.396022">"Vision Screening"</a>. <i>Pediatric Care Online</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Faap.ppcqr.396022">10.1542/aap.ppcqr.396022</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2767-6617">2767-6617</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:263605231">263605231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatric+Care+Online&rft.atitle=Vision+Screening&rft.date=2020-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A263605231%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2767-6617&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Faap.ppcqr.396022&rft.aulast=Adam&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1542%2Faap.ppcqr.396022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cochrane_c1711-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cochrane_c1711_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cochrane_c1711_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCochraneToitMesurier2010" class="citation journal cs1">Cochrane, Gillian M.; Toit, Rènée du; Mesurier, Richard T. Le (2010-04-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bmj.com/content/340/bmj.c1711">"Management of refractive errors"</a>. <i>BMJ</i>. <b>340</b>: c1711. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.c1711">10.1136/bmj.c1711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-8138">0959-8138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20385718">20385718</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8240093">8240093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Management+of+refractive+errors&rft.volume=340&rft.pages=c1711&rft.date=2010-04-12&rft.issn=0959-8138&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8240093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20385718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.c1711&rft.aulast=Cochrane&rft.aufirst=Gillian+M.&rft.au=Toit%2C+R%C3%A8n%C3%A9e+du&rft.au=Mesurier%2C+Richard+T.+Le&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F340%2Fbmj.c1711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWednerMasanjaBowmanTodd2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wedner, S.; Masanja, H.; Bowman, R.; Todd, J.; Bowman, R.; Gilbert, C. (2008-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bjo.bmj.com/content/92/1/19">"Two strategies for correcting refractive errors in school students in Tanzania: randomised comparison, with implications for screening programmes"</a>. <i>British Journal of Ophthalmology</i>. <b>92</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">19–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjo.2007.119198">10.1136/bjo.2007.119198</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1161">0007-1161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18156372">18156372</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2157969">2157969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Two+strategies+for+correcting+refractive+errors+in+school+students+in+Tanzania%3A+randomised+comparison%2C+with+implications+for+screening+programmes&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft.issn=0007-1161&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2157969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18156372&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbjo.2007.119198&rft.aulast=Wedner&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Masanja%2C+H.&rft.au=Bowman%2C+R.&rft.au=Todd%2C+J.&rft.au=Bowman%2C+R.&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbjo.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F92%2F1%2F19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asianeyeinstitute.com/custom_services/pediatric-ophthalmology-orthoptics-strabismus/">"Pediatric Ophthalmology, Optometry and Orthoptics"</a>. <i>Asian Eye Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asian+Eye+Institute&rft.atitle=Pediatric+Ophthalmology%2C+Optometry+and+Orthoptics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasianeyeinstitute.com%2Fcustom_services%2Fpediatric-ophthalmology-orthoptics-strabismus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/refractive-errors/eyeglasses-refractive-errors">"Eyeglasses for Refractive Errors | National Eye Institute"</a>. <i>www.nei.nih.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nei.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Eyeglasses+for+Refractive+Errors+%7C+National+Eye+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nei.nih.gov%2Flearn-about-eye-health%2Feye-conditions-and-diseases%2Frefractive-errors%2Feyeglasses-refractive-errors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukamal2023" class="citation web cs1">Mukamal, Reena (2023-05-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/side-effects-cataract-surgery-complications-cope">"10 Cataract Surgery Side Effects, and How to Cope"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Ophthalmology" title="American Academy of Ophthalmology">American Academy of Ophthalmology</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=10+Cataract+Surgery+Side+Effects%2C+and+How+to+Cope&rft.date=2023-05-03&rft.aulast=Mukamal&rft.aufirst=Reena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aao.org%2Feye-health%2Ftips-prevention%2Fside-effects-cataract-surgery-complications-cope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aao.org/eye-health/treatments/lasik">"LASIK — Laser Eye Surgery"</a>. <i>American Academy of Ophthalmology</i>. 2023-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=LASIK+%E2%80%94+Laser+Eye+Surgery&rft.date=2023-07-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aao.org%2Feye-health%2Ftreatments%2Flasik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShihHsiaoChenChang2001" class="citation journal cs1">Shih, Yung-Feng; Hsiao, C. Kate; Chen, Chien-Jen; Chang, Ching-Wei; Hung, Por T.; Lin, Luke L.-K. (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0420.2001.790304.x">"An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression"</a>. <i>Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica</i>. <b>79</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">233–</span>236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0420.2001.790304.x">10.1034/j.1600-0420.2001.790304.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1395-3907">1395-3907</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11401629">11401629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Ophthalmologica+Scandinavica&rft.atitle=An+intervention+trial+on+efficacy+of+atropine+and+multi-focal+glasses+in+controlling+myopic+progression&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E236&rft.date=2001-06&rft.issn=1395-3907&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11401629&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1034%2Fj.1600-0420.2001.790304.x&rft.aulast=Shih&rft.aufirst=Yung-Feng&rft.au=Hsiao%2C+C.+Kate&rft.au=Chen%2C+Chien-Jen&rft.au=Chang%2C+Ching-Wei&rft.au=Hung%2C+Por+T.&rft.au=Lin%2C+Luke+L.-K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1034%252Fj.1600-0420.2001.790304.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeFangYangChen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Jong-Jer; Fang, Po-Chiung; Yang, I-Hui; Chen, Chih-Hsin; Lin, Pei-Wen; Lin, Sue-Ann; Kuo, Hsi-Kung; Wu, Pei-Chang (February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jop.2006.22.41">"Prevention of Myopia Progression with 0.05% Atropine Solution"</a>. <i>Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics</i>. <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">41–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fjop.2006.22.41">10.1089/jop.2006.22.41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1080-7683">1080-7683</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16503774">16503774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ocular+Pharmacology+and+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=Prevention+of+Myopia+Progression+with+0.05%25+Atropine+Solution&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2006-02&rft.issn=1080-7683&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16503774&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1089%2Fjop.2006.22.41&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jong-Jer&rft.au=Fang%2C+Po-Chiung&rft.au=Yang%2C+I-Hui&rft.au=Chen%2C+Chih-Hsin&rft.au=Lin%2C+Pei-Wen&rft.au=Lin%2C+Sue-Ann&rft.au=Kuo%2C+Hsi-Kung&rft.au=Wu%2C+Pei-Chang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1089%2Fjop.2006.22.41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Li2017-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Li2017_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Li2017_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiFriedmanMedowZhang2017" class="citation journal cs1">Li, X; Friedman, IB; Medow, NB; Zhang, C (1 May 2017). "Update on Orthokeratology in Managing Progressive Myopia in Children: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Concerns". <i>Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus</i>. <b>54</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">142–</span>148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3928%2F01913913-20170106-01">10.3928/01913913-20170106-01</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28092397">28092397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pediatric+Ophthalmology+and+Strabismus&rft.atitle=Update+on+Orthokeratology+in+Managing+Progressive+Myopia+in+Children%3A+Efficacy%2C+Mechanisms%2C+and+Concerns.&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E148&rft.date=2017-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3928%2F01913913-20170106-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28092397&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=X&rft.au=Friedman%2C+IB&rft.au=Medow%2C+NB&rft.au=Zhang%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalline2016" class="citation journal cs1">Walline, JJ (January 2016). "Myopia Control: A Review". <i>Eye & Contact Lens</i>. <b>42</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FICL.0000000000000207">10.1097/ICL.0000000000000207</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26513719">26513719</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24069302">24069302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eye+%26+Contact+Lens&rft.atitle=Myopia+Control%3A+A+Review.&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24069302%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26513719&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FICL.0000000000000207&rft.aulast=Walline&rft.aufirst=JJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelKhadkaGogginPesudovs2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kandel H, Khadka J, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Patient-reported outcomes for assessment of quality of life in refractive error: a systematic review". <i>Optometry and Vision Science</i>. <b>94</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">1102–</span>1119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FOPX.0000000000001143">10.1097/OPX.0000000000001143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29095758">29095758</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21512136">21512136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optometry+and+Vision+Science&rft.atitle=Patient-reported+outcomes+for+assessment+of+quality+of+life+in+refractive+error%3A+a+systematic+review&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1102-%3C%2Fspan%3E1119&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21512136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29095758&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FOPX.0000000000001143&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Khadka%2C+J&rft.au=Goggin%2C+M&rft.au=Pesudovs%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelKhadkaLundströmGoggin2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kandel H, Khadka J, Lundström M, Goggin M, Pesudovs K (2017). "Questionnaires for measuring refractive surgery outcomes". <i>Journal of Refractive Surgery</i>. <b>33</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">416–</span>424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3928%2F1081597X-20170310-01">10.3928/1081597X-20170310-01</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28586503">28586503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Refractive+Surgery&rft.atitle=Questionnaires+for+measuring+refractive+surgery+outcomes&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E416-%3C%2Fspan%3E424&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3928%2F1081597X-20170310-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28586503&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Khadka%2C+J&rft.au=Lundstr%C3%B6m%2C+M&rft.au=Goggin%2C+M&rft.au=Pesudovs%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html">"WHO Disease and injury country estimates"</a>. <i>World Health Organization</i>. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091111101009/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-11-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Nov 11,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=WHO+Disease+and+injury+country+estimates&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fhealthinfo%2Fglobal_burden_disease%2Festimates_country%2Fen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashemiFotouhiYektaPakzad2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hashemi, Hassan; Fotouhi, Akbar; Yekta, Abbasali; Pakzad, Reza; Ostadimoghaddam, Hadi; Khabazkhoob, Mehdi (2017-09-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5859285">"Global and regional estimates of prevalence of refractive errors: Systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Journal of Current Ophthalmology</i>. <b>30</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joco.2017.08.009">10.1016/j.joco.2017.08.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2452-2325">2452-2325</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5859285">5859285</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29564404">29564404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Current+Ophthalmology&rft.atitle=Global+and+regional+estimates+of+prevalence+of+refractive+errors%3A+Systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2017-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5859285%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2452-2325&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29564404&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joco.2017.08.009&rft.aulast=Hashemi&rft.aufirst=Hassan&rft.au=Fotouhi%2C+Akbar&rft.au=Yekta%2C+Abbasali&rft.au=Pakzad%2C+Reza&rft.au=Ostadimoghaddam%2C+Hadi&rft.au=Khabazkhoob%2C+Mehdi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5859285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205636/https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-459379/v1/67274026-a654-4b9a-aa55-cb38e2d5c6b3.pdf">"Global Disease Burden of Uncorrected Refractive Error Among Adolescents From 1990 to 2019"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-459379/v1/67274026-a654-4b9a-aa55-cb38e2d5c6b3.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Disease+Burden+of+Uncorrected+Refractive+Error+Among+Adolescents+From+1990+to+2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.researchsquare.com%2Ffiles%2Frs-459379%2Fv1%2F67274026-a654-4b9a-aa55-cb38e2d5c6b3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuryan-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kuryan_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuryanCheemaChuck2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kuryan J, Cheema A, Chuck RS (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5408355">"Laser-assisted subepithelial keratectomy (LASEK) versus laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK) for correcting myopia"</a>. <i>Cochrane Database Syst Rev</i>. <b>2017</b> (2): CD011080. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD011080.pub2">10.1002/14651858.CD011080.pub2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5408355">5408355</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28197998">28197998</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+Syst+Rev&rft.atitle=Laser-assisted+subepithelial+keratectomy+%28LASEK%29+versus+laser-assisted+in-situ+keratomileusis+%28LASIK%29+for+correcting+myopia&rft.volume=2017&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=CD011080&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5408355%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28197998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD011080.pub2&rft.aulast=Kuryan&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Cheema%2C+A&rft.au=Chuck%2C+RS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5408355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARefractive+error" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q470427" class="extiw" title="d:Q470427">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H52.0">H52.0</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H52.4">H52.4</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=367.0">367.0</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=367.2">367.2</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=367.9">367.9</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012030">D012030</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb29645.htm">29645</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_human_eye126" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_pathology" title="Template talk:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_human_eye126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Diseases of the human eye</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adnexa126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inflammation23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inflammation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stye" title="Stye">Stye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalazion" title="Chalazion">Chalazion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharitis" title="Blepharitis">Blepharitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meibomian_gland_dysfunction" title="Meibomian gland dysfunction">Meibomian gland dysfunction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entropion" title="Entropion">Entropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectropion" title="Ectropion">Ectropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagophthalmos" title="Lagophthalmos">Lagophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharochalasis" title="Blepharochalasis">Blepharochalasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">Ptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharophimosis" title="Blepharophimosis">Blepharophimosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthelasma" title="Xanthelasma">Xanthelasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankyloblepharon" title="Ankyloblepharon">Ankyloblepharon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelash" title="Eyelash">Eyelash</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichiasis" title="Trichiasis">Trichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarosis" title="Madarosis">Madarosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distichiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distichiasis">Distichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichomegaly" title="Trichomegaly">Trichomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_apparatus" title="Lacrimal apparatus">Lacrimal apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoadenitis" title="Dacryoadenitis">Dacryoadenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphora_(medicine)" title="Epiphora (medicine)">Epiphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryocystitis" title="Dacryocystitis">Dacryocystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exophthalmos" title="Exophthalmos">Exophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enophthalmos" title="Enophthalmos">Enophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_cellulitis" title="Orbital cellulitis">Orbital cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_lymphoma" title="Orbital lymphoma">Orbital lymphoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_cellulitis" title="Periorbital cellulitis">Periorbital cellulitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemosis" title="Chemosis">Chemosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">Conjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergic_conjunctivitis" title="Allergic conjunctivitis">allergic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygium_(conjunctiva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterygium (conjunctiva)">Pterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopterygium" title="Pseudopterygium">Pseudopterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinguecula" title="Pinguecula">Pinguecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconjunctival_bleeding" title="Subconjunctival bleeding">Subconjunctival hemorrhage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Globe126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">Globe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleritis" title="Scleritis">Scleritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcleritis" title="Episcleritis">Episcleritis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratitis" title="Keratitis">Keratitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herpetic_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetic keratitis">herpetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">acanthamoebic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">fungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure keratitis">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ulcer" title="Corneal ulcer">Corneal ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thygeson%27s_superficial_punctate_keratopathy" title="Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy">Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_dystrophy" title="Corneal dystrophy">Corneal dystrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchs%27_dystrophy" title="Fuchs' dystrophy">Fuchs'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meesmann_corneal_dystrophy" title="Meesmann corneal dystrophy">Meesmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ectatic_disorders" title="Corneal ectatic disorders">Corneal ectasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconus" title="Keratoconus">Keratoconus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucid_marginal_degeneration" title="Pellucid marginal degeneration">Pellucid marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoglobus" title="Keratoglobus">Keratoglobus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrien%27s_marginal_degeneration" title="Terrien's marginal degeneration">Terrien's marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-LASIK_ectasia" title="Post-LASIK ectasia">Post-LASIK ectasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis" title="Keratoconjunctivitis">Keratoconjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis_sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratoconjunctivitis sicca">sicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacity" title="Corneal opacity">Corneal opacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_neovascularization" title="Corneal neovascularization">Corneal neovascularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser%E2%80%93Fleischer_ring" title="Kayser–Fleischer ring">Kayser–Fleischer ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27s_striae" title="Haab's striae">Haab's striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_senilis" title="Arcus senilis">Arcus senilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_keratopathy" title="Band keratopathy">Band keratopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Vascular tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_uveitis" title="Intermediate uveitis">Intermediate uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphema" title="Hyphema">Hyphema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubeosis_iridis" title="Rubeosis iridis">Rubeosis iridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_pupillary_membrane" title="Persistent pupillary membrane">Persistent pupillary membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridodialysis" title="Iridodialysis">Iridodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechia_(eye)" title="Synechia (eye)">Synechia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroideremia" title="Choroideremia">Choroideremia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroiditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroiditis">Choroiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_choroidal_excavation" title="Focal choroidal excavation">Focal choroidal excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypoidal_choroidal_vasculopathy" title="Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy">Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">Congenital cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_cataract" title="Childhood cataract">Childhood cataract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphakia" title="Aphakia">Aphakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_lentis" title="Ectopia lentis">Ectopia lentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retinal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal disease">Retina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis" title="Retinitis">Retinitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_retinitis" title="Cytomegalovirus retinitis">Cytomegalovirus retinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">Retinal detachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">Posterior vitreous detachment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoschisis" title="Retinoschisis">Retinoschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_ischemic_syndrome" title="Ocular ischemic syndrome">Ocular ischemic syndrome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein_occlusion" title="Central retinal vein occlusion">Central retinal vein occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Central retinal artery occlusion">Central retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Branch retinal artery occlusion">Branch retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">Retinopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purtscher%27s_retinopathy" title="Purtscher's retinopathy">Purtscher's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">of prematurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bietti%27s_crystalline_dystrophy" title="Bietti's crystalline dystrophy">Bietti's crystalline dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coats%27_disease" title="Coats' disease">Coats' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_retinopathy" title="Sickle cell retinopathy">Sickle cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_retinopathy" title="Photic retinopathy">photic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_haemorrhage" title="Retinal haemorrhage">Retinal haemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">Central serous retinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_edema" title="Macular edema">Macular edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">Epiretinal membrane</a> (Macular pucker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot_chorioretinopathy" title="Birdshot chorioretinopathy">Birdshot chorioretinopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypertension" title="Ocular hypertension">Ocular hypertension</a> / <a href="/wiki/Primary_juvenile_glaucoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary juvenile glaucoma">Primary juvenile glaucoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypotony" title="Ocular hypotony">Ocular hypotony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_eye_(medicine)" title="Red eye (medicine)">Red eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_rupture" title="Globe rupture">Globe rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">Keratomycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phthisis_bulbi" title="Phthisis bulbi">Phthisis bulbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_fetal_vasculature" title="Persistent fetal vasculature">Persistent fetal vasculature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_exudative_vitreoretinopathy" title="Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy">Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease">Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pathways126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Pathways</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_papillitis" title="Optic papillitis">optic papillitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Kennedy_syndrome" title="Foster Kennedy syndrome">Foster Kennedy syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic atrophy">Optic atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc_drusen" title="Optic disc drusen">Optic disc drusen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Ischemic optic neuropathy">Ischemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">anterior (AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy">posterior (PION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">non-arteritic anterior (NAION)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjer%27s_optic_neuropathy" title="Kjer's optic neuropathy">Kjer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_and_nutritional_optic_neuropathy" title="Toxic and nutritional optic neuropathy">Toxic and nutritional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">Extraocular muscles</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">Binocular vision</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Paralytic_strabismus119" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Paralytic_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Paralytic strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">Ophthalmoparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_progressive_external_ophthalmoplegia" title="Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia">Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kearns%E2%80%93Sayre_syndrome" title="Kearns–Sayre syndrome">Kearns–Sayre syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_disease" title="Cranial nerve disease">palsies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve_palsy" title="Oculomotor nerve palsy">Oculomotor (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_nerve_palsy" title="Fourth nerve palsy">Fourth-nerve (IV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_nerve_palsy" title="Sixth nerve palsy">Sixth-nerve (VI)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Other_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Other strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Exotropia" title="Exotropia">Exotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertropia" title="Hypertropia">Hypertropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophoria" title="Heterophoria">Heterophoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophoria" title="Esophoria">Esophoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exophoria" title="Exophoria">Exophoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotropia" title="Cyclotropia">Cyclotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%27s_syndrome" title="Brown's syndrome">Brown's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_syndrome" title="Duane syndrome">Duane syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other binocular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">Conjugate gaze palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_insufficiency" title="Convergence insufficiency">Convergence insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internuclear_ophthalmoplegia" title="Internuclear ophthalmoplegia">Internuclear ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_and_a_half_syndrome" title="One and a half syndrome">One and a half syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Refractive error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">Anisometropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">Aniseikonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorders</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oguchi_disease" title="Oguchi disease">Oguchi disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">Vision loss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemianopsia" title="Hemianopsia">Hemianopsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binasal_hemianopsia" title="Binasal hemianopsia">binasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitemporal_hemianopsia" title="Bitemporal hemianopsia">bitemporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">subjective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisocoria" title="Anisocoria">Anisocoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Robertson_pupil" title="Argyll Robertson pupil">Argyll Robertson pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gunn_pupil" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Gunn pupil">Marcus Gunn pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adie_syndrome" title="Adie syndrome">Adie syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloplegia" title="Cycloplegia">Cycloplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinaud%27s_syndrome" title="Parinaud's syndrome">Parinaud's syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infections126" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Infections</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1074" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q470427#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Oeil -- Vices de réfraction"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12182154z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Oeil -- Vices de réfraction"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12182154z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="refrakční vady oka"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125068&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&oldid=1273136588">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&oldid=1273136588</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vision" title="Category:Vision">Vision</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disorders_of_ocular_muscles,_binocular_movement,_accommodation_and_refraction" title="Category:Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction">Disorders of ocular muscles, binocular movement, accommodation and refraction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Refraction" title="Category:Refraction">Refraction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Corrective_lenses" title="Category:Corrective lenses">Corrective lenses</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_div_col_with_small_parameter" title="Category:Pages using div col with small parameter">Pages using div col with small parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate" title="Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate">Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_neurology_articles_ready_to_translate" title="Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate">Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 31 January 2025, at 23:00<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Refractive_error&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Refractive error</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>32 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7878cd4448-25l79","wgBackendResponseTime":1087,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.785","walltime":"0.927","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6275,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":246620,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6718,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":3,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":231579,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 765.298 1 -total"," 45.55% 348.592 1 Template:Reflist"," 19.94% 152.594 27 Template:Cite_journal"," 14.97% 114.575 15 Template:Cite_web"," 13.46% 103.021 11 Template:Navbox"," 11.81% 90.365 2 Template:Short_description"," 10.75% 82.263 1 Template:Medical_resources"," 7.86% 60.148 1 Template:Infobox_medical_condition_(new)"," 7.60% 58.152 4 Template:Pagetype"," 6.59% 50.414 4 Template:Hlist"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.472","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7301392,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7878cd4448-25l79","timestamp":"20250211202322","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Refractive error","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Refractive_error","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q470427","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q470427","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-07-30T09:11:30Z","dateModified":"2025-01-31T23:00:11Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/40\/Refractive_Errors_of_the_Eye.jpg","headline":"cause of vision problems"}</script> </body> </html>