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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Athens_and_Sicily" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Athens_and_Sicily"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Athens and Sicily</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Athens_and_Sicily-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_of_the_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_of_the_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>State of the War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_of_the_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dispatch_of_the_expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispatch_of_the_expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dispatch of the expedition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dispatch_of_the_expedition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dispatch of the expedition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dispatch_of_the_expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appeal_from_Segesta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appeal_from_Segesta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Appeal from Segesta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appeal_from_Segesta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Destruction_of_the_Hermai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destruction_of_the_Hermai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Destruction of the Hermai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destruction_of_the_Hermai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_in_Syracuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_in_Syracuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Reaction in Syracuse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_in_Syracuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_generals,_three_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_generals,_three_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Three generals, three strategies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_generals,_three_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_the_Expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_the_Expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Course of the Expedition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_Expedition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Course of the Expedition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Athenian_landing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Athenian_landing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Athenian landing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Athenian_landing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Battle_of_Syracuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Battle_of_Syracuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>First Battle of Syracuse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Battle_of_Syracuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Winter_of_415_–_spring_of_414_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Winter_of_415_–_spring_of_414_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Winter of 415 – spring of 414 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Winter_of_415_–_spring_of_414_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spartan_intervention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spartan_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Spartan intervention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spartan_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demosthenes'_arrival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demosthenes'_arrival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Demosthenes' arrival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demosthenes'_arrival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Battle_of_Syracuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Battle_of_Syracuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Second Battle of Syracuse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Battle_of_Syracuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_Syracusan_victory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_Syracusan_victory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Final Syracusan victory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_Syracusan_victory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_of_the_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_of_the_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Causes of the failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_of_the_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Athenian_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Athenian_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Athenian reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Athenian_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sicilian Expedition</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizilienexpedition" title="Sizilienexpedition – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sizilienexpedition" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحملة الصقلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحملة الصقلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сицилианска експедиция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сицилианска експедиция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seziz_Siracusa_(415-413_kent_JK)" title="Seziz Siracusa (415-413 kent JK) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Seziz Siracusa (415-413 kent JK)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setge_de_Siracusa_(413_aC)" title="Setge de Siracusa (413 aC) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Setge de Siracusa (413 aC)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizilienexpedition" title="Sizilienexpedition – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sizilienexpedition" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Εκστρατεία στη Σικελία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκστρατεία στη Σικελία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedici%C3%B3n_a_Sicilia" title="Expedición a Sicilia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Expedición a Sicilia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenastarren_espedizioa" title="Atenastarren espedizioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atenastarren espedizioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%84" title="جنگ سیسیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ سیسیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exp%C3%A9dition_de_Sicile" title="Expédition de Sicile – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expédition de Sicile" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EC%BC%88%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%9B%90%EC%A0%95" title="시켈리아 원정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시켈리아 원정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekspedisi_Sisilia" title="Ekspedisi Sisilia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekspedisi Sisilia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spedizione_ateniese_in_Sicilia" title="Spedizione ateniese in Sicilia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spedizione ateniese in Sicilia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%A2_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%99_%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="מסע המלחמה האתונאי לסיציליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מסע המלחמה האתונאי לסיציליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expeditio_in_Siciliam" title="Expeditio in Siciliam – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Expeditio in Siciliam" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mision_Sisilian" title="Mision Sisilian – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mision Sisilian" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szic%C3%ADliai_hadj%C3%A1rat" title="Szicíliai hadjárat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szicíliai hadjárat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siciliaanse_Expeditie" title="Siciliaanse Expeditie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Siciliaanse Expeditie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E9%81%A0%E5%BE%81" title="シケリア遠征 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シケリア遠征" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_sicilianske_ekspedisjon" title="Den sicilianske ekspedisjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den sicilianske ekspedisjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedicion_de_Sic%C3%ADlia" title="Expedicion de Sicília – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Expedicion de Sicília" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyprawa_sycylijska" title="Wyprawa sycylijska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wyprawa sycylijska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Siciliana" title="Expedição Siciliana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Expedição Siciliana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сицилийская экспедиция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сицилийская экспедиция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сицилијанска експедиција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сицилијанска експедиција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a 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id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sicilian_Expedition&params=37.0833_N_15.2833_E_source:wikidata"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°05′00″N</span> <span class="longitude">15°17′00″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.0833°N 15.2833°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.0833; 15.2833</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Athenian military expedition to Sicily during the Peloponnesian War (415–413 BCE)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other sieges of Syracuse, see <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Siege of Syracuse (disambiguation)">Siege of Syracuse (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sicilian Campaign" redirects here. For World War II action, see <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Sicilian Expedition</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg/220px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg/330px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg/440px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_at_Syracuse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="989" data-file-height="1465" /></a></span><br />Destruction of the Athenian army at Syracuse, as drawn in 1900</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>415–413 BC</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Major Spartan/Syracusan victory</li></ul></div> <ul><li>Athenian expeditionary force completely destroyed</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Etruscans</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias">Nicias</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Lamachus" title="Lamachus">Lamachus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes_(general)" title="Demosthenes (general)">Demosthenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Eurymedon_(strategos)" title="Eurymedon (strategos)">Eurymedon</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Gylippus" title="Gylippus">Gylippus</a>,<br /> <a href="/wiki/Hermocrates" title="Hermocrates">Hermocrates</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>Original expedition:</b> </p> <ul><li>5,100 <a href="/wiki/Hoplites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoplites">hoplites</a> (heavy infantry)<sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>480 archers<sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>700 slingers<sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>120 other light infantry<sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>30 cavalry<sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>134 <a href="/wiki/Triremes" class="mw-redirect" title="Triremes">triremes</a><sup id="cite_ref-TPW643_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>414 BC reinforcements:</b> </p> <ul><li>250 Athenian cavalry</li> <li>30 mounted archers</li> <li>400 Sicilian mercenary cavalry</li></ul> <p><b>413 BC reinforcements:</b> </p> <ul><li>5,000 hoplites<sup id="cite_ref-TPW7_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW7-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>large number of light troops<sup id="cite_ref-TPW7_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW7-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>73 triremes<sup id="cite_ref-TPW7_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TPW7-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>Initially:</b> </p> <ul><li>5,000–6,000 hoplites<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1,200 cavalry<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>At least 100 triremes</li></ul> <p><b>Gylippus's relief force:</b> </p> <ul><li>700 armed sailors<sup id="cite_ref-PMED96_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMED96-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1,000 hoplites<sup id="cite_ref-PMED96_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMED96-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1,000 Sicel warriors<sup id="cite_ref-PMED96_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMED96-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>100 cavalry<sup id="cite_ref-PMED96_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMED96-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>413 BC relief force from Greece:</b> </p> <ul><li>2,000 hoplites<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>413 BC Sicilian relief force:</b> </p> <ul><li>2,300 soldiers<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Entire expeditionary force killed, captured or sold into slavery</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Unknown</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a> began the conflict as one of the Athenian commanders, but was recalled to Athens to face trial and subsequently defected to Sparta</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Peloponnesian_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Peloponnesian War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Peloponnesian_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Peloponnesian War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Peloponnesian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Peloponnesian War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Peloponnesian_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War"><span class="wrap">Peloponnesian War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sybota" title="Battle of Sybota"><i>Sybota</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Potidaea" title="Battle of Potidaea"><i>Potidaea</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spartolos" title="Battle of Spartolos">Spartolos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rhium" title="Battle of Rhium">Rhium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Plataea" title="Siege of Plataea">Plataea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mytilenean_revolt" title="Mytilenean revolt">1st Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tanagra_(426_BC)" title="Battle of Tanagra (426 BC)">Tanagra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_campaign" title="Aetolian campaign">Aetolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Idomene" title="Battle of Idomene">Idomene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pylos" title="Battle of Pylos">Pylos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sphacteria" title="Battle of Sphacteria">Sphacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megara" title="Battle of Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delium" title="Battle of Delium">Delium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amphipolis" title="Battle of Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)">Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hysiae_(417_BC)" title="Battle of Hysiae (417 BC)">Hysiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orneae" title="Battle of Orneae">Orneae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Melos" title="Siege of Melos">Melos</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sicilian Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Syme" title="Battle of Syme">Syme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eretria" title="Battle of Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abydos" title="Battle of Abydos">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Notium" title="Battle of Notium">Notium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">2nd Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aegospotami" title="Battle of Aegospotami">Aegospotami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Sicilian Expedition</b> was an <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenian</a> military expedition to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, which took place from 415–413 BC during the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> between <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> on one side and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> on the other. The expedition ended in a devastating defeat for the Athenian forces, severely impacting Athens. </p><p>The expedition was hampered from the outset by uncertainty in its purpose and command structure—political maneuvering in Athens swelled a lightweight force of twenty ships into a massive armada, and the expedition's primary proponent, <a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a>, was recalled from command to stand trial before the fleet even reached Sicily. Still, the Athenians achieved early successes. Syracuse, the most powerful state in Sicily, responded exceptionally slowly to the Athenian threat and, as a result, was almost completely <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">invested</a> before the arrival of back-up in the form of Spartan general <a href="/wiki/Gylippus" title="Gylippus">Gylippus</a>, who galvanized its inhabitants into action. From that point forward, however, as the Athenians ceded the initiative to their newly energized opponents, the tide of the conflict shifted. A massive reinforcing armada from Athens briefly gave the Athenians the upper hand once more, but a disastrous failed assault on a strategic high point and several crippling naval defeats damaged the Athenian soldiers' ability to continue fighting and maintain morale. The Athenians attempted a last-ditch evacuation from Syracuse. The evacuation failed, and nearly the entire expedition was captured or was destroyed in Sicily. </p><p>The effects of the defeat were immense. Two hundred ships and thousands of soldiers, an appreciable portion of Athens' total manpower, were lost in a single stroke. The city's enemies on the mainland and in Persia were encouraged to take action, and rebellions broke out in the Aegean. Some historians consider the defeat to have been the turning point in the war, though Athens continued to fight for another decade. <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> observed that contemporary Greeks were shocked not that Athens eventually fell after the defeat, but rather that it fought on for as long as it did, so devastating were the losses suffered. Athens managed to recover remarkably well from the expedition materially, the principal issue being the loss of manpower rather than the loss of ships. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelop_war_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Pelop_war_en.png/300px-Pelop_war_en.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Pelop_war_en.png/450px-Pelop_war_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Pelop_war_en.png/600px-Pelop_war_en.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>Sicily and the Peloponnesian War</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Athens_and_Sicily">Athens and Sicily</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Athens and Sicily"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Athens had never involved itself deeply in Sicilian affairs, it had ties there before the onset of the Peloponnesian War, dating back to at least the mid-5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To small Sicilian cities, Athens was a potential counter to the powerful city of Syracuse, which was strong enough to potentially dominate the island. Syracuse, like <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> and its Peloponnesian allies, was a <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorian</a> city, while most of Athens's allies on the island were <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another source of conflict was the close relationship of Syracuse and other Dorian cities of the west to Athens's great commercial rival, Corinth.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the Athenians, Sicily was a threat—an unencumbered Syracuse might send grain or other aid to the Peloponnesians—as well as a venue for possible conquests.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 427 BC, Athens had sent twenty ships, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Laches_(general)" title="Laches (general)">Laches</a>, in response to an appeal for help from <a href="/wiki/Leontini" class="mw-redirect" title="Leontini">Leontini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That expedition, operating from a base at <a href="/wiki/Rhegium" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhegium">Rhegium</a>, remained in the area for several years, fighting alongside Athens's local allies against the Syracusans and their allies, without achieving any dramatic successes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 425, the Athenians planned to reinforce their contingent with an additional forty triremes, but that fleet never reached Sicily, as it became caught up in the pivotal <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pylos" title="Battle of Pylos">Battle of Pylos</a> on the way there.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time that fleet reached Sicily in late summer, Athens's Sicilian allies had grown weary of stalemated warfare, and agreed to negotiate with Syracuse and its allies. At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Gela" title="Congress of Gela">Congress of Gela</a>, the Sicilian cities made peace on the basis of "Sicily for the Sicilians", and the Athenian fleet left for home.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_of_the_War">State of the War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: State of the War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 415, Athens and Sparta had been formally at peace since 421, when the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nicias" title="Peace of Nicias">Peace of Nicias</a> had brought the <a href="/wiki/Archidamian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Archidamian War">Archidamian War</a> to a close. The terms of that peace, however, had never been fulfilled; Sparta had never surrendered <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> to Athens, as required by the treaty, and in return the Athenians had held <a href="/wiki/Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</a>. More recently, Athenian and Spartan troops had fought at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a> in 418, with Athens supporting <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantinea">Mantinea</a>, and other Peloponnesian cities in an attempt to establish a stable anti-Spartan alliance in the Peloponnese. That attempt, largely orchestrated by the Athenian nobleman Alcibiades, would have destroyed Sparta's control over the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> had it succeeded.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcibiades rebounded politically from this defeat, and was elected as a general in the spring of 417.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Control of Athens' foreign policy remained divided between a "peace party" (or pro-Spartan party) led by <a href="/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias">Nicias</a>, and a "war party" led by Alcibiades.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispatch_of_the_expedition">Dispatch of the expedition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dispatch of the expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appeal_from_Segesta">Appeal from Segesta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Appeal from Segesta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The peace established in Sicily at the Congress of Gela did not last long. Shortly after the Congress, Syracuse intervened in an episode of civil strife between the democratic and oligarchic parties in <a href="/wiki/Leontini" class="mw-redirect" title="Leontini">Leontini</a>, supporting the oligarchs. Before too long, the prospect of foreign domination had united the Leontinians, and the two parties united in war against Syracuse.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athens had sent an emissary to Sicily in 422 to sound out the possibility of renewing the war against Syracuse, but achieved nothing.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 416, however, a second Sicilian conflict provided the invitation Athens had sought in 422. The city of <a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a>—an Athenian ally in the 420s—went to war against <a href="/wiki/Selinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Selinus">Selinus</a> and, after losing an initial battle, sent to Athens for help.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to win the Athenians' support, the Segestaeans claimed that they were capable of funding much of the cost of sending a fleet, offering 60 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a> of uncoined silver up front, and tricking Athenian ambassadors into believing that the city was more prosperous than it actually was, by making sure that the ambassadors saw all their golden and other valuable objects in a way as if these were just part of what they had.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_debate">The debate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At Athens, the Segestan ambassadors presented their case for intervention to the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">assembly</a>, where debate over the proposal quickly divided along traditional factional lines. The assembly eventually approved an expedition composed of sixty <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a>, without <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> accompaniment, commanded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and <a href="/wiki/Lamachus" title="Lamachus">Lamachus</a>. Thucydides reports that Nicias had been appointed against his preference, but offers no further detail regarding that debate.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Five days after that first debate, a second assembly was held to arrange the logistics of the expedition. There, Nicias attempted to persuade the assembly to overturn its previous decision regarding whether to send an expedition at all.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of several speeches, Nicias raised a series of different arguments against the expedition. He reminded the Athenians that they would be leaving powerful enemies behind them if they sent a force to Sicily, and warned that they would be opening hostilities with enemies too difficult and numerous to conquer and rule.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nicias also attacked Alcibiades's credibility, claiming that he and his allies were inexperienced and self-aggrandizing young men eager to lead Athens into war for their own ends.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response, Alcibiades dismissed the attack on himself by pointing to the good he had done for Athens as a private citizen and public leader. He rebutted Nicias's warnings about the plan for the expedition by reminding the Athenians of their obligation to their Sicilian allies, appealing to the enterprising spirit that had won Athens her empire, and pointing out that many states on Sicily would support Athens in her operations there.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assembly was clearly leaning towards Alcibiades's side, so Nicias, judging them unlikely to cancel the expedition if he argued against it directly, chose a different tactic. He described the wealth and power of the Sicilian cities Athens would be challenging, and stated that a larger expedition than previously approved would be required, expecting that the prospect of approving such a massive expenditure would prove unappealing to the citizenry.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to Nicias's plan, the assembly enthusiastically embraced his proposal, and passed a motion allowing the generals to arrange for a force of over 100 ships and 5,000 hoplites.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nicias's ploy had failed badly. His misreading of the assembly had altered the strategic situation; whereas the loss of 60 ships would have been painful but bearable, the loss of the larger force would be catastrophic. "Without Nicias's intervention," wrote <a href="/wiki/Donald_Kagan" title="Donald Kagan">Donald Kagan</a>, "there would have been an Athenian expedition against Sicily in 415, but there could not have been a disaster."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destruction_of_the_Hermai">Destruction of the Hermai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Destruction of the Hermai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mutilation_of_the_herms" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutilation of the herms">Mutilation of the herms</a></div> <p>After lengthy preparations, the fleet was ready to sail. The night before they were to leave, someone destroyed many of the <a href="/wiki/Herma" class="mw-redirect" title="Herma">hermai</a>—the stone markers representing <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a>, placed around the city for good luck. This event was taken very seriously by the Athenian people as it was considered a bad omen for the expedition, as well as evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy to overthrow the government. According to Plutarch, Androcles, a political enemy of Alcibiades, used false witness to claim that Alcibiades and his friends were responsible. Alcibiades volunteered to be put on trial under penalty of death in order to prove his innocence (wanting to avoid his enemies charging him, in his absence, with more false information), but this request was denied.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>He was otherwise extremely popular and had the support of the entire army; he had also gained the support of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mantinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantinea">Mantinea</a> during the preparations. He was not charged, and the fleet sailed the next day. His opponents, however, waited for Alcibiades to set sail before they leveled the charges against him. This was because the army, his main source of support, would be absent, and his supporters would be outnumbered when the votes were cast. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_in_Syracuse">Reaction in Syracuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reaction in Syracuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many people in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syracuse, Italy">Syracuse</a>, the richest and most powerful city of Sicily, felt that the Athenians were in fact coming to attack them under the pretense of aiding Segesta in a minor war. The Syracusan general <a href="/wiki/Hermocrates" title="Hermocrates">Hermocrates</a> suggested that they ask for help from other Sicilian cities, and from <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. He also wanted to meet the Athenian fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a> before they arrived. Others argued that Athens was no threat to Syracuse, and some people did not believe there was a fleet at all, because Athens would not be so foolish as to attack them while they were still at war with Sparta. <a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Syracuse" title="Athenagoras of Syracuse">Athenagoras</a> accused Hermocrates and others of attempting to instill fear among the population and trying to overthrow the government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_generals,_three_strategies"><span id="Three_generals.2C_three_strategies"></span>Three generals, three strategies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Three generals, three strategies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the first assembly that authorized the expedition, the Athenians named Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus as its commanders; that decision remained unchanged at the second assembly. Alcibiades was the expedition's leading proponent, and the leader of the war party, Nicias its leading critic and the leader of the peace party. Lamachus, meanwhile, was a fifty-year-old career soldier, of whom the longest extant portrayal is a series of scenes in <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Acharnians" title="The Acharnians">The Acharnians</a></i> that satirize him as a braggadocious, perpetually impoverished warrior.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagan170_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagan170-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasons for the Athenians' choice are not recorded, but the assembly may have been seeking to balance the aggressive young leader with a more conservative older figure, with Lamachus added for his military expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-Kagan170_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kagan170-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice, each of the three generals proposed a different strategy. Nicias proposed a narrowly circumscribed expedition; he felt that the fleet should sail to Selinus and force a settlement between Selinus and Segesta. After that, he proposed to briefly <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/show_the_flag" class="extiw" title="wikt:show the flag">show the flag</a> around Sicily and then return home, unless the Segestans were willing to pay for the full cost of the expanded expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alcibiades proposed to first attempt to win over allies on the island through diplomacy, and then attack Selinus and Syracuse.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lamachus, meanwhile, proposed taking advantage of the element of surprise by sailing directly to Syracuse and giving battle outside the city. Such a sudden attack, he felt, would catch the Syracusans off guard and possibly induce their quick surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, however, Lamachus settled the three-way division of opinion by endorsing Alcibiades's plan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_Expedition">Course of the Expedition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Course of the Expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Athenian_landing">Athenian landing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Athenian landing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg/350px-Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg/525px-Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg/700px-Sicilian_Expedition_map_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>The route the Athenian fleet took to Sicily</figcaption></figure> <p>The Athenian fleet first sailed to <a href="/wiki/Corcyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Corcyra">Corcyra</a> to meet up with their allies, and the ships were divided into three sections, one for each commander. Three of the ships were sent ahead to look for allies in Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fleet at this point consisted of 134 <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a> (100 of which were from Athens), 5,100 <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a> (of which 2,200 were Athenians), 480 <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archers</a>, 700 <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">slingers</a>, 120 other light troops, and 30 <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, as well as 130 other supply ships and all the crews of the triremes and other non-combatants.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They had little luck finding allies along the coast of southern <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italy</a> and, when the three other ships returned, they learned that Segesta did not have the money they promised. Nicias had expected this, but the other commanders were dismayed. Nicias suggested they make a show of force and then return home, while Alcibiades said they should encourage revolts against Syracuse, and then attack Syracuse and Selinus. Lamachus said they should attack Syracuse right away, as it was the predominant city-state in Sicily. </p><p>The fleet proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>, where an Athenian ship arrived to inform Alcibiades that he was under arrest, not only for the destruction of the hermai, but also for supposedly profaning the <a href="/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries" title="Eleusinian Mysteries">Eleusinian Mysteries</a>. Alcibiades agreed to return in his ship, but when they stopped in southern Italy at <a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a>, he escaped and sailed to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, where he sought refuge in Sparta. Athens passed a death sentence <i>in absentia</i>, his guilt seemingly proven. In Sparta, Alcibiades gave the members of the Peloponnesian League critical information on the Athenian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Sicily, the fleet was redivided into two parts. The first contingent, commanded by Nicias, sailed to <a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a> and forced the Segestans to pay the thirty talents they had promised the Athenians for their assistance against their rival <a href="/wiki/Selinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Selinus">Selinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second contingent, under Lamachus, sailed to and stormed Hyccara, a small city allied to Selinus, and enslaved its populace.<sup id="cite_ref-PK1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PK1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenian army then marched through the Sicilian interior, to impress and negotiate with the <a href="/wiki/Sicels" title="Sicels">Sicels</a>, and returned to Catania.<sup id="cite_ref-PK1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PK1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There they wintered and made preparations for their upcoming siege of Syracuse. When the campaigning season started, the Syracusans moved against the Athenians while they were still encamped at Catania. While the Syracusans were marching to Catania, they learned the Athenians had boarded their ships and sailed into the Great Harbour at Syracuse. The Syracusans quickly hurried back and prepared for battle.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Battle_of_Syracuse">First Battle of Syracuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: First Battle of Syracuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Athenian army landed to the south of Syracuse and fortified their position. When the Syracusan army finally arrived both sides waited for the other to make the first move. Eventually the Syracusans withdrew and made camp for the night. The next morning the Athenians lined up eight men deep, with the Argives and Mantineans on the right, the rest of the allies on the left, and the Athenians themselves in the centre. The Syracusans were deployed sixteen men deep, in order to offset the advantage of the Athenians in experience. They also had 1,200 cavalry, vastly outnumbering the Athenian cavalry, although the total numbers of men were about the same. The Athenians attacked first, believing themselves to be the stronger and more experienced army, and after some unexpectedly strong resistance, the Argives pushed back the Syracusan left wing, causing the rest to flee. The Syracusan cavalry prevented the Athenians from chasing them, thereby averting a catastrophe for the Syracusans, who lost about 260 men, and the Athenians about 50. The Athenians then sailed back to Catania for the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Winter_of_415_–_spring_of_414_BC"><span id="Winter_of_415_.E2.80.93_spring_of_414_BC"></span>Winter of 415 – spring of 414 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Winter of 415 – spring of 414 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hermocrates suggested that the Syracusans reorganize their army. He wanted to reduce the number of generals from fifteen to three; Hermocrates, <a href="/wiki/Heracleides_(415_BC)" title="Heracleides (415 BC)">Heraclides</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sicanus (page does not exist)">Sicanus</a> were elected and Hermocrates sent for help from <a href="/wiki/Corinth,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Corinth, Greece">Corinth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>. During the winter the Athenians also sent for more money and cavalry, while the Syracusans built some forts, and a wall extending the territory of the city. </p><p>Meanwhile, diplomats from both camps went to <a href="/wiki/Camarina" class="mw-redirect" title="Camarina">Camarina</a> in an attempt to form an alliance with that city. Hermocrates wanted Camarina and the other cities to unite with Syracuse against Athens, but Euphemus, the representative for the Athenians, said Syracuse only wanted to rule Camarina, and they should join with Athens if they wanted to remain free. The Camarinans decided not to join either side, although they quietly sent aid to the Syracusans, whose greater proximity and potential victory they feared more than that of the Athenians. </p><p>Athens then sent for help from the Carthaginians and the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a>, as both were long-standing opponents of Syracuse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116,_146_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116,_146-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carthage opted to stay out of the conflict, but several <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Etruscan cities</a> banded together and organized a small force to aid Athens. Though the Etruscan force only included three large warships and a number of warriors, it provided crucial support to the Athenians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athens and Syracuse also tried to gain assistance from the Greek cities in Italy. In Corinth, representatives from Syracuse met with Alcibiades, who was working with Sparta. Alcibiades informed Sparta that there would be an invasion of the Peloponnese if Sicily was conquered, and that they should send help to Syracuse and also fortify <a href="/wiki/Decelea" title="Decelea">Decelea</a> near Athens. The Athenians, he said, feared nothing more than the occupation of Decelea. The Spartans took this advice into consideration, and appointed <a href="/wiki/Gylippus" title="Gylippus">Gylippus</a> to command their fleet. </p><p>In the spring of 414 BC, reinforcements arrived from Athens, consisting of 250 cavalry, 30 mounted archers, and 300 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(weight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Talent (weight)">talents</a> of silver, which was used to pay for 400 more cavalry from their Sicilian allies. In the summer, they landed on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epipolae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epipolae (page does not exist)">Epipolae</a>, the cliff above Syracuse, which was defended by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diomilus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diomilus (page does not exist)">Diomilus</a> and 600 Syracusans. In the attack, Diomilus and 300 of his men were killed. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Syracuse_(414-413_BC).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png/349px-Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png" decoding="async" width="349" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png/524px-Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png/699px-Siege_of_Syracuse_%28414-413_BC%29.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption>Map of the siege showing walls and counter-walls</figcaption></figure> <p>Both sides then began building a series of walls. The Athenian <a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a>, known as <i>"the Circle"</i>, was meant to blockade Syracuse from the rest of the island, while the Syracusans built a number of counter-walls from the city to their various forts. A force of 300 Athenians destroyed part of the first counter-wall, but the Syracusans began to build another one, this time with a ditch, blocking the Athenians from extending their wall to the sea. Another 300 Athenians attacked this wall and captured it, but were driven off by a Syracusan counter-attack in which Lamachus was killed, leaving only Nicias from the three original commanders. The Syracusans destroyed 300 m (1,000 feet) of the Athenian wall, but could not destroy the Circle, which was defended by Nicias. After Nicias defeated the attack, the Athenians finally extended their wall to the sea, completely blockading Syracuse by land, and their fleet entered the harbour to blockade them from sea. The Syracusans responded by removing Hermocrates and Sicanus as generals and replacing them with Heraclides, Eucles, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tellias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tellias (page does not exist)">Tellias</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spartan_intervention">Spartan intervention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spartan intervention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soon after this, the Spartan general <a href="/wiki/Gylippus" title="Gylippus">Gylippus</a>, responding to the call for help, landed at <a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a>. He marched towards Syracuse with 700 armed sailors, 1,000 hoplites from Himera and <a href="/wiki/Selinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Selinus">Selinus</a>, 100+ cavalry, and 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Sicels" title="Sicels">Sicels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They built another counter-wall on the Epipolae, but were driven back by the Athenians; in a second battle, however, Gylippus defeated the Athenians by making better use of his cavalry and javelin-throwers. The Syracusans completed their counter-wall, making the Athenian wall useless. The Corinthian fleet also arrived, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Erasinides" title="Erasinides">Erasinides</a>. </p><p>Nicias, exhausted and suffering from illness, now believed it would be impossible to capture Syracuse. He wrote a letter to Athens, not trusting messengers to give an accurate report, and suggested that they either recall the expedition or send out massive reinforcements. He hoped they would choose to recall him, if not the whole expedition, but instead they chose to send reinforcements, under <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes_(general)" title="Demosthenes (general)">Demosthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurymedon_(strategos)" title="Eurymedon (strategos)">Eurymedon</a>. Eurymedon left immediately with ten ships, and Demosthenes left sometime later with a much larger force. Meanwhile, in early 413 BC Sparta acted on Alcibiades's advice to fortify Decelea, and the Athenian force sent to relieve it was destroyed. </p><p>While Eurymedon was sailing, Gylippus's 80 Syracusan ships, including 35 triremes, attacked 60 of the Athenian ships (25 of which were triremes) in the harbour. Gylippus commanded a simultaneous attack on the Athenian land forces. In the harbour, the Athenians were successful, losing only three ships while the Syracusans lost eleven. However, Gylippus defeated the Athenians on land and captured two Athenian forts. Afterwards, Gylippus succeeded in convincing all the neutral cities on Sicily to join him, but the allies of Athens killed 800 Corinthians, including all but one of the Corinthian ambassadors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demosthenes'_arrival"><span id="Demosthenes.27_arrival"></span>Demosthenes' arrival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Demosthenes' arrival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Demosthenes and Eurymedon then arrived with 73 ships and 5,000 hoplites. On their arrival, 80 Syracusan ships attacked 75 of the Athenian ships in their harbour. This battle went on for two days with no result, until the Syracusans pretended to back away and attacked the Athenians while they were eating. However, only seven Athenian ships were sunk. </p><p>Demosthenes landed his forces and attacked the Syracusan counter-wall on Epipolae in a risky night engagement (against the advice of Nicias). He succeeded in breaching the wall, routing or killing some of the first Syracusan defenders but was defeated by a force of <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotians</a> in the Spartan contingent. Many Athenians fell off the cliff to their deaths, and some of the rest were killed as they fled down the slope. Plutarch claims the casualties from this action numbered 2,000. </p><p>Demosthenes' arrival provided little relief to the other Athenians. Their camp was located near a marsh and many of them had fallen ill, including Nicias. Seeing this, Demosthenes thought they should all return to Athens to defend <a href="/wiki/Attica,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Attica, Greece">Attica</a> against the Spartan invasion that had taken Decelea. Nicias, who had opposed the expedition at first, now did not want to show any weakness either to the Syracusans and Spartans, or to the Athenians at home who he thought would have him executed, stating he would rather die by the hands of the enemy than by those of his countrymen. He hoped the Syracusans would soon run out of money, and he had also been informed that there were pro-Athenian factions in Syracuse who were ready to turn the city over to him. Demosthenes and Eurymedon reluctantly agreed that Nicias might be right, but when reinforcements from the Peloponnese arrived, Nicias agreed that they should leave. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Battle_of_Syracuse">Second Battle of Syracuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Second Battle of Syracuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_(Litho).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg/330px-Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="330" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg/495px-Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg/660px-Retreat_of_the_Athenians_from_Syracuse_%28Litho%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>Retreat of the Athenians from Syracuse</figcaption></figure> <p>Just as the Athenians were preparing to sail home, on August 28, there was a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>, and Nicias, described by Thucydides as a particularly superstitious man, asked the priests what he should do.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggested the Athenians wait for another 27 days, and Nicias agreed. </p><p>The Athenians were now in a desperate situation. On September 3, the Syracusans began to completely blockade the entrance to the port, trapping the Athenians inside. Outside Syracuse, the Athenians built a smaller walled enclosure for their sick and injured, and put everyone else (including many of the soldiers remaining on land) on their ships for one last battle, on September 9. The fleet was now commanded by Demosthenes, Menander, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Euthydemus_(commander)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Euthydemus (commander) (page does not exist)">Euthydemus</a>, while the Syracusan fleet was led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sicanus (page does not exist)">Sicanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agatharchus_of_Syracuse" title="Agatharchus of Syracuse">Agatharchus of Syracuse</a> on the wings and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pythen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pythen (page does not exist)">Pythen</a> from Corinth in the centre. Each side had about 100 ships participating. </p><p>The Athenian ships were extremely cramped and had no room to manoeuvre. Collisions were frequent, and the Syracusans could easily ram the Athenian ships head-on, without the Athenians being able to move to ram them broadside, as they preferred. <a href="/wiki/Javelin_throw" title="Javelin throw">Javelin throwers</a> and archers shot from each ship, but the Syracusans deflected Athenian <a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">grappling hooks</a> by covering their decks with animal hides. </p><p>The battle went on for some time with no clear victor, but the Athenian center under Menander eventually broke and was routed. Instead of pursuing their fleeing opponents, Pythen turned his Corinthian ships to attack the now-vulnerable Athenian right wing under Euthydemus. Beset from multiple sides, the right wing was defeated and largely destroyed; Euthydemus was killed as he tried to escape on the nearby shore. The destruction of Euthydemus' contingent shattered what remained of the Athenian fleet's order. The Athenian ships were subsequently pushed toward the coast; most Athenian crews abandoned their trapped vessels and fled to the camp behind their wall. Seeing the vulnerable Athenians running from their beached vessels, Gylippus ordered a furious but disorganized attack on land to catch his enemies before they could reach their base. However, the Spartan-led force was confronted by the small unit of Etruscans who had been sent to aid Athens; these warriors managed to stop Gylippus's assault. Using this respite, the Athenians rallied and returned to fight alongside the Etruscans, securing several of their ships on the beach and preventing a complete catastrophe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981326–327_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981326–327-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/David_Abulafia" title="David Abulafia">David Abulafia</a> concluded that the Etruscans had "saved the day" for the Athenians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Demosthenes suggested that they man the ships again and attempt to force their way out, as now both fleets had lost about half their ships and Nicias agreed. The men themselves did not want to board the ship because they were afraid. They then decided to retreat by land. Hermocrates sent some supposed informers to the Athenians to falsely report that there were spies and roadblocks further inland, so the Athenians would be safer if they did not march away. Gylippus used this delay to build the roadblocks that did not yet exist, and the Syracusans burned or towed away the Athenian ships on the beach, so that they had no way off the island. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_Syracusan_victory">Final Syracusan victory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Final Syracusan victory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg/350px-Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg/525px-Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg/700px-Fine_della_spedizione_ateniese.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Map of Athenian retreat from Syracuse</figcaption></figure> <p>On September 13, the Athenians left camp leaving their wounded behind and their dead unburied. The survivors, including all the non-combatants, numbered 40,000, and some of the wounded crawled after them as far as they could go. As they marched they defeated a small Syracusan force guarding the river <a href="/wiki/Anapo" title="Anapo">Anapus</a>, but other Syracusan cavalry and light troops continually harassed them. Near the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erineo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erineo (page does not exist)">Erineus</a> river, Demosthenes and Nicias became separated, and Demosthenes was attacked by the Syracusans and forced to surrender his 6,000 troops. The rest of the Syracusans followed Nicias to the <a href="/wiki/Asinaro" title="Asinaro">Assinarus</a> river, where Nicias's troops became disorganized in the rush to find drinking water. Many Athenians were trampled to death and others were killed while fighting with fellow Athenians. On the other side of the river a Syracusan force was waiting, and the Athenians were almost completely massacred, by far the worst defeat of the entire expedition in terms of lives lost. Nicias personally surrendered to Gylippus, hoping the Spartan would remember his role in the peace treaty of 421. The few who escaped found refuge in Catana. </p><p>The prisoners, now numbering only 7,000, were held in the stone quarries near Syracuse which were considered the safest prison for such a number of men. Demosthenes and Nicias were executed, against the orders of Gylippus. The rest spent ten weeks in horrible conditions in their makeshift prison, until all but the Athenians, Italians, and Sicilians were sold as <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>. The remaining Athenians were left to die slowly of disease and starvation in the quarry. In the end some of the very last survivors managed to escape and eventually trickled to Athens, bringing first-hand news of the disaster. The specific fate of Nicias and Demosthenes is not clearly recorded, but according to Thucydides' account, both were executed after their surrender, Demosthenes due to his earlier role in the war at Pylos, Nicias due to worries of a possibility of escape through bribery and possibility of causing later harm.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_of_the_failure">Causes of the failure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Causes of the failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some historians have said that the Sicilian expedition was fatally flawed from the outset, that the Athenian attempt to conquer Sicily was an example of mad arrogance. Others however argue that there was nothing inherently wrong with the plan strategically, and that it would have succeeded if the Athenian leadership had not made a succession of bad tactical decisions. <a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">J. B. Bury</a> judged that by far the biggest single reason for the expedition's catastrophic failure was the incompetence of Nicias, aggravated by the recall of Alcibiades.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Athens, the expedition was a "human disaster as painful as the plague [as well as a] political disaster" which severely harmed the city's war efforts and hegemony over its allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sparta exploited this weakness to greatly increase the pressure on its rival over the next years, though it could not achieve a strategic breakthrough.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146–147_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146–147-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the Etruscans who had fought alongside the Athenians were proud of their role in the conflict. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Spurinnia_gens" title="Spurinnia gens">Spurinna family</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a> possibly continued to honor their involvement in the Sicilian Expedition for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Athenian_reaction">Athenian reaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Athenian reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg/330px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg/495px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg/660px-Destruction_of_the_Athenian_army_in_Sicily.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1507" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>Destruction of the Athenian army in Sicily</figcaption></figure> <p>In Athens, the citizens did not, at first, believe the defeat. Plutarch, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives#Biographies" title="Parallel Lives">Life of Nicias</a></i>, recounts how the news reached the city: </p> <blockquote><p>It is said that the Athenians would not believe their loss, in a great degree because of the person who first brought them news of it. For a certain stranger, it seems, coming to Piraeus, and there sitting in a barber's shop, began to talk of what had happened, as if the Athenians already knew all that had passed; which the barber hearing, before he acquainted anybody else, ran as fast as he could up into the city, addressed himself to the <a href="/wiki/Archon#Ancient_Greece" title="Archon">Archons</a>, and presently spread it about in the marketplace. On which, there being everywhere, as may be imagined, terror and consternation, the Archons summoned a general assembly, and there brought in the man and questioned him how he came to know. And he, giving no satisfactory account, was taken for a spreader of false intelligence and a disturber of the city, and was, therefore, fastened to the wheel and racked a long time, till other messengers arrived that related the whole disaster particularly. So hardly was Nicias believed to have suffered the calamity which he had often predicted.</p></blockquote> <p>When the magnitude of the disaster became evident, there was a general panic. <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a> seemed free for the taking, as the Spartans were so close by in <a href="/wiki/Decelea" title="Decelea">Decelea</a>. The defeat caused a great shift in policy for many other states, as well. States which had until now been neutral joined with Sparta, assuming that Athens's defeat was imminent. Many of Athens' allies in the Delian League also revolted, and although the city immediately began to rebuild its fleet, there was little they could do about the revolts for the time being. The expedition and consequent disaster left Athens reeling. Some 10,000 hoplites had perished and, though this was a blow, the real concern was the loss of the huge fleet dispatched to Sicily. Triremes could be replaced, but the 30,000 experienced oarsmen lost in Sicily were irreplaceable and Athens had to rely on ill-trained slaves to form the backbone of her new fleet. </p><p>In 411 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was overthrown in favour of an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persia</a> joined the war on the Spartan side. Although things looked grim for Athens, they were able to recover for a few years. The oligarchy was soon overthrown, and Athens won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Battle of Cynossema</a>; however, the defeat of the Sicilian expedition was essentially the beginning of the end for Athens. In 404 BC they were defeated and occupied by Sparta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>John Fletcher's 90 minute radio play "The Sicilian Expedition – Ancient Athenian War Drama with Iraq War", which was broadcast on BBC Radio 3 in December 2005, is based on real events from the Peloponnesian War, particularly the Sicilian Expedition. Fletcher implies a parallel between U.S. involvement in the Iraq war and the Athenian aggression against Sicily, which in his view were both disastrous abroad and at home.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the novel <a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_the_Wine" title="The Last of the Wine">The Last of the Wine</a> by Mary Renault, the father of the main character returns from being held prisoner in the quarries of Syracuse after the failure of the expedition. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harry_Turtledove" title="Harry Turtledove">Harry Turtledove</a>'s short story "The Daimon" (featured in <i><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_and_Other_Places" title="Atlantis and Other Places">Atlantis and Other Places</a></i>) centers around an alternate history scenario where Alcibiades stays with the expeditionary force thanks to advice from <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, resulting in the Athenians capturing Syracuse and raiding Sparta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbulafia2011">Abulafia 2011</a>, pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981249_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKagan1981">Kagan 1981</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TPW643-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW643_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, 6.43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TPW7-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TPW7_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW7_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TPW7_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <i>History of the Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_7" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 7">Book 7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PMED96-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PMED96_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PMED96_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PMED96_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PMED96_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scholars dispute the dating of a treaty with Segesta; 458/457 BC, 434/433 BC and 418/417 BC are among the suggested dates. A treaty with Leontini was renewed in 433/432 BC, and thus originated some time previously, probably between 460 and 439. Kagan, <i>The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</i>, 154–54 and Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 159–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Archidamian War</i>, 265</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBuryMeiggs1956" class="citation book cs1">Bury, J. B.; Meiggs, Russell (1956). <i>A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great</i> (3 ed.). London: Macmillan. pp. 483–85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Greece+to+the+death+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=London&rft.pages=483-85&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft.au=Meiggs%2C+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fine, <i>The Ancient Greeks</i>, 476. See also Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_3#3:86" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 3">3.86</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_3#3:86" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 3">3.86</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fine, <i>The Ancient Greeks</i>, 476–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_4#4:1" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 4">4.1–9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_4#4:65" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 4">4.65</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 146–47. In 417 BC, an <a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">ostracism</a> was held at Athens, but the Alcibiades and Nicias combined their forces to ensure the exile of the minor politician <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolus" title="Hyperbolus">Hyperbolus</a>, since neither of them could be sure exiling the other.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_5#5:4" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 5">5.4</a>. See also Diodorus Siculus, <i>Library</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&getid=1&query=Diod.%20Sic.%2012.54">12.54</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190833/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekFeb2011&getid=1&query=Diod.%20Sic.%2012.54">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_5#5:4" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 5">5.4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:6" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:8" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:46" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.46</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:9" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThucydidesn.d." class="citation book cs1">Thucydides (n.d.). <i>The History of the Peloponnesian War</i>. pp. Book VI. Chapter XVIII.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Peloponnesian+War&rft.pages=Book+VI.+Chapter+XVIII&rft.au=Thucydides&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: year">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:10" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.10–14</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:16" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.16–18</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:20" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.20–24</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:25" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.25–26</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kagan170-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kagan170_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kagan170_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>, 170–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:47" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.47</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:48" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.48</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:49" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.49</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:42" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.42</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:43" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.43</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War/Book_6#6:74" class="extiw" title="s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 6">6.74</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, pp 63–64; Kagan, <i>The Sicilian Expedition</i>, 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PK1-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PK1_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PK1_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 64; Kagan, <i>The Sicilian Expedition</i>, 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, Expedition to Disaster, p. 67; Kagan, <i>The Sicilian Expedition</i>, 229–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kagan, <i>The Sicilian Expedition</i>, 233-236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116,_146-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115–116,_146_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbulafia2011">Abulafia 2011</a>, pp. 115–116, 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/LEhistory/LEhistory.html#-0412">NASA – Lunar Eclipses of History</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1981326–327-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1981326–327_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKagan1981">Kagan 1981</a>, pp. 326–327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011115_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbulafia2011">Abulafia 2011</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbulafia2011">Abulafia 2011</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146–147-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2011146–147_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbulafia2011">Abulafia 2011</a>, pp. 146–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-iraq-expedition-greek_b_11404">"The Iraq Expedition: Greek Drama About an American Tragedy"</a>. <i>HuffPost</i>. 2005-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=The+Iraq+Expedition%3A+Greek+Drama+About+an+American+Tragedy&rft.date=2005-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fthe-iraq-expedition-greek_b_11404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbulafia2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Abulafia" title="David Abulafia">Abulafia, David</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dKcQPBV0UdQC"><i>The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532334-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532334-4"><bdi>978-0-19-532334-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Sea%3A+A+Human+History+of+the+Mediterranean&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532334-4&rft.aulast=Abulafia&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdKcQPBV0UdQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nancy Demand, <i>A History of Ancient Greece</i>. McGraw-Hill, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-016207-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-016207-7">0-07-016207-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKagan1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Kagan" title="Donald Kagan">Kagan, Donald</a> (1981). <i>The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition</i>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-1367-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-1367-2"><bdi>0-8014-1367-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peace+of+Nicias+and+the+Sicilian+Expedition&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-8014-1367-2&rft.aulast=Kagan&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i>.</li> <li>Marie Durnerin, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38573412/The_risk_of_open_voting._Army_assembly_and_fake_news_at_the_end_of_the_Sicilian_Expedition">The risk of open voting, Army, assembly and fake news at the end of the Sicilian Expedition</a>". 2019.</li> <li>Philip Matyszak, <i>Expedition to Disaster</i>. Pen & Sword Military, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-887-0">978-1-84884-887-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahe2023" class="citation book cs1">Rahe, Paul A. (2023). <i>Sparta's Sicilian proxy war: the grand strategy of classical Sparta, 418-413 B.C</i>. New York: Encounter Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781641773379" title="Special:BookSources/9781641773379"><bdi>9781641773379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sparta%27s+Sicilian+proxy+war%3A+the+grand+strategy+of+classical+Sparta%2C+418-413+B.C.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781641773379&rft.aulast=Rahe&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASicilian+Expedition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sicilian_Expedition&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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/></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sicilian_Expedition" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sicilian Expedition">Sicilian Expedition</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>From <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livius.org">Livius</a>, by Jona Lendering: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/place/sicily/">Ancient Sicily</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/person/hermocrates/">Hermocrates</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/peloponnesian-war/sicilian-expedition/">Sicilian expedition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/syracuse-siege/">Siege of Syracuse</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844289#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844289#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1118025/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85122227">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120318026">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120318026">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541354105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028493117">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sicilian_Expedition&params=37.0833_N_15.2833_E_source:wikidata"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span 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