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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Geschiedenis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geschiedenis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materiaaleigenschappen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materiaaleigenschappen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Materiaaleigenschappen</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Materiaaleigenschappen-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Materiaaleigenschappen-subkopje inklappen</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Materiaaleigenschappen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toepassingen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toepassingen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Toepassingen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toepassingen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zie_ook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zie_ook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Zie ook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zie_ook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referenties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referenties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Referenties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referenties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Inhoud" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Inhoudsopgave omschakelen" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Inhoudsopgave omschakelen</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Romeins beton</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Ga naar een artikel in een andere taal. Beschikbaar in 33 talen" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 talen</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="خرسانة رومانية – Arabisch" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خرسانة رومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remischa_Beton" title="Remischa Beton – Beiers" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Remischa Beton" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Beiers" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Catalaans" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementum" title="Opus caementum – Tsjechisch" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Opus caementum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Tsjechisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_beton" title="Romersk beton – Deens" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romersk beton" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Deens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Duits" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete – Engels" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Roman concrete" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Engels" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Spaans" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_hormigoi" title="Erromatar hormigoi – Baskisch" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar hormigoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Baskisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Fins" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fins" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Frans" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Frans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Galicisch" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galicisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%A7%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אופוס קמנטיקיום – Hebreeuws" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אופוס קמנטיקיום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebreeuws" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Kroatisch" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroatisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton_Romawi" title="Beton Romawi – Indonesisch" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Beton Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_cementizia" title="Opera cementizia – Italiaans" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Opera cementizia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88" title="ローマン・コンクリート – Japans" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマン・コンクリート" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%BD%98%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8" title="로마 콘크리트 – Koreaans" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 콘크리트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Koreaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Latijn" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latijn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_betong" title="Romersk betong – Noors - Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romersk betong" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Noors - Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Occitaans" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicum" title="Opus caementicum – Pools" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Opus caementicum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Pools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Portugees" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton_roman" title="Beton roman – Roemeens" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Beton roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Roemeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Римский бетон – Russisch" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римский бетон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Servo-Kroatisch" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Servo-Kroatisch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_beton" title="Rimski beton – Sloveens" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimski beton" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloveens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_caementicium" title="Opus caementicium – Zweeds" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Opus caementicium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Zweeds" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanong_kongkreto" title="Romanong kongkreto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Romanong kongkreto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_betonu" title="Roma betonu – Turks" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma betonu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Римський бетон – Oekraïens" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римський бетон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Oekraïens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%B7%B7%E5%87%9D%E5%9C%9F" title="羅馬混凝土 – Chinees" lang="zh" 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id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="nl" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Bestand:Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg/260px-Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg/390px-Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg/520px-Rome-Pantheon-Interieur1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Het <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(Rome)" title="Pantheon (Rome)">Pantheon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome_(stad)" title="Rome (stad)">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itali%C3%AB" title="Italië">Italië</a>, is een voorbeeld van een Romeinse betonconstructie.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Romeins beton</b>, ofwel <b>opus caementicium</b>, was een materiaal dat werd gebruikt in de bouw tijdens de late <a href="/wiki/Romeinse_Republiek" title="Romeinse Republiek">Romeinse Republiek</a> door de hele geschiedenis van het Romeinse Rijk. Romeins <a href="/wiki/Beton" title="Beton">beton</a> is gebaseerd op hydraulisch bindende kalk waarbij veel van de materiaalkwaliteiten soortgelijk zijn aan modern <a href="/wiki/Portlandcement" title="Portlandcement">Portlandcement</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geschiedenis">Geschiedenis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Bewerk dit kopje: Geschiedenis" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&action=edit&section=1" title="De broncode bewerken van de sectie: Geschiedenis"><span>brontekst bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>De Romeinen gebruikten beton voor het eerst aan het einde 3e eeuw v.Chr. vanwege de talloze voordelen ten opzichte van het bouwen in hout, natuursteen of baksteen; het was vuurvast, kon onderwater worden gebruikt, was relatief goedkoop en de bouw kon door ongeschoolde arbeiders worden gedaan. Bovendien kon beton in vele vormen gegoten worden en werden hiermee grotere bogen en koepels mogelijk. In het midden van de 1e eeuw hadden de Romeinen zich de betonbouw geheel eigen gemaakt, waarmee ze een dynamische architectuur creëerden van eindeloze, hoge ruimtes en gedurfde overspanningen, die in niets meer herinnerden aan de traditionele Griekse constructiemethoden die tot die tijd gebruikelijk waren.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vitruvius_Pollio" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Vitruvius Pollio">Marcus Vitruvius Pollio</a> beschreef rond 25 voor Christus in zijn <i>Tien boeken over architectuur</i> een aantal te onderscheiden soorten aggregaat geschikt voor de bereiding van kalkmortels. Voor structurele mortels adviseerde hij <a href="/wiki/Puzzolaan" title="Puzzolaan">puzzolaan</a>, een vulkanisch zand uit <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a> met een bruin-geel-grijze kleur indien het in de buurt van Napels werd gewonnen en met een roodbruine kleur wanneer het uit de buurt van Rome kwam. Vitruvius geeft een verhouding van 1 deel kalk op 3 delen puzzolaan voor gebouwen en een 01:02 verhouding van kalk/<a href="/wiki/Puzzolaan" title="Puzzolaan">pulvis Puteolanus</a> voor constructies onder water.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Er zijn veel historische referenties naar Romeins beton inclusief de publicaties van <a href="/wiki/Plinius_de_Oudere" title="Plinius de Oudere">Plinius de Oudere</a>. Ook de <a href="/wiki/Fenici%C3%ABr" class="mw-redirect" title="Feniciër">Feniciërs</a> (> 1.300 vC) vermengden hun mortels met puzzolaan voor onderwaterbeton. </p><p>In het midden van de 20e eeuw werden betonnen constructies ontworpen om 50 jaar mee te gaan, de huidige bouwwerken zouden 100 tot 120 jaar mee moeten gaan. De Romeinse betonnen onderwater-havenconstructies hebben 2000 jaar van chemische aantasting en golfslag overleefd. Omdat de Romeinen hun betonconstructies vrijwel altijd bekleedden met een stenen beschermingslaag zijn ook talloze betonnen bouwwerken op het land bewaard gebleven. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materiaaleigenschappen">Materiaaleigenschappen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Bewerk dit kopje: Materiaaleigenschappen" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&action=edit&section=2" title="De broncode bewerken van de sectie: Materiaaleigenschappen"><span>brontekst bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Bestand:Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_(Torre_Puccini)_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_(GR).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg/260px-Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg/390px-Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg/520px-Panorama_con_Torre_della_Tagliata_%28Torre_Puccini%29_dal_Porto_di_Cosa_%28GR%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Betonnen <a href="/wiki/Pier_(waterbouwkunde)" title="Pier (waterbouwkunde)">pier</a> uit de 2e of 1e eeuw v.Chr. in <a href="/wiki/Cosa_(Itali%C3%AB)" title="Cosa (Italië)">Cosa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Romeins beton, zoals alle beton, bestaat uit een aggregaat en een hydraulische mortel (een bindmiddel gemengd met water, dat na verloop van tijd verhardt). Het aggregaat varieert en bevat meestal ook stukken rots, keramische tegels en baksteenpuin uit de resten van eerder gesloopte gebouwen. Versterkende elementen, zoals staalwapening, werden in die tijd niet gebruikt. </p><p>Als bindmiddel werd <a href="/wiki/Gips" title="Gips">gips</a> en <a href="/wiki/Kalk" title="Kalk">kalk</a> gebruikt. Door toevoeging van vulkanisch stof, genaamd Puzzolaan of "pit zand", was het Romeinse beton beter bestand tegen zout water dan het hedendaagse beton. De puzzolaanmortel had een hoog gehalte aan <a href="/wiki/Aluminiumoxide" title="Aluminiumoxide">aluminiumoxide</a> en <a href="/wiki/Siliciumdioxide" title="Siliciumdioxide">siliciumdioxide</a> waarmee het sterk overeenkomt met het moderne <a href="/wiki/Portlandcement" title="Portlandcement">Portlandcement</a> waaraan <a href="/wiki/Slak_(metallurgie)" title="Slak (metallurgie)">hoogovenslakken</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vliegas" title="Vliegas">vliegas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microsilica" title="Microsilica">microsilica</a> zijn toegevoegd. </p><p>Het Romeinse recept had minder dan 10 procent kalk per gewicht en in het productieproces werd minder energie verbruikt door de lagere temperaturen waarbij <a href="/wiki/Kalksteen" title="Kalksteen">kalksteen</a> werd verhit tot 900 °C (Portlandcement is 1450 °C). </p><p>Betonsoorten verschillen in de lijm die de bestanddelen van het beton aan elkaar bindt. Beton gemaakt met Portlandcement heeft een lijmverbinding met <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, silicaten en hydraten (C-S-H). Romeins beton heeft een andere lijmsamenstelling met toegevoegd aluminium en minder silicium. Het resulterende calcium-aluminium-silicaat-hydraat (C-A-S-H) is een uitzonderlijk stabiel bindmiddel. Bij onderwatergebruik reageerde het <a href="/wiki/Zeewater" title="Zeewater">zeewater</a> met de vulkanische bestanddelen in het beton, waarbij <a href="/wiki/Tobermoriet" title="Tobermoriet">tobermoriet</a> werd gevormd.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vituvius was al bekend met het feit dat Romeins beton onderwater kon drogen en dat dit na uitharding uitzonderlijk sterk was.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Het Romeinse zeewaterbeton bevatte dus tobermoriet<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, Al-tobermoriet (Al voor aluminium) heeft een grotere <a href="/wiki/Stijfheid" title="Stijfheid">stijfheid</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Kristallijn" class="mw-redirect" title="Kristallijn">kristallijn</a> C-A-S-H.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Een studie uit 2023 kwam tot de conclusie dat Romeins beton zelfhelend was: door de <a href="/wiki/Mortel_(betontype)" title="Mortel (betontype)">mortel</a> heet te mengen en er <a href="/wiki/Klast" title="Klast">klasten</a> <a href="/wiki/Calciumoxide" title="Calciumoxide">ongebluste kalk</a> in te incorporeren, was er een bron van reactieve kalk die barsten kon vullen puur door te reageren met insijpelend water, zonder menselijke tussenkomst.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deze bevinding zou ook relevant kunnen zijn voor hedendaagse toepassingen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toepassingen">Toepassingen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Bewerk dit kopje: Toepassingen" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&action=edit&section=3" title="De broncode bewerken van de sectie: Toepassingen"><span>brontekst bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Bestand:Opus_Signinum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Opus_Signinum.JPG/260px-Opus_Signinum.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Opus_Signinum.JPG/390px-Opus_Signinum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Opus_Signinum.JPG/520px-Opus_Signinum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Gereconstrueerde <i>Opus signinum</i>-vloer.</figcaption></figure> <p>Toen de Romeinen aan het einde van de 3e eeuw beton gingen gebruiken werd dit vrijwel altijd afgedekt met een beschermende laag stenen. Veel nog bestaande Romeinse stadsmuren, <a href="/wiki/Aquaduct_(watergang)" title="Aquaduct (watergang)">aquaducten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romeinse_tempel" title="Romeinse tempel">tempels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romeins_theater_(gebouw)" title="Romeins theater (gebouw)">theaters</a> en <a href="/wiki/Amfitheater" title="Amfitheater">amfitheaters</a> hebben een kern van beton, waaronder de <a href="/wiki/Aureliaanse_Muur" title="Aureliaanse Muur">Aureliaanse Muur</a>, het <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>, het <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(Rome)" title="Pantheon (Rome)">Pantheon</a>, de <a href="/wiki/Basilica_van_Constantijn" title="Basilica van Constantijn">Basilica van Constantijn</a> en de <a href="/wiki/Markten_van_Trajanus" title="Markten van Trajanus">Markten van Trajanus</a>. </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_quadratum" title="Opus quadratum">Opus quadratum</a></i> bestond uit grote blokken natuursteen en was al als losstaande bouwmethode in gebruik voordat het met beton werd gecombineerd.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_incertum" title="Opus incertum">Opus incertum</a></i> (ca. 210 v.Chr.) bestond uit een laag ongelijke stenen.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_quasi-reticulatum" title="Opus quasi-reticulatum">Opus quasi-reticulatum</a></i> (ca. 125 v.Chr.) bestond uit stenen in een onregelmatig netvormig patroon.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_reticulatum" title="Opus reticulatum">Opus reticulatum</a></i> (ca. 100 v.Chr.) bestond uit stenen in een regelmatig netvormig patroon.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_vittatum" title="Opus vittatum">Opus vittatum</a></i> (1e eeuw v.Chr.) bestond uit natuurstenen in horizontale rijen.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_latericium" title="Opus latericium">Opus latericium</a></i> (1e eeuw) bestond uit bakstenen in horizontale rijen.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_mixtum" title="Opus mixtum">Opus mixtum</a></i> was een mengvorm van twee technieken: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_testaceum" title="Opus testaceum">Opus testaceum</a></i>: <i>opus latericium</i> met lagen <i><a href="/wiki/Romeinse_baksteen#Gewone_bakstenen" title="Romeinse baksteen">bipedales</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_reticulatum_mixtum" title="Opus reticulatum mixtum">Opus reticulatum mixtum</a></i>, <i>opus reticulatum</i> met lagen <i>opus latericium</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_vittatum_mixtum" title="Opus vittatum mixtum">Opus vittatum mixtum</a></i>: <i>opus vittatum</i> met lagen <i>opus latericium</i>.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Romeinse plaveisels en mozaïekvloeren werden in een betonnen ondervloer gelegd. Sommige plaveisels bestonden zelfs geheel uit beton. </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cocciopesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocciopesto">Cocciopesto</a></i>: betonvloer met vergruisd aardewerk, vergruisd marmer (<i><a href="/wiki/Opus_marmoratum" title="Opus marmoratum">opus marmoratum</a></i>) of kleine steentjes, vaak als <a href="/wiki/Waterdichtheid" title="Waterdichtheid">waterdichte</a> laag gebruikt.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_signinum" title="Opus signinum">Opus signinum</a></i>: <i>cocciopesto</i> ingelegd met vierhoekige <i><a href="/wiki/Tessera_(moza%C3%AFek)" title="Tessera (mozaïek)">tesserae</a></i> of kleine steenfragmenten.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_spicatum" title="Opus spicatum">Opus spicatum</a></i>: plaveisel van kleine baksteentjes (<i>laterculi</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Verband_(bouwkunde)#Visgraatverband" title="Verband (bouwkunde)">visgraatverband</a>, soms ook in wanden gebruikt.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_figlinum" title="Opus figlinum">Opus figlinum</a></i>: plaveisel van keramische fragmenten in een <a href="/wiki/Mandenvlechter" title="Mandenvlechter">vlechtpatroon</a> gelegd.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zie_ook">Zie ook</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Bewerk dit kopje: Zie ook" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&action=edit&section=4" title="De broncode bewerken van de sectie: Zie ook"><span>brontekst bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jennite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jennite (de pagina bestaat niet)">Jennite</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referenties">Referenties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Bewerk dit kopje: Referenties" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romeins_beton&action=edit&section=5" title="De broncode bewerken van de sectie: Referenties"><span>brontekst bewerken</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"><div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r67679320">.mw-parser-output .taalaanduiding{font-family:sans-serif;font-size:85%;cursor:help;color:var(--color-subtle,#555)}.mw-parser-output .taalaanduiding span{border-bottom:1px dotted var(--color-subtle,#555)}</style><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span><span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Fikret Yegül, Diane Favro</span>, <i>Roman architecture and urbanism : from the origins to late antiquity.</i> (2019), p. 23, 134-137, <span class="ISBN"><a href="/wiki/Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9780521470711" title="Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9780521470711">ISBN 9780521470711</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-variant:small-caps;"><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius_(architect)" title="Vitruvius (architect)">Vitruvius</a></span>, <i>Handboek bouwkunde</i> (1997, <a href="/wiki/Nederlands" title="Nederlands">Nederlandse</a> vertaling door Ton Peters van <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i>), II 5.1, p. 64, <span class="ISBN"><a href="/wiki/Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9789025309299" title="Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9789025309299">ISBN 9789025309299</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r67679320"><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span><span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Fikret Yegül, Diane Favro</span>, <i>Roman architecture and urbanism : from the origins to late antiquity.</i> (2019), p. 135, <span class="ISBN"><a href="/wiki/Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9780521470711" title="Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9780521470711">ISBN 9780521470711</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-variant:small-caps;"><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius_(architect)" title="Vitruvius (architect)">Vitruvius</a></span>, <i>Handboek bouwkunde</i> (1997, <a href="/wiki/Nederlands" title="Nederlands">Nederlandse</a> vertaling door Ton Peters van <i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i>), II 6.1, p. 65, <span class="ISBN"><a href="/wiki/Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9789025309299" title="Speciaal:Boekbronnen/9789025309299">ISBN 9789025309299</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r67679320"><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/ancient-lessons-roman-concrete-durable-green">Ancient lessons: Roman concrete durable, green</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r67679320"><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2013/06/04/roman-concrete/">Roman Seawater Concrete Holds the Secret to Cutting Carbon Emissions</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r67679320"><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jace.12407/abstract">Material and elastic properties of Al-Tobermorite in ancient Roman seawater concrete</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r67679320"><span class="taalaanduiding" title="Taal: Engels">(<span>en</span>) </span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.mit.edu/2023/roman-concrete-durability-lime-casts-0106">Riddle solved: Why was Roman concrete so durable?</a>. <i>MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology</i>. Geraadpleegd op <span class="mw-formatted-date" title="2023-01-07">7 januari 2023</span>. </span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r67837862">.mw-parser-output .navigatie{position:relative;clear:both;overflow:auto;margin:1em auto -0.5em;padding:2px;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;font-size:87%}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-bewerken{margin-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-bewerken .mw-ui-icon::before{background-size:0.9em}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-afb-links,.mw-parser-output .navigatie-afb-rechts{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-afb-rechts{right:2px}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-afb-groot{float:right;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-titel{background-color:#ddeef8;padding:2px 5.5em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-inhoud{padding:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-inhoud p:first-child{margin:0}.mw-parser-output .navigatie div[style*="background-color"],.mw-parser-output .navigatie div[style*="background"]{color:inherit}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navigatie-titel{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive,#eaecf0)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navigatie-titel{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive,#eaecf0)!important}}</style> <div class="navigatie" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="Romeins_steenwerk"> <div class="navigatie-afb-links noviewer"><div class="navigatie-bewerken show-autoconfirmed nomobile"><span class="nowrap skin-invert-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sjabloon:Navigatie_Romeins_steenwerk" title="Sjabloon:Navigatie Romeins steenwerk"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/OOjs_UI_icon_article-ltr.svg/16px-OOjs_UI_icon_article-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r67785531">.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel{margin:0 auto 0 auto;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel .links{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel .rechts{padding-left:0.5em}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel tr{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr;width:100%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel tr:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel .links{text-align:unset}.mw-parser-output .navigatie-tabel .rechts{padding:unset}}</style><table class="navigatie-tabel vatop" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style=""><tbody><tr><td class="links" style=""><b>Algemeen:</b></td><td class="rechts"><a href="/wiki/Romeinse_baksteen" title="Romeinse baksteen">Romeinse baksteen</a> · <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romeins beton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Tegula_en_imbrex" title="Tegula en imbrex">Romeinse dakpan</a></td></tr><tr><td class="links"><b><a href="/wiki/Muur_(bouwsel)" title="Muur (bouwsel)">Muurwerk</a>:</b></td><td class="rechts"><a href="/wiki/Opus_africanum" title="Opus africanum">opus africanum</a> · <a class="mw-selflink selflink">opus caementicium</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_craticium" title="Opus craticium">opus craticium</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_incertum" title="Opus incertum">opus incertum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_isodomum" title="Opus isodomum">opus isodomum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_latericium" title="Opus latericium">opus latericium</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_mixtum" title="Opus mixtum">opus mixtum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_pseudoisodomum" title="Opus pseudoisodomum">opus pseudoisodomum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_quadratum" title="Opus quadratum">opus quadratum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_quasi-reticulatum" title="Opus quasi-reticulatum">opus quasi-reticulatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_reticulatum" title="Opus reticulatum">opus reticulatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_reticulatum_mixtum" title="Opus reticulatum mixtum">opus reticulatum mixtum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_siliceum" title="Opus siliceum">opus siliceum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_testaceum" title="Opus testaceum">opus testaceum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_vittatum" title="Opus vittatum">opus vittatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_vittatum_mixtum" title="Opus vittatum mixtum">opus vittatum mixtum</a></td></tr><tr><td class="links"><b><a href="/wiki/Stucwerk" title="Stucwerk">Stucwerk</a>:</b></td><td class="rechts"><a href="/wiki/Opus_albarium" title="Opus albarium">opus albarium</a> · <a href="/wiki/Sgraffito" title="Sgraffito">opus exgraphiatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_marmoratum" title="Opus marmoratum">opus marmoratum</a></td></tr><tr><td class="links"><b><a href="/wiki/Vloer" title="Vloer">Vloerwerk</a>:</b></td><td class="rechts"><a href="/wiki/Cocciopesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocciopesto">cocciopesto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_figlinum" title="Opus figlinum">opus figlinum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_sectile" title="Opus sectile">opus sectile</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_signinum" title="Opus signinum">opus signinum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_spicatum" title="Opus spicatum">opus spicatum</a></td></tr><tr><td class="links"><b><a href="/wiki/Moza%C3%AFek" title="Mozaïek">Mozaïek</a>:</b></td><td class="rechts"><a href="/wiki/Opus_barbaricum" title="Opus barbaricum">opus barbaricum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_musivum" title="Opus musivum">opus musivum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_segmentatum" title="Opus segmentatum">opus segmentatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_scutulatum" title="Opus scutulatum">opus scutulatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_tessellatum" title="Opus tessellatum">opus tessellatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Opus_vermiculatum" title="Opus vermiculatum">opus vermiculatum</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-figlinum" title="Pseudo-figlinum">pseudo-figlinum</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" 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