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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="pb-page" data-request-id="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN" > <head data-pb-dropzone="head"> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Association Between Intrauterine System Hormone Dosage and Depression Risk | American Journal of Psychiatry</title> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/wro/nqm4~article-metrics-phase2.css"> <link rel="icon" href="/products/app/releasedAssets/images/favicon/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/products/app/releasedAssets/css/build-06a61fa4969a4abb402e.css" media="all" id="build-style-sheet"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/products/app/releasedAssets/css/print-06a61fa4969a4abb402e.css"media="print"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/products/app/releasedAssets/css/build-article-06a61fa4969a4abb402e.css" media="all" id="article-style-sheet"> <script nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN"> try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } </script> <link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/DC/elements/1.0/" /><meta name="citation_journal_title" content="American Journal of Psychiatry" /><meta name="dc.Title" content="Association Between Intrauterine System Hormone Dosage and Depression Risk" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Søren Vinther Larsen" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Anders Pretzmann Mikkelsen" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Brice Ozenne" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Trine Munk-Olsen" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Øjvind Lidegaard" /><meta name="dc.Creator" content="Vibe Gedso Frokjaer" /><meta name="dc.Subject" content="Hormonal Contraceptives; Depressive Disorders; Epidemiology" /><meta name="dc.Description" content="Objective:The authors compared the associated risk of incident depression between first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine systems (LNG-IUSs).Methods:T..." /><meta name="Description" content="Objective:The authors compared the associated risk of incident depression between first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine systems (LNG-IUSs).Methods:T..." /><meta name="dc.Publisher" content="American Psychiatric AssociationWashington, DC" /><meta name="dc.Date" scheme="WTN8601" content="10 July 2024" /><meta name="dc.Type" content="research-article" /><meta name="dc.Format" content="text/HTML" /><meta name="dc.Identifier" scheme="publisher-id" content="AJP_20230909" /><meta name="dc.Identifier" scheme="doi" content="10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909" /><meta name="dc.Source" content="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909" /><meta name="dc.Language" content="EN" /><meta name="dc.Coverage" content="Washington, DC" /><meta name="dc.Rights" content="Copyright © 2024 by the American Psychiatric Association" /><meta name="keywords" content="Hormonal Contraceptives,Depressive Disorders,Epidemiology" /><meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <link rel="meta" type="application/atom+xml" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.20230909" /> <link rel="meta" type="application/rdf+json" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.20230909" /> <link rel="meta" type="application/unixref+xml" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.20230909" /> <meta name="robots" content="noarchive"/><meta name="description" content="PsychiatryOnline.org is the platform for all American Psychiatric Association Publishing journals, DSM, and bestselling textbooks, as well as APA Practice Guidelines, and continuing medical education." /> <meta property="og:title" content="Association Between Intrauterine System Hormone Dosage and Depression Risk | American Journal of Psychiatry"/> <meta property="og:type" content="Article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://psychiatryonline.org/na101/home/literatum/publisher/app/journals/content/ajp/2024/ajp.2024.181.issue-9/ajp.2024.181.issue-9/20240901/ajp.2024.181.issue-9.largecover.jpg" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="American Journal of Psychiatry"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Objective: The authors compared the associated risk of incident depression between first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine systems (LNG-IUSs). Methods: This national cohort study was based on Danish register data on first-time users of LNG-IUSs, 15–44 years of age, between 2000 and 2022. Cox regression and a G-formula estimator were used to report 1-year average absolute risks, risk differences, and risk ratios of incident depression, defined as initiation of an antidepressant or receipt of a depression diagnosis, standardized for calendar year, age, education level, parental history of mental disorders, endometriosis, menorrhagia, polycystic ovary syndrome, dysmenorrhea, leiomyoma, and postpartum initiation. Results: In total, 149,200 women started using an LNG-IUS, among whom 22,029 started a low-dose one (mean age, 22.9 years [SD=4.5]), 47,712 a medium-dose one (mean age, 25.2 years [SD=6.2]), and 79,459 a high-dose one (mean age, 30.2 years [SD=5.6]). The associated subsequent 1-year adjusted absolute risks of incident depression were 1.21% (95% CI=1.06–1.36), 1.46% (95% CI=1.33–1.59), and 1.84% (95% CI=1.72–1.96), respectively. For the users of high-dose LNG-IUSs, the risk ratios were 1.52 (95% CI=1.30–1.74) and 1.26 (95% CI=1.10–1.41) compared with users of the low- and medium-dose LNG-IUSs, respectively. For users of medium-dose LNG-IUSs, the risk ratio was 1.21 (95% CI=1.03–1.39) compared with users of low-dose LNG-IUSs. Conclusions: First-time use of an LNG-IUS was positively associated with incident depression in an LNG-dose-dependent manner across low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs. Although the observational design of the study does not permit causal inference, the dose-response relationship contributes to the body of evidence suggesting a relationship between levonorgestrel exposure and risk of depression."/> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,initial-scale=1"><meta name="publication_doi" content="10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909"/> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/apple-touch-icon-120x120-1551444064190.png" rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" /> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/apple-touch-icon-180x180-1551444063960.png" rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" /> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/apple-touch-icon-152x152-1551444063937.png" rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" /> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/apple-touch-icon-167x167-1551444063947.png" rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="167x167" /> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/android-192x192-1551444064180.png" rel="icon" sizes="192x192" /> <link href="/pb-assets/images/favicons/pol/android-128x128-1551444064167.png" rel="icon" sizes="128x128" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/pb-assets/head-metadata/app-extra-1730836755630.css"> <script type="text/javascript" src="/pb-assets/lfm/clamp-1560798099353.js" nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN" nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN"></script>     <script type='text/javascript' nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN" nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN"> var googletag = googletag || {}; googletag.cmd = googletag.cmd || []; (function() { var gads = document.createElement('script'); gads.async = true; gads.type = 'text/javascript'; var useSSL = 'https:' == document.location.protocol; gads.src = (useSSL ? 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Cox regression and a G-formula estimator were used to report 1-year average absolute risks, risk differences, and risk ratios of incident depression, defined as initiation of an antidepressant or receipt of a depression diagnosis, standardized for calendar year, age, education level, parental history of mental disorders, endometriosis, menorrhagia, polycystic ovary syndrome, dysmenorrhea, leiomyoma, and postpartum initiation.</div></section><section id="abs-sec-3"><h3>Results:</h3><div role="paragraph">In total, 149,200 women started using an LNG-IUS, among whom 22,029 started a low-dose one (mean age, 22.9 years [SD=4.5]), 47,712 a medium-dose one (mean age, 25.2 years [SD=6.2]), and 79,459 a high-dose one (mean age, 30.2 years [SD=5.6]). The associated subsequent 1-year adjusted absolute risks of incident depression were 1.21% (95% CI=1.06–1.36), 1.46% (95% CI=1.33–1.59), and 1.84% (95% CI=1.72–1.96), respectively. For the users of high-dose LNG-IUSs, the risk ratios were 1.52 (95% CI=1.30–1.74) and 1.26 (95% CI=1.10–1.41) compared with users of the low- and medium-dose LNG-IUSs, respectively. For users of medium-dose LNG-IUSs, the risk ratio was 1.21 (95% CI=1.03–1.39) compared with users of low-dose LNG-IUSs.</div></section><section id="abs-sec-4"><h3>Conclusions:</h3><div role="paragraph">First-time use of an LNG-IUS was positively associated with incident depression in an LNG-dose-dependent manner across low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs. Although the observational design of the study does not permit causal inference, the dose-response relationship contributes to the body of evidence suggesting a relationship between levonorgestrel exposure and risk of depression.</div></section></section></div></div><section id="bodymatter" data-extent="bodymatter" property="articleBody" typeof="Text"><div class="core-container"><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">Use of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine systems (LNG-IUSs) has been associated with an approximately 40% increased risk of developing depression and initiating antidepressant medication (<a href="#B1" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B1">1</a>–<a href="#B3" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B3">3</a>). An increased risk of depression has also been observed when LNG-IUS users were compared with users of non-hormonal (copper) IUSs (<a href="#B4" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B4">4</a>). However, the literature on mood symptoms related to LNG-IUS use has also shown mixed results (<a href="#B5" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B5">5</a>). Most of the current literature is limited by the observational nature of studies and by vulnerability to confounding, including a healthy user bias (<a href="#B6" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B6">6</a>), which may explain the conflicting results in the literature. Therefore, research is needed that addresses the potential relationship between exogenous hormone exposure from LNG-IUSs and risk of developing depression.</div><div role="paragraph">LNG-IUSs are available in over 120 countries worldwide, and they are used by about 14% of women of reproductive age in Denmark, equivalent to one in three hormonal contraceptive users (<a href="#B7" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B7">7</a>, <a href="#B8" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B8">8</a>). Today, LNG-IUSs are available in three formulations, differentiated by the total LNG content and daily release dose: the low-dose LNG-IUS contains 13.5 mg, with a 14 μg/day initial release dosage and an 8 μg/day average over the first year (<a href="#B9" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B9">9</a>); the medium-dose LNG-IUS contains 19.5 mg, with a 17.5 μg/day initial release dosage and a 12.6 μg/day average over the first year (<a href="#B10" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B10">10</a>); and the high-dose LNG-IUS contains 52 mg, with a 21 μg/day initial release dosage and a 20 μg/day average over the first year (<a href="#B11" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B11">11</a>). All three types are used as birth control, and the high-dose LNG-IUS is also approved for treating heavy menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia) (<a href="#B11" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B11">11</a>). The mechanism of action of LNG-IUS as a contraceptive method is exerted via local effects in the uterus by inducing endometrial thinning and increased cervical mucus, which inhibits sperm survival and prevents fertilization and implementation of the oocyte (<a href="#B12" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B12">12</a>). However, among users of LNG-IUSs, only about 50%–76.5%, 88%, and 97% of high-, medium-, and low-dose users, respectively, have ovulation during the first year after insertion; the rates increase to about 80%–100% the following year, which indicates some systemic effects of LNG-IUS, particularly early after insertion (<a href="#B13" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B13">13</a>–<a href="#B15" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B15">15</a>). Such effects are in line with a higher daily release dose of LNG during the early treatment phase, which declines with duration of use; the daily release doses decline to 6 μg/day, 10 μg/day, and 19 μg/day for low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs, respectively, 1 year after insertion (<a href="#B9" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B9">9</a>–<a href="#B11" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B11">11</a>). LNG is able to inhibit ovulation because it is a potent progesterone receptor agonist, by which it can mimic endogenous progesterone effects and provide negative feedback to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (<a href="#B16" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B16">16</a>). However, it also activates other receptors, including androgen, glucocorticoid, and mineralocorticoid receptors, with the potential to affect brain biology (<a href="#B17" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B17">17</a>).</div><div role="paragraph">A recent observational study (<a href="#B18" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B18">18</a>) that compared the risk of antidepressant use within 2 years after LNG-IUS use between the medium-dose and high-dose LNG-IUSs found an increased risk among high-dose LNG-IUS users. So far, no study has investigated the existence of a dose-response relationship across all three dosages while considering a close temporal relationship between the start of the hormone exposure and the subsequent risk of developing depression. This approach could further elucidate the relationship between progestogen exposure and subsequent development of mood symptoms. In this study, our aim was to compare the 1-year associated risk of incident depression between first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs, and we hypothesized that the associated risk would increase in a dose-dependent manner.</div><section id="sec-1" data-type="methods"><h2>Methods</h2><section id="sec-1-1"><h3>Study Design</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">This was a population-based cohort study based on Danish registry data. The registers and variables used are listed in Table S1 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>. Data were provided by the Danish e-Health Authority, hosted by Statistics Denmark, and were linked via the unique personal identification number given to Danish residents at birth or immigration. The study period was from 1995 to 2022, in which the first 5 years were used to distinguish incident from prevalent LNG-IUS and antidepressant users.</div></section><section id="sec-1-2"><h3>Study Population</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">All women living in Denmark born in 1978 or after (ensuring that there was sufficient prescription history to identify incidence use) who started use of an LNG-IUS for the first time between ages 15 and 44 between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2022, were eligible for inclusion. Women were excluded if they immigrated or emigrated after turning 15, if they had previously been diagnosed with a mental disorder in a psychiatric inpatient or outpatient clinic (ICD-8 codes 290–315 or ICD-10 codes F00–F99), or if they had previously used a psychotropic drug (Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical [ATC] codes N05* and N06*).</div></section><section id="sec-1-3"><h3>Exposure</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">The exposure of interest was incident use of an LNG-IUS (ATC code G02BA03), as identified via the Danish Prescription Register (<a href="#B19" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B19">19</a>), with different initial hormone-release dosages: low-dose (14 μg/day), medium-dose (17.5 μg/day), or high-dose (21 μg/day). The date of filling the first prescription was used as the index date.</div></section><section id="sec-1-4"><h3>Outcome</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">The outcome was incident depression within 12 months after initiating an LNG-IUS. Depression was defined as incident use of antidepressant medication (ATC codes N06A*) or incident diagnosis of depression at an inpatient or outpatient psychiatric department (ICD-10 codes F32–F34, F38, F39).</div></section><section id="sec-1-5"><h3>Covariates</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">We considered the following potential confounders, defined at the index date: age (in 5-year periods), highest education level (below high school, high school/vocational education, or bachelor’s degree or above), parental history of mental disorders, and postpartum LNG-IUS use, defined as use within 6 months after delivery. In addition, we accounted for potential confounding by indication by including the following medical diagnoses, given that high-dose LNG-IUS may be preferred for women diagnosed with these conditions: menorrhagia (<a href="#B20" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B20">20</a>), leiomyoma (<a href="#B21" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B21">21</a>), polycystic ovary syndrome (<a href="#B22" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B22">22</a>), dysmenorrhea, and endometriosis (<a href="#B23" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B23">23</a>). Finally, we controlled for time trends by including calendar year in 5-year periods.</div></section><section id="sec-1-6"><h3>Statistical Analysis</h3><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">Women were followed for 12 months from first-time use of an LNG-IUS or until incident depression, emigration, death, or end of study period, whichever came first. A single Cox regression model (given that too few study subjects died during follow-up to allow estimation of the parameters of a cause-specific Cox model relative to death) was used to estimate cause-specific hazard rates between low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS use, adjusted for the listed covariates. Time in study was used as underlying time scale. Estimated hazard rates were used as inputs in a G-formula estimator to determine the associated average absolute risks, risk differences, and risk ratios after 12 months of use (<a href="#B24" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B24">24</a>).</div><div role="paragraph">Several sensitivity analyses were conducted. First, depression diagnosis and antidepressant use were used separately as outcome, and the latter also after excluding prescriptions specifically addressed for other indications unless depression was confirmed by diagnosis. Second, the study period was restricted to 2017–2022, during which all three LNG-IUSs were concurrently prescribed in Denmark. Third, the population was restricted to nulliparous first-time users under age 30, as the frequency of prescribed high-dose LNG-IUSs is particularly high in the population over age 30 compared with low- and medium-dose LNG-IUSs (<a href="#B8" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B8">8</a>). Fourth, potential confounding by indication was further handled by adjusting for menorrhagia as LNG-IUS prescription indication and for number of previous hormonal contraceptive types used (specified in Table S1 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>). Missing prescription indications were handled by performing multiple imputations with the <i>MICE</i> package in R, where prescription indication was imputed using logistic regression and education level using polytomous logistic regression based on the listed covariates and outcome with 10 iterations and five imputations (<a href="#B25" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B25">25</a>). Fifth, E-values were estimated as a quantitative summary of the strength of the association of an unmeasured confounder with the exposure and the outcome required to solely explain the observed associations (<a href="#B26" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B26">26</a>). Sixth, an alternative modeling approach for handling confounding was assessed using a propensity score–weighted analysis in which the covariate effects are not assumed to be time constant and the additivity assumption of the covariate effects are made on the logit scale for the probability of treatment, and not on the log hazard scale. This was performed on first-time users during the 2017–2022 period (to ensure overlap of the distribution of calendar periods across all three groups) using multinomial propensity scores based on the listed covariates by use of the <i>mnps</i> function from the <i>twang</i> package in R (<a href="#B27" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B27">27</a>, <a href="#B28" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B28">28</a>). And seventh, the potential influence of prior mental comorbidity excluded in the main analysis was assessed by restricting the population to women with a prior mental disorder but no potentially ongoing depression, defined as having received a depression diagnosis or filled a prescription for antidepressant medication within 2 years prior to filling the LNG-IUS prescription.</div><div role="paragraph">The proportional hazard assumption was assessed for each dependent variable by evaluating the correlation between scaled Schoenfeld residuals against time with the <i>survival</i> package in R (<a href="#B29" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B29">29</a>). In case of a violation of the proportional hazard assumption, a stratified Cox proportional hazard model was used. Outcome estimates were calculated with 95% confidence intervals, and the null hypothesis was rejected if the confidence interval did not overlap with zero for the absolute risk difference and 1.00 for the risk ratio. Analyses were performed using R, version 4.2.2, and the <i>riskRegression</i> package was used to compute average treatment effects (<a href="#B30" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B30">30</a>).</div><div role="paragraph">Approval to access national health register data was granted through the Danish Data Protection Agency. According to Danish law, no ethical approval or informed consent is needed for Danish register studies. The study was reported according to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines (<a href="#B31" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B31">31</a>).</div></section></section><section id="sec-2" data-type="results"><h2>Results</h2><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">The study population included 149,200 first-time LNG-IUS users (see Figure S1 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>), of whom 22,029 (14.8%) used low-dose, 47,712 (32.0%) medium-dose, and 79,459 (53.3%) high-dose LNG-IUSs (<a href="#T1">Table 1</a>). First-time users of low-dose LNG-IUSs were younger on average (mean age, 22.9 years [SD=4.5]) than first-time users of medium-dose (mean age, 25.2 years [SD=6.2]) and high-dose LNG-IUSs (mean age, 30.2 years [SD=5.6]). Correspondingly, their education level was lower on average, and they were more often nulliparous (89.7%, 69.8%, and 17.9% for the low-, medium-, and high-dose groups, respectively). Compared with first-time users of low-dose LNG-IUSs, high-dose LNG-IUS users were more often diagnosed with potential medical indications for LNG-IUS use, but this was not the case for medium-dose LNG-IUS, except for the diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Notably, rates of having menorrhagia as a prescription indication were 3.4%, 6.1%, and 10.9% in the low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS groups.</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="T1" class="table"><figcaption><span class="heading">TABLE 1</span>. Demographic and clinical characteristics of 149,200 first-time LNG-IUS users in a study of the association between IUS hormone dosage and depression risk<a href="#T1n1" role="doc-noteref"><sup>a</sup></a></figcaption><div class="table-wrap"><table><thead><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th rowspan="3" scope="col">Measure</th><th colspan="6" scope="colgroup"><span>LNG-IUS Exposure</span></th></tr><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>Low Dose (N=22,029) (14.8%)</span></th><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>Medium Dose (N=47,712) (32.0%)</span></th><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>High Dose (N=79,459) (53.3%)</span></th></tr><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th scope="col">N</th><th scope="col">%</th><th scope="col">N</th><th scope="col">%</th><th scope="col">N</th><th scope="col">%</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th scope="row">Age group (years)</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 15–19</th><td>6,362</td><td>28.9</td><td>10,498</td><td>22.0</td><td>3,839</td><td>4.8</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 20–24</th><td>9,707</td><td>44.1</td><td>17,175</td><td>36.0</td><td>10,799</td><td>13.6</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 25–29</th><td>4,173</td><td>18.9</td><td>9,282</td><td>19.5</td><td>21,675</td><td>27.3</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 30–34</th><td>1,403</td><td>6.4</td><td>6,429</td><td>13.5</td><td>27,681</td><td>34.8</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 35–39</th><td>357</td><td>1.6</td><td>3,348</td><td>7.0</td><td>12,847</td><td>16.2</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 40–44</th><td>27</td><td>0.1</td><td>980</td><td>2.1</td><td>2,618</td><td>3.3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Calendar period</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 2000–2004</th><td>0</td><td>0.0</td><td>0</td><td>0.0</td><td>419</td><td>0.5</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 2005–2009</th><td>0</td><td>0.0</td><td>0</td><td>0.0</td><td>4799</td><td>6.0</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 2010–2014</th><td>2,009</td><td>9.1</td><td>0</td><td>0.0</td><td>22,858</td><td>28.8</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 2015–2019</th><td>14,296</td><td>64.9</td><td>14,603</td><td>30.6</td><td>34,727</td><td>43.7</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> 2020–2022</th><td>5,724</td><td>26.0</td><td>33,109</td><td>69.4</td><td>16,656</td><td>21.0</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Education level<a href="#T1n2" role="doc-noteref"><sup>b</sup></a></th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> Below high school</th><td>6.374</td><td>28.9</td><td>10,484</td><td>22.0</td><td>9,358</td><td>11.8</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> High school/vocational education</th><td>10,274</td><td>46.6</td><td>21,506</td><td>45.1</td><td>30,783</td><td>38.7</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> Bachelor’s degree or above</th><td>5,368</td><td>24.4</td><td>15,706</td><td>32.9</td><td>39,252</td><td>49.4</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Postpartum initiation</th><td>1,355</td><td>6.2</td><td>7,135</td><td>15.0</td><td>28,404</td><td>35.7</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Nulliparous</th><td>19,765</td><td>89.7</td><td>33,311</td><td>69.8</td><td>14,216</td><td>17.9</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Parental history of mental disorders</th><td>3,044</td><td>13.8</td><td>6,930</td><td>14.5</td><td>10,223</td><td>12.9</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Endometriosis</th><td>68</td><td>0.3</td><td>186</td><td>0.4</td><td>1,273</td><td>1.6</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Polycystic ovary syndrome</th><td>104</td><td>0.5</td><td>372</td><td>0.8</td><td>1,268</td><td>1.6</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Dysmenorrhea</th><td>162</td><td>0.7</td><td>314</td><td>0.7</td><td>747</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Leiomyoma</th><td>12</td><td>0.1</td><td>54</td><td>0.1</td><td>242</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Menorrhagia</th><td>327</td><td>1.5</td><td>694</td><td>1.5</td><td>2,442</td><td>3.1</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Menorrhagia as prescription indication<a href="#T1n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td>753</td><td>3.4</td><td>2,926</td><td>6.1</td><td>8.658</td><td>10.9</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Previous hormonal contraceptive use</th><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> None</th><td>2,582</td><td>11.7</td><td>4,742</td><td>9.9</td><td>2,166</td><td>2.7</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> One type</th><td>15,257</td><td>69.3</td><td>32,871</td><td>68.9</td><td>52,671</td><td>66.3</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> Two types</th><td>3,778</td><td>17.2</td><td>9,232</td><td>19.3</td><td>21,718</td><td>27.3</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row"> Three or more types</th><td>412</td><td>1.9</td><td>867</td><td>1.8</td><td>2,904</td><td>3.7</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="notes"><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>a</sup></div><div id="T1n1" role="paragraph">LNG-IUS=levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system.</div></div><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>b</sup></div><div id="T1n2" role="paragraph">Data on education level were missing for 0.1%, 0.0%, 0.1% of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively.</div></div><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>c</sup></div><div id="T1n3" role="paragraph">Data on prescription indication were missing for 11.5%, 4.7%, and 12.0% of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively.</div></div></div></figure></div><div role="paragraph">Within 12 months after initiating low-dose LNG-IUS use, 279 women were registered with incident depression, compared with 633 among medium-dose users and 1,346 among high-dose users. This corresponded to adjusted absolute risks of 1.21% (95% CI=1.06–1.36), 1.46% (95% CI=1.33–1.59), and 1.84% (95% CI=1.72–1.96), respectively. The risk ratios of developing depression for high-dose LNG-IUS use were 1.52 (95% CI=1.30–1.74) and 1.26 (95% CI=1.10–1.41) compared with low-dose and medium-dose LNG-IUS use, respectively. The risk ratio for medium-dose LNG-IUS use was 1.21 (95% CI=1.03–1.39) compared with low-dose LNG-IUS use (<a href="#T2">Table 2</a>, <a href="#F1">Figure 1A–B</a>). The estimated hazard ratios for the complete Cox proportional hazard model are shown in Figure S2 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>. Similar trends were found when the outcome was analyzed as incident antidepressant use and depression diagnosis, separately (see Table S2 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>). However, given the lower number of depression diagnoses, these risks were estimated with larger uncertainty. When prescriptions for antidepressant use with indications other than depression were excluded, the estimates supported the main finding (see Table S3 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>).</div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="T2" class="table"><figcaption><span class="heading">TABLE 2</span>. Average absolute risks, risk differences, and risk ratios of developing depression between different LNG-IUSs within the first year<a href="#T2n1" role="doc-noteref"><sup>a</sup></a></figcaption><div class="table-wrap"><table><thead><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th rowspan="3" scope="col">Measure</th><th colspan="6" scope="colgroup"><span>LNG-IUS Exposure</span></th></tr><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>Low Dose</span></th><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>Medium Dose</span></th><th colspan="2" scope="colgroup"><span>High Dose</span></th></tr><tr data-xml-valign="top"><th scope="col">%</th><th scope="col">95% CI</th><th scope="col">%</th><th scope="col">95% CI</th><th scope="col">%</th><th scope="col">95% CI</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Absolute risk<a href="#T2n2" role="doc-noteref"><sup>b</sup></a></th><td>1.19</td><td>1.04–1.33</td><td>1.43</td><td>1.30–1.56</td><td>1.88</td><td>1.75–2.00</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Absolute risk<a href="#T2n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td>1.21</td><td>1.06–1.36</td><td>1.46</td><td>1.33–1.59</td><td>1.84</td><td>1.72–1.96</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Absolute risk difference<a href="#T2n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td colspan="2">Reference</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.06–0.45</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.43–0.83</td></tr><tr data-xml-align="center"><th data-xml-align="left" scope="row">Risk ratio<a href="#T2n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td colspan="2">Reference</td><td>1.21</td><td>1.03–1.39</td><td>1.52</td><td>1.30–1.74</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Absolute risk difference<a href="#T2n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td></td><td></td><td data-xml-align="center" colspan="2">Reference</td><td data-xml-align="center">0.37</td><td data-xml-align="center">0.17–0.58</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Risk ratio<a href="#T2n3" role="doc-noteref"><sup>c</sup></a></th><td></td><td></td><td data-xml-align="center" colspan="2">Reference</td><td data-xml-align="center">1.26</td><td data-xml-align="center">1.10–1.41</td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="notes"><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>a</sup></div><div id="T2n1" role="paragraph">LNG-IUS=levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system.</div></div><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>b</sup></div><div id="T2n2" role="paragraph">Standardized over calendar period and age.</div></div><div role="doc-footnote" data-has="label"><div class="label"><sup>c</sup></div><div id="T2n3" role="paragraph">Standardized over calendar period, age, education level, parental history of mental disorders, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, dysmenorrhea, leiomyoma, menorrhagia, and postpartum incident LNG-IUS use. Data on education level were missing for 0.1%, 0.0%, 0.1% of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively. These were imputed to a separate group in the analyses.</div></div></div></figure></div><div class="figure-wrap"><figure id="F1" class="graphic"><img src="/cms/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909/asset/images/large/appi.ajp.20230909f1.jpeg" height="855" width="2077" aria-labelledby="F1" loading="lazy" /><figcaption><div class="caption"><span class="heading">FIGURE 1</span>. Depression among first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs<sup>a</sup></div><div class="notes"><div role="doc-footnote"><sup>a</sup>Panel A shows depression-free survival curves for the different LNG-IUS dosages during the year following initiation. Shading represents 95% confidence intervals. Panel B shows the 1-year estimated depression risks for the different LNG-IUS dosages, standardized over calendar period, age, education level, parental history of mental disorders, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, leiomyoma, and postpartum incident LNG-IUS use. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. LNG-IUS=levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system.</div><div role="doc-footnote">*<0.05. ***<0.001.</div></div></figcaption></figure></div><div role="paragraph">When the population was restricted to first-time users between 2017 and 2022 (for demographic and clinical characteristics, see Table S4 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>), the risk ratios were 1.37 (95% CI=1.10–1.64) and 1.17 (95% CI=1.01–1.34) between high-dose and low-dose and between high-dose and medium-dose LNG-IUS use, respectively (see Table S5 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>). When the population was restricted to nulliparous first-time users under age 30, the groups were more comparable in terms of education level and age, with mean ages of 21.7 years [SD=3.3], 21.7 years [SD=3.2], and 22.3 years [SD=3.3] for low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively (see Table S6 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>). The results based on this population (see Table S7 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>) were also in line with the main analysis, with risk ratios of 1.42 (95% CI=1.16–1.68) and 1.21 (95% CI=0.98–1.44) between high-dose and low-dose and between high-dose and medium-dose LNG-IUS use, respectively. When menorrhagia as prescription indication and previous hormonal contraceptive use were adjusted for, the risk ratios were 1.50 (95% CI=1.28–1.71) and 1.24 (95% CI=1.08–1.40) between high-dose and low-dose and between high-dose and medium-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively (see Table S8 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>). The risk ratios of depression due to menorrhagia as diagnosis and prescription indication were 1.52 (95% CI=1.20–1.85) and 1.19 (95% CI=1.02–1.36), respectively. Based on the estimated risk ratios from the main analysis, E-values were estimated at 2.41 (with lower border of 1.92) and 1.71 (with lower border of 1.21) for the association of depression in high- and medium-dose compared with low-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively. The propensity score–weighted analysis, which showed balanced standardized mean differences of covariates (see Table S9 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>) and overlapping propensity score distributions (see Figure S3 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>), showed risks comparable to those obtained with the G-formula: 1.16%, 1.47%, and 1.62% in absolute risk in low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users and hazard ratios of 1.40 (95% CI=1.10–1.77) and 1.27 (95% CI=1.02–1.59) for high- and medium-dose compared with low-dose LNG-IUS users. In the final sensitivity analysis on women with prior mental disorders (N=48,937), the absolute risks were 4.80%, 5.22%, and 5.91% for low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUS users, respectively, with risk ratios of 1.23 (95% CI=1.07–1.40) and 1.13 (95% CI=1.01–1.25) for high-dose compared with low- and medium-dose LNG-IUS users (see Table S10 in the <supplementary-material>online supplement</supplementary-material>).</div></section><section id="sec-3" data-type="discussion"><h2>Discussion</h2><div data-type="flushleft" role="paragraph">This population-based cohort study demonstrated a positive association between LNG dosage and risk of incident depression across initial LNG release dosages of 14 μg/day, 17.5 μg/day, and 21 μg/day. Notably, the 1-year absolute risks of depression were relatively small, at 1.21%, 1.46%, and 1.84% in first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs, respectively.</div><div role="paragraph">These results are in line with findings from an international multicenter randomized study linking LNG exposure and risk of developing depressive symptoms (<a href="#B32" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B32">32</a>). In that study, a higher frequency of self-reported depressive symptoms in the initial treatment phase and higher rates of discontinuation reported as being due to depression were observed among women allocated to LNG-IUS compared with women allocated to copper IUS. Furthermore, our results are consistent with those from a recent observational study (<a href="#B18" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B18">18</a>) that showed a 13% higher risk of antidepressant use among high-dose compared with medium-dose LNG-IUS users.</div><div role="paragraph">A recent study comparing the incidence of starting antidepressant medication associated with first-time use of the three different dosages of LNG-IUS in a population restricted to nulliparous women (<a href="#B33" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B33">33</a>) similarly showed an association with increased 1-year risk among high-dose (34.8 per 1000 person-years) compared with medium-dose (18.6 per 1000 person-years) and low-dose (14.0 per 1000 person-years) LNG-IUS users. However, the study found no statistically significant difference between low- and medium-dose LNG-IUS users, which was explained by a lack of difference in LNG plasma levels among users of these two LNG-IUSs. This explanation, however, is not supported by studies demonstrating that hormone exposure increases with increasing release dosage (<a href="#B15" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B15">15</a>, <a href="#B34" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B34">34</a>). The present study excluded women who had prior mental disorders or had ever used a psychotropic drug. Prior mental disorders appeared to attenuate the estimated relative risk, despite the presence of absolute differences, but these were not sufficiently large to follow the relative higher absolute risk in this population. This observation has also been reported in other studies (<a href="#B4" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B4">4</a>, <a href="#B35" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B35">35</a>). It does not necessarily contradict the notion that having a prior mental disorder increases the likelihood of experiencing mood symptoms after initiation of hormonal contraception (<a href="#B36" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B36">36</a>). However, the relatively lower risk associated with hormonal contraceptive use or with the higher LNG-IUD dosage in the high-risk population could be explained by a lower representation of the more hormone-susceptible population when different etiologies are likely to be highly represented. Alternatively, it could also be explained by a potential selection bias if women with prior mental disorders are more likely to prefer lower hormone exposure because of concern about the potential mood side effects.</div><div role="paragraph">Intriguingly, our study provides evidence of a dose-dependent association between LNG exposure and risk of subsequent depression across three dosages, which was consistent after considering potential confounders, such as menstrual bleeding indications for high-dose LNG-IUS use. As addressed in a recent meta-analysis (<a href="#B37" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B37">37</a>), the role of the hormonal contraceptive formulation in mood symptoms has been inconclusive; however, the present findings add new evidence on the potential role of the progestogen component of hormonal contraception in the development of mood disorders (<a href="#B38" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B38">38</a>). The knowledge on how progestogens affect the brain and mood and whether the route of administration plays a role is still limited (<a href="#B5" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B5">5</a>). Some evidence points to a potential mechanism through modulating effects on the regulation of stress reactivity via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (<a href="#B39" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B39">39</a>), and preclinical evidence points to a link between LNG-induced alterations in brain γ-aminobutyric acid receptor plasticity and anxiety-like behavior in rats (<a href="#B40" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B40">40</a>).</div><div role="paragraph">Even though the 21% and 52% higher relative risks associated with medium- and high-dose compared with low-dose LNG-IUSs amounted to absolute differences of only 0.27% and 0.66%, they highlight the clinical relevance of considering LNG hormone exposure dosage in contraceptive counseling, which may prove relevant together with information on prior reactions to hormonal contraceptives or postpartum depressive episodes (<a href="#B41" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B41">41</a>). These risk differences should be weighed against beneficial medical aspects, including better bleeding control when using high-dose LNG-IUS (<a href="#B20" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B20">20</a>), but also against possible negative outcomes, including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy with lower LNG dosage (<a href="#B42" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B42">42</a>, <a href="#B43" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B43">43</a>). It also highlights the importance of educating women to be aware of potential mental health side effects and of clinical evaluation of mood symptoms at follow-up visits after LNG-IUS insertion.</div><div role="paragraph">The strengths of the present study include the use of national register data, enabling the study of an unselected nationwide population of first-time users of the different LNG-IUS dosages who had never used any form of psychotropic medication or had any prior mental disorders. Furthermore, it is a strength that the study compares the risk between users of different LNG-IUS dosages and not to a non-user population, which makes it less prone to a surveillance bias (<a href="#B44" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B44">44</a>) or behavioral confounders related the point of starting contraception (<a href="#B45" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B45">45</a>). Another strength is that the study used both prescriptions with information about prescription indication and depression diagnoses to best capture depressive episodes. Last, and importantly, the use of a relatively short follow-up period increases the likelihood that the event of starting an LNG-IUS and the event of depression could be causally linked, and it reduces the risk of healthy survivor bias and the number of women who discontinued within the follow-up period. Discontinuation most often goes undetected in the registers, yet, even if censoring at time of discontinuation had been possible, discontinuation could be due to mood symptoms, and thus it would be a violation of discontinuation being independent of the outcome.</div><div role="paragraph">The study also has limitations. First and foremost, an observational study does not allow direct causal inference, although the choice of a close temporal window between incident use of an LNG-IUS and registration of a depressive episode and the demonstration of a dose-response relationship jointly add indirect evidence supporting a causal relationship. Second, prescription patterns of antidepressants and LNG-IUSs changed during the study period, which may introduce bias; however, the sensitivity analysis restricting the study period to 2017–2022 supported the main finding. Third, first-time users of the different LNG-IUSs differed in age and parity, and higher age and recent delivery may introduce confounding by indication, as recent delivery and some chronic diseases would make women choose a progesterone-only contraceptive. However, the sensitivity analysis restricted to nulliparous first-time users under age 30, where the groups were more comparable in age, confirmed the main results. Fourth, potential confounders include undiagnosed medical conditions and unregistered off-label medical indications for the use of the high-dose LNG-IUS. However, women who had an LNG-IUS inserted at a hospital for treatment of a medical condition or who bought LNG-IUSs directly in a specialist clinic were not included in the study. Further, we did account for various diagnosed medical indications and menorrhagia as prescription indication, and as much as 4.5%, 7.3%, and 12.4% were known to have menorrhagia (diagnosed or via prescription indication) among first-time users of low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs, respectively. In comparison, the prevalence of menorrhagia is estimated to be 9%–14%, although self-reported estimates reach 27% (<a href="#B46" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B46">46</a>, <a href="#B47" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B47">47</a>). Nonetheless, this had little impact on the results, which may be related to the fact that high-dose LNG-IUSs are effective in treating these medical disorders, resulting in improvement in quality of life (<a href="#B48" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B48">48</a>, <a href="#B49" role="doc-biblioref" data-xml-rid="B49">49</a>). Additionally, based on the E-values, an unmeasured confounder should be associated with the exposure and the outcome with a strength of 2.41 and 1.71 to explain the increased risk associated with high- and medium-dose compared with low-dose LNG-IUSs, which is larger than the estimated risk ratios of menorrhagia as diagnosis and as prescription indication. This indicates that the confounding would need to be strong for the observed association to hold under the null hypothesis (i.e., a false positive result).</div><div role="paragraph">As hypothesized, this study provides evidence of a dose-dependent association between intrauterine levonorgestrel exposure and incident depression; that is, high-dose LNG-IUS use was associated with a 26% higher relative risk than medium-dose LNG-IUS use, which was associated with a 21% higher relative risk than low-dose LNG-IUS use. These differences remained after controlling for medical diagnoses and indications for prescribing high-dose LNG-IUSs. The 1-year absolute risks were 1.21%, 1.46%, and 1.84% for low-, medium-, and high-dose LNG-IUSs, emphasizing that increasing dosages were associated with only a small proportion of women developing depression to a degree that resulted in medical attention. These findings should be interpreted in light of the limitations of an observational study design with risk of residual confounding, and the observed risk differences should be weighed against potential benefits as well as other side effects of LNG-IUS use when providing personalized contraceptive counseling.</div></section></div></section><section id="backmatter" data-extent="backmatter"><div class="core-container"><section id="supplementary-materials" class="core-supplementary-materials"><h2>Supplementary Material</h2><div role="list"><div class="core-supplementary-material" role="listitem"><div class="core-description"><span class="core-label">File</span> <span class="core-filename">(appi.ajp.20230909.ds001.pdf)</span></div><div class="core-link"><ul><li><a href="/doi/suppl/10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909/suppl_file/appi.ajp.20230909.ds001.pdf" target="_blank">View/Download</a></li><li>492.40 KB</li></ul></div></div></div></section><section id="bibliography" 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data-is-viewable="true" class="cover-image__image"><a href="/toc/ajp/181/9" title="Go to American Journal of Psychiatry " class="d-block"><img src="/cms/10.1176/ajp.2024.181.issue-9/asset/191fc2dc-8619-fc2d-b861-1fc2dcb86191/ajp.2024.181.issue-9.cover.jpg" alt="Go to American Journal of Psychiatry " loading="lazy"/></a></div><div data-cover-src="/cms/10.1176/ajp.2024.181.issue-9/asset/191fc2dc-6119-fc2d-9611-1fc2dc961191/ajp.2024.181.issue-9.largecover.jpg" class="cover-image__popup-moving-cover position-fixed d-block"></div><div class="cover-image__popup-view position-fixed"><div class="cover-image__popup-view__wrapper pt-lg-3 position-relative"><div class="cover-image__popup-view__close-popup position-absolute"><button class="btn text-white p-0"><i aria-hidden="true" role="button" aria-label="Close popup" class="icon-close text-lg"></i></button></div><div class="container-fluid"><div class="row"><div class="col-12 col-lg-8"><div class="cover-image__popup-view__cover"><img src="/cms/10.1176/ajp.2024.181.issue-9/asset/191fc2dc-6119-fc2d-9611-1fc2dc961191/ajp.2024.181.issue-9.largecover.jpg" alt="Go to American Journal of Psychiatry " loading="lazy"/></div></div><div class="col-12 col-lg-4"><div class="cover-image__popup-view__caption-wrapper text-white"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="core-journal-description"><div property="isPartOf" typeof="Periodical"><span property="name">American Journal of Psychiatry</span></div><div class="core-enumeration"><a href="/toc/ajp/181/9"><span property="isPartOf" typeof="PublicationVolume">Volume <span property="volumeNumber">181</span></span> • <span property="isPartOf" typeof="PublicationIssue">Number <span property="issueNumber">9</span></span> • <span property="datePublished">September 01, 2024</span></a></div><div class="core-pagination"><span class="heading">Pages</span>: <span class="content"><span property="pageStart">834</span> - <span property="pageEnd">841</span></span></div><div class="core-pmid"><span class="heading">PubMed</span>: <a class="content" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38982827/" property="sameAs" target="_blank" title="Link to PubMed">38982827</a></div></div></div></section><section class="core-history"><h4>History</h4><div><b class="core-label">Received</b>: 9 November 2023</div><div><b class="core-label">Revision received</b>: 13 February 2024</div><div><b class="core-label">Accepted</b>: 20 March 2024</div><div><b class="core-label">Published online</b>: 10 July 2024</div><div><b class="core-label">Published in print</b>: September 01, 2024</div></section><section property="keywords"><h4>Keywords</h4><ol><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField=Hormonal+Contraceptives&stemming=yes&publication=ajp" alt="Search on this keyword">Hormonal Contraceptives</a></li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField=Depressive+Disorders&stemming=yes&publication=ajp" alt="Search on this keyword">Depressive Disorders</a></li><li><a href="/action/doSearch?AllField=Epidemiology&stemming=yes&publication=ajp" alt="Search on this keyword">Epidemiology</a></li></ol></section></section><section id="tab-contributors" aria-labelledby="contributors" role="tabpanel"><h3>Authors</h3><section class="core-authors"><h4>Details</h4><div id="con1" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Søren Vinther</span> <span property="familyName">Larsen</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">Ph.D.</span></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Larsen/S%C3%B8ren+Vinther">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div><div id="con2" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Anders Pretzmann</span> <span property="familyName">Mikkelsen</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">Ph.D.</span></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Mikkelsen/Anders+Pretzmann">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div><div id="con3" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Brice</span> <span property="familyName">Ozenne</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">Ph.D.</span></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Ozenne/Brice">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div><div id="con4" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Trine</span> <span property="familyName">Munk-Olsen</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">Ph.D.</span></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Munk-Olsen/Trine">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div><div id="con5" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Øjvind</span> <span property="familyName">Lidegaard</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">D.M.Sc.</span></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Lidegaard/%C3%98jvind">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div><div id="con6" property="author" typeof="Person"><div class="heading"><span property="givenName">Vibe Gedso</span> <span property="familyName">Frokjaer</span>, <span property="honorificSuffix">Ph.D.</span> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#b2c4dbd0d79cd4c0ddd9d8d3d7c0f2dcc0c79cd6d9" property="email" aria-label="Email address"><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="bdcbd4dfd893dbcfd2d6d7dcd8cffdd3cfc893d9d6">[email protected]</span></a></div><div class="content"><div class="affiliations"><div property="affiliation" typeof="Organization"><span property="name">Neurobiology Research Unit (Larsen, Ozenne, Frokjaer) and Department of Gynecology, Fertility, and Obstetrics, Juliane Marie Center (Mikkelsen, Lidegaard), Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen; Department of Clinical Medicine (Larsen, Lidegaard, Frokjaer) and Department of Public Health, Section of Biostatistics (Ozenne), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev and Gentofte Hospital, Herlev, Denmark (Mikkelsen); Psychiatric Research Unit, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense (Munk-Olsen); National Center for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark (Munk-Olsen); Psychiatric Center Copenhagen, Mental Health Services in the Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen (Frokjaer).</span></div></div><div class="core-author-link"><a href="/authored-by/Frokjaer/Vibe+Gedso">View all articles by this author</a></div></div></div></section><section class="core-authors-notes"><h4>Notes</h4><div role="doc-footnote">Send correspondence to Dr. Frokjaer (<a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#25534c47400b43574a4e4f444057654b57500b414e"><span class="__cf_email__" data-cfemail="dcaab5beb9f2baaeb3b7b6bdb9ae9cb2aea9f2b8b7">[email protected]</span></a>).</div></section><section class="core-contributions"><h4>Author Contributions</h4><div role="paragraph">Drs. Lidegaard and Frokjaer contributed equally as senior authors.</div></section><section class="core-conflict"><h4>Competing Interests</h4><div role="paragraph">Dr. Munk-Olsen has served as a speaker for Lundbeck. Dr. Lidegaard has served as a speaker for, and his institution has received research funding from, Exeltis. Dr. Frokjaer has served as a consultant for Sage Therapeutics and as a speaker for Gedeon-Richter, Janssen-Cilag, and Lundbeck Pharma. The other authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.</div></section><section class="core-funding"><h4>Funding Information</h4><div role="paragraph">Supported by the Independent Research Fund Denmark (grants 0134-00278B and 7025-00111B).</div></section></section></div><div id="core-collateral-metrics" role="tabpanel"><header><h2><i class="icon-timeline" aria-hidden="true"></i>Metrics & Citations</h2></header><section id="tab-metrics-inner" aria-labelledby="metrics-inner" role="tabpanel"><h3>Metrics</h3><section> <div class="sidebar-metric-container"> <input class="sidebar-metric__data" type="hidden" name="json" value='{"data":{"dataSections":[{"firstNDays":[{"count":51,"day":"2024-10-08"},{"count":28,"day":"2024-10-07"},{"count":39,"day":"2024-10-06"},{"count":28,"day":"2024-10-05"},{"count":27,"day":"2024-10-04"},{"count":52,"day":"2024-10-03"},{"count":130,"day":"2024-10-02"},{"count":52,"day":"2024-10-01"},{"count":87,"day":"2024-09-30"},{"count":171,"day":"2024-09-29"},{"count":61,"day":"2024-09-28"},{"count":35,"day":"2024-09-27"},{"count":38,"day":"2024-09-26"},{"count":30,"day":"2024-09-25"},{"count":37,"day":"2024-09-24"},{"count":33,"day":"2024-09-23"},{"count":19,"day":"2024-09-22"},{"count":14,"day":"2024-09-21"},{"count":29,"day":"2024-09-20"},{"count":33,"day":"2024-09-19"},{"count":35,"day":"2024-09-18"},{"count":54,"day":"2024-09-17"},{"count":40,"day":"2024-09-16"},{"count":40,"day":"2024-09-15"},{"count":7,"day":"2024-09-14"},{"count":22,"day":"2024-09-13"},{"count":44,"day":"2024-09-12"},{"count":38,"day":"2024-09-11"},{"count":61,"day":"2024-09-10"},{"count":55,"day":"2024-09-09"},{"count":22,"day":"2024-09-08"},{"count":23,"day":"2024-09-07"},{"count":22,"day":"2024-09-06"},{"count":29,"day":"2024-09-05"},{"count":91,"day":"2024-09-04"},{"count":133,"day":"2024-09-03"},{"count":63,"day":"2024-09-02"},{"count":51,"day":"2024-09-01"},{"count":20,"day":"2024-08-31"},{"count":63,"day":"2024-08-30"},{"count":122,"day":"2024-08-29"},{"count":83,"day":"2024-08-28"},{"count":239,"day":"2024-08-27"},{"count":253,"day":"2024-08-26"},{"count":30,"day":"2024-08-25"},{"count":11,"day":"2024-08-24"},{"count":31,"day":"2024-08-23"},{"count":31,"day":"2024-08-22"},{"count":30,"day":"2024-08-21"},{"count":21,"day":"2024-08-20"},{"count":30,"day":"2024-08-19"},{"count":30,"day":"2024-08-18"},{"count":21,"day":"2024-08-17"},{"count":16,"day":"2024-08-16"},{"count":32,"day":"2024-08-15"},{"count":51,"day":"2024-08-14"},{"count":56,"day":"2024-08-13"},{"count":23,"day":"2024-08-12"},{"count":35,"day":"2024-08-11"},{"count":35,"day":"2024-08-10"},{"count":29,"day":"2024-08-09"},{"count":46,"day":"2024-08-08"},{"count":60,"day":"2024-08-07"},{"count":65,"day":"2024-08-06"},{"count":44,"day":"2024-08-05"},{"count":33,"day":"2024-08-04"},{"count":27,"day":"2024-08-03"},{"count":32,"day":"2024-08-02"},{"count":54,"day":"2024-08-01"},{"count":47,"day":"2024-07-31"},{"count":75,"day":"2024-07-30"},{"count":71,"day":"2024-07-29"},{"count":23,"day":"2024-07-28"},{"count":35,"day":"2024-07-27"},{"count":39,"day":"2024-07-26"},{"count":26,"day":"2024-07-25"},{"count":47,"day":"2024-07-24"},{"count":63,"day":"2024-07-23"},{"count":75,"day":"2024-07-22"},{"count":36,"day":"2024-07-21"},{"count":43,"day":"2024-07-20"},{"count":75,"day":"2024-07-19"},{"count":84,"day":"2024-07-18"},{"count":104,"day":"2024-07-17"},{"count":89,"day":"2024-07-16"},{"count":95,"day":"2024-07-15"},{"count":72,"day":"2024-07-14"},{"count":59,"day":"2024-07-13"},{"count":110,"day":"2024-07-12"},{"count":389,"day":"2024-07-11"},{"count":1992,"day":"2024-07-10"}],"total":"7670","months":[{"month":"2024-10-1","count":951},{"month":"2024-9-1","count":1417},{"month":"2024-8-1","count":1653},{"month":"2024-7-1","count":3649}],"color":"color-4","id":"download","title":"Download","startDate":"2024-7-1","displayDefault":true},{"total":"2","months":[{"month":"2024-10-1","count":0},{"month":"2024-9-1","count":0},{"month":"2024-8-1","count":2}],"color":"color-0","id":"citation","title":"Citation","startDate":"2024-8-1","displayDefault":true}],"First-N-Days":90,"doi":"10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909","widgetTitle":"Article Metrics"}}'> </div> </section><section> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script type='text/javascript' src='https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js' nonce="8e6f7e7355eace5d-SIN"></script> <div class='altmetric-embed' data-badge-type='large-donut' data-badge-details="true" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-doi="10.1176/appi.ajp.20230909"></div> </section></section><section id="tab-citations" aria-labelledby="citations" role="tabpanel"><h3>Citations</h3><section> <h4 class=""> Export Citations </h4> <div class="citationFormats"> <p> If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. 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