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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory_and_construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory and construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory_and_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cell_connection_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_connection_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Cell connection techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_connection_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrays_of_PV_modules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrays_of_PV_modules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Arrays of PV modules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrays_of_PV_modules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smart_solar_modules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smart_solar_modules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Smart solar modules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smart_solar_modules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thin_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thin_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Thin film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thin_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mounting_and_tracking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mounting_and_tracking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Mounting and tracking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mounting_and_tracking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ground" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ground"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Ground</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ground-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vertical_bifacial_solar_array" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertical_bifacial_solar_array"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.1</span> <span>Vertical bifacial solar array</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertical_bifacial_solar_array-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roof" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roof"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Roof</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roof-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_Canopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_Canopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Solar Canopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_Canopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portable" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portable"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.4</span> <span>Portable</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portable-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tracking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tracking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.5</span> <span>Tracking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tracking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concentrator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentrator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Concentrator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentrator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_capture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_capture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Light capture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_capture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_curve" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_curve"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Power curve</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_curve-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inverters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inverters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Inverters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inverters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Module_interconnection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Module_interconnection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Module interconnection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Module_interconnection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Connectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Efficiency subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiation-dependent_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation-dependent_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Radiation-dependent efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-dependent_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance_and_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance_and_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Performance and degradation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Performance_and_degradation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Performance and degradation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Performance_and_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Influence of temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Maintenance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_and_recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_and_recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Waste and recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_and_recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Price" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Price"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Price</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Price-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Standards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Limitations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Limitations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_on_electricity_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_electricity_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Impact on electricity network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_electricity_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quality_assurance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality_assurance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Quality assurance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Quality_assurance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Quality assurance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Quality_assurance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stages_of_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages_of_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Stages of testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages_of_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conceptual_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conceptual_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.1</span> <span>Conceptual phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conceptual_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing_phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing_phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.2</span> <span>Manufacturing phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing_phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar panel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonpaneel" title="Sonpaneel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sonpaneel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AD_%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="لوح ضوئي جهدي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لوح ضوئي جهدي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_solar" title="Panel solar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Panel solar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCn%C9%99%C5%9F_paneli" title="Günəş paneli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Günəş paneli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="সৌর প্যানেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সৌর প্যানেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8F" title="Сонечная батарэя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сонечная батарэя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D1%8A%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Слънчева батерия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Слънчева батерия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placa_solar" title="Placa solar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Placa solar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_panel" title="Solární panel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Solární panel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_solar" title="Panel solar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Panel solar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C3%A1%C5%84d%C3%AD%C3%ADn_bits%CA%BC%C4%85%CC%81%C4%85%CC%81d%C4%99%CC%81%C4%99%CC%81%CA%BC_atsinilt%C5%82%CA%BCish_%C3%A1l%CA%BC%C4%AF%CC%81" title="Sháńdíín bitsʼą́ą́dę́ę́ʼ atsiniltłʼish álʼį́ – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Sháńdíín bitsʼą́ą́dę́ę́ʼ atsiniltłʼish álʼį́" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4ikesepaneel" title="Päikesepaneel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Päikesepaneel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_solar" title="Panel solar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Panel solar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunpanelo" title="Sunpanelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sunpanelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_fotovoltaiko" title="Panel fotovoltaiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Panel fotovoltaiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%86%D9%84_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="پنل خورشیدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پنل خورشیدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panneau_solaire" title="Panneau solaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Panneau solaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_solar" title="Panel solar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Panel solar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%9C%EC%96%91_%EC%A0%84%EC%A7%80%ED%8C%90" title="태양 전지판 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="태양 전지판" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farantin_hasken_rana" title="Farantin hasken rana – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Farantin hasken rana" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%81" title="Արևային մարտկոց – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արևային մարտկոց" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2" title="सौर पैनल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सौर पैनल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_surya" title="Panel surya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Panel surya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%9C_%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99" title="פאנל סולארי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פאנל סולארי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%B0_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%95" title="ಸೌರ ಫಲಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೌರ ಫಲಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paneli_ya_sola" title="Paneli ya sola – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Paneli ya sola" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectrum_solare" title="Convectrum solare – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Convectrum solare" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul%C4%97s_modulis" title="Saulės modulis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Saulės modulis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A1y%C3%A1_m%C3%B3%C3%AD" title="Libáyá móí – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Libáyá móí" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%BD" title="സോളാർ പാനൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സോളാർ പാനൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_suria" title="Panel suria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Panel suria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Нарны хавтан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нарны хавтан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဆိုလာပြား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆိုလာပြား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%91%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AB" title="ソーラーパネル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソーラーパネル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quyosh_batareyasi" title="Quyosh batareyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Quyosh batareyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paneli_diellor" title="Paneli diellor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Paneli diellor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Solar panel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B1_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%84" title="سولر پینل – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سولر پینل" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تەختەشانەی خۆری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەختەشانەی خۆری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Соларни панел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Соларни панел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarna_plo%C4%8Da" title="Solarna ploča – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Solarna ploča" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%8F%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B1%D3%A3" title="Батареяҳои офтобӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Батареяҳои офтобӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCne%C5%9F_paneli" title="Güneş paneli – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Güneş paneli" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Сонячна панель – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сонячна панель" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%84" title="شمسی پینل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شمسی پینل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BA%A5m_quang_n%C4%83ng" title="Tấm quang năng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tấm quang năng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panes_%C3%A5_solea" title="Panes å solea – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Panes å solea" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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</div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For solar thermal panels, see <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_collector" title="Solar thermal collector">solar thermal collector</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">solar thermal energy</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg/220px-Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg/330px-Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg/440px-Photovoltaik_Dachanlage_Hannover_-_Schwarze_Heide_-_1_MW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5067" data-file-height="3370" /></a><figcaption>Solar array mounted on a rooftop</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>solar panel</b> is a device that converts <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> into <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and produce <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>. Solar panels are also known as <b>solar cell panels</b>, <b>solar electric panels</b>, or <b>PV modules</b>. </p><p>Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called <b>arrays</b> or <b>systems</b>. A <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic system</a> consists of one or more solar panels, an <a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">inverter</a> that converts DC electricity to <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as <a href="/wiki/Charge_controller" title="Charge controller">controllers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measuring_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Measuring instrument">meters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">trackers</a>. Most panels are in <a href="/wiki/Solar_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar farms">solar farms</a> or rooftop solar panels which <a href="/wiki/Grid-connected_photovoltaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid-connected photovoltaic system">supply the electricity grid</a> </p><p>Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy, reduce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs. Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power satellite">space</a>, often together with <a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">batteries</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell#History" title="Solar cell">Solar cell § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></div> <p>In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by the French physicist <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Becquerel" title="Edmond Becquerel">Edmond Becquerel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though these initial solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical engineer <a href="/wiki/Willoughby_Smith" title="Willoughby Smith">Willoughby Smith</a> discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>. After this discovery, <a href="/wiki/William_Grylls_Adams" title="William Grylls Adams">William Grylls Adams</a> and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1881, the American inventor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fritts" title="Charles Fritts">Charles Fritts</a> created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal-fired power plant">coal-fired power plants</a>. </p><p>In 1939, <a href="/wiki/Russell_Ohl" title="Russell Ohl">Russell Ohl</a> created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, this design was first used by <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> to create the first commercially viable <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> solar cell.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solar panel installers saw significant growth between 2008 and 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to that growth many installers had projects that were not "ideal" solar roof tops to work with and had to find solutions to shaded roofs and orientation difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This challenge was initially addressed by the re-popularization of <a href="/wiki/Micro-inverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-inverter">micro-inverters</a> and later the invention of power optimizers. </p><p>Solar panel manufacturers partnered with micro-inverter companies to create AC modules and power optimizer companies partnered with module manufacturers to create smart modules.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013 many solar panel manufacturers announced and began shipping their smart module solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_and_construction">Theory and construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theory and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg/280px-From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg/420px-From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg/560px-From_a_solar_cell_to_a_PV_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2927" data-file-height="2406" /></a><figcaption>From a <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> to a <a href="/wiki/PV_system" class="mw-redirect" title="PV system">PV system</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">Photovoltaic</a> modules consist of a large number of solar cells and use light energy (<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>) from the Sun to generate electricity through the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>. Most modules use <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> cells or <a href="/wiki/Thin_film_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin film solar cell">thin-film cells</a>. The structural (<a href="/wiki/Dead_and_live_loads" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead and live loads">load carrying</a>) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in <a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">series</a>, one to another to the desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">power</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a>) of the module is the <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a>) multiplied by the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>), and depends both on the amount of light and on the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_load" title="Electrical load">electrical load</a> connected to the module. The manufacturing specifications on solar panels are obtained under standard conditions, which are usually not the true operating conditions the solar panels are exposed to on the installation site.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A PV <a href="/wiki/Junction_box" title="Junction box">junction box</a> is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface. External connections for most photovoltaic modules use <a href="/wiki/MC4_connector" title="MC4 connector">MC4 connectors</a> to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A <a href="/wiki/USB_power" class="mw-redirect" title="USB power">USB power interface</a> can also be used.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_connection_techniques">Cell connection techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cell connection techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Solar modular cells need to be connected together to form the module, with front electrodes blocking the solar cell front optical surface area slightly. To maximize frontal surface area available for sunlight and improve solar cell efficiency, manufacturers use varying rear electrode solar cell connection techniques: </p> <ul><li>Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) adds a polymer film to capture light</li> <li>Tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) adds an oxidation layer to the PERC film to capture more light<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Interdigitated back contact (IBC)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrays_of_PV_modules">Arrays of PV modules</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arrays of PV modules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules adding their voltages or currents. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an <a href="/wiki/Power_inverter" title="Power inverter">inverter</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Battery_pack" title="Battery pack">battery pack</a> for energy storage, a charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and optionally a <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar tracking">solar tracking</a> mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize energy output and storage, reduce power transmission losses, and convert from direct current to alternating current. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smart_solar_modules">Smart solar modules</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Smart solar modules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smart_Module.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Smart_Module.png/220px-Smart_Module.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Smart_Module.png/330px-Smart_Module.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2e/Smart_Module.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="203" /></a><figcaption>Smart module</figcaption></figure> <p>Smart modules are different from traditional solar panels because the power electronics embedded in the module offers enhanced functionality such as panel-level <a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">maximum power point tracking</a>, monitoring, and enhanced safety.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Power electronics attached to the frame of a solar module, or connected to the photovoltaic circuit through a connector, are not properly considered smart modules.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several companies have begun incorporating into each PV module various embedded power electronics such as: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a> (MPPT) <a href="/wiki/Power_optimizer" title="Power optimizer">power optimizers</a>, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems by compensating for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling on a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to near zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_performance_monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar performance monitor">Solar performance monitors</a> for data and fault detection</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/280px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/420px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg/560px-Global_photovoltaics_market_share_by_technology_1980-2021.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Market-share of PV technologies since 1980</figcaption></figure> <p>Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) <a href="/wiki/Solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cells">solar cells</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">polycrystalline</a> or <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline silicon</a>. In 2021, crystalline silicon accounted for 95% of worldwide PV production,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the rest of the overall market is made up of thin-film technologies using <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">cadmium telluride</a> (CdTe), <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cell" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell">copper indium gallium selenide</a> (CIGS) and <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> <span class="nowrap">(a-Si)</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emerging, <a href="/wiki/Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell" title="Third-generation photovoltaic cell">third-generation solar technologies</a> use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for a lower cost compared with other solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">multi-junction (MJ) cells</a> are usually used in <a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">solar panels on spacecraft</a>, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound semiconductor">compound semiconductors</a> and made of <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator photovoltaics</a> (CPV). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thin_film">Thin film</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Thin film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thin-film_solar_cell&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:192px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG/288px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="288" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG/432px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG/576px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Installation_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="1296" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:148px;max-width:148px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cigsep.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cigsep.jpg/146px-Cigsep.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cigsep.jpg/219px-Cigsep.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Cigsep.jpg/292px-Cigsep.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="368" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NREL_Array.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/NREL_Array.jpg/138px-NREL_Array.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/NREL_Array.jpg/207px-NREL_Array.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/NREL_Array.jpg/276px-NREL_Array.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG/189px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="189" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG/284px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG/378px-Thin_Film_Flexible_Solar_PV_Ken_Fields_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="1296" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/95px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/143px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg/190px-Lakota_MS_PV_array_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1632" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Thin-film solar cells, a second generation of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> (PV) <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>: <ul><li>Top: <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film silicon">thin-film silicon</a> laminates being installed onto a roof.</li> <li>Middle: <a href="/wiki/CIGS_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="CIGS solar cell">CIGS solar cell</a> on a flexible plastic backing and rigid <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">CdTe panels</a> mounted on a supporting structure</li> <li>Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Thin-film" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film">thin-film</a> laminates on <a href="/wiki/Rooftop_solar_PV" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop solar PV">rooftops</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cells</a> are a type of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> made by depositing one or more thin layers (<a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin films</a> or TFs) of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers (<a href="/wiki/Nanometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometers">nm</a>) to a few microns (<a href="/wiki/Micrometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrometers">μm</a>) thick–much thinner than the <a href="/wiki/Silicon_wafer" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon wafer">wafers</a> used in conventional <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be up to 200 μm thick. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">cadmium telluride</a> (CdTe), <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">copper indium gallium diselenide</a> (CIGS), and <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous thin-film silicon</a> (a-Si, TF-Si). </p><p>Solar cells are often classified into so-called generations based on the active (sunlight-absorbing) layers used to produce them, with the most well-established or <i>first-generation</i> solar cells being made of <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">single</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Multi-crystalline_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-crystalline silicon">multi</a>-<a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a>. This is the dominant technology currently used in most <a href="/wiki/Solar_PV_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar PV systems">solar PV systems</a>. Most thin-film solar cells are classified as <i>second generation</i>, made using thin layers of well-studied materials like <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">amorphous silicon</a> (a-Si), <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">cadmium telluride</a> (CdTe), <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cell" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell">copper indium gallium selenide</a> (CIGS), or <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs). Solar cells made with newer, less established materials are classified as <i>third-generation</i> or emerging solar cells. This includes some innovative thin-film technologies, such as <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">dye-sensitized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">quantum dot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">organic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CZTS" title="CZTS">CZTS</a> thin-film solar cells. </p><p>Thin-film cells have several advantages over first-generation silicon solar cells, including being lighter and more flexible due to their thin construction. This makes them suitable for use in <a href="/wiki/Building_integrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Building integrated photovoltaics">building-integrated photovoltaics</a> and as semi-<a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">transparent</a>, photovoltaic glazing material that can be <a href="/wiki/Window_tinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Window tinting">laminated</a> onto windows. Other commercial applications use rigid thin film solar panels (interleaved between two panes of glass) in some of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">world's largest</a> <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_stations" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic power stations">photovoltaic power stations</a>. Additionally, the materials used in thin-film solar cells are typically produced using simple and scalable methods more cost-effective than first-generation cells, leading to lower <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental impacts</a> like <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions</a> in many cases. Thin-film cells also typically outperform <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-renewable energy">non-renewable</a> sources for <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electricity generation</a> in terms of human toxicity and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">heavy-metal emissions</a>. </p><p>Despite initial challenges with <a href="/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency" title="Solar-cell efficiency">efficient</a> <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">light conversion</a>, especially among third-generation PV materials, as of 2023 some thin-film solar cells have reached efficiencies of up to 29.1% for single-junction thin-film GaAs cells, exceeding the maximum of 26.1% efficiency for standard single-junction first-generation solar cells. <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator</a> cells incorporating thin-film technologies have reached efficiencies of up to 47.6% as of 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-Thin-film_solar_cell_:24_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thin-film_solar_cell_:24-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Still, many thin-film technologies have been found to have shorter operational lifetimes and larger degradation rates than first-generation cells in <a href="/wiki/Accelerated_life_testing" title="Accelerated life testing">accelerated life testing</a>, which has contributed to their somewhat limited deployment. Globally, the <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">PV marketshare</a> of thin-film technologies remains around 5% as of 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-Thin-film_solar_cell_:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thin-film_solar_cell_:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, thin-film technology has become considerably more popular in the United States, where CdTe cells alone accounted for nearly 30% of new <a href="/wiki/Utility-scale_solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Utility-scale solar">utility-scale</a> deployment in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-Thin-film_solar_cell_:18_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thin-film_solar_cell_:18-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mounting_and_tracking">Mounting and tracking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mounting and tracking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg/220px-EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg/330px-EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg/440px-EarthRangersCentre-ImageEnhancement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Solar modules mounted on <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">solar trackers</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_(48132850231).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg/220px-Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg/330px-Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg/440px-Children_of_the_Sun_Solar_Initiative_%2848132850231%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1094" /></a><figcaption>Workers install residential rooftop solar panels</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ground">Ground</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ground"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Large utility-scale <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power plant">solar power plants</a> frequently use ground-mounted photovoltaic systems. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting supports.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ground based mounting supports include: </p> <ul><li>Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.</li> <li>Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings</li> <li>Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:339px;max-width:339px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_array-3.jpg#/media/File:Solar_array-3.jpg"><img alt="Solar array ground mounting" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Solar_array-3.jpg/150px-Solar_array-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Solar_array-3.jpg/225px-Solar_array-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Solar_array-3.jpg/300px-Solar_array-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:183px;max-width:183px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_array-2.jpg#/media/File:Solar_array-2.jpg"><img alt="Solar panels ground mounting" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Solar_array-2.jpg/181px-Solar_array-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="181" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Solar_array-2.jpg/272px-Solar_array-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Solar_array-2.jpg/362px-Solar_array-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5140" data-file-height="3208" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Solar array ground mounting</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Vertical_bifacial_solar_array">Vertical bifacial solar array</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vertical bifacial solar array"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg/220px-Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg/330px-Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg/440px-Agrivoltaic_installation_Foulum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaic</a> vertical <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">bifacial</a> solar panels</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp/220px-Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp/330px-Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp/440px-Vertical_Bifacial_vs_South_facing_solar_array.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="3286" data-file-height="1579" /></a><figcaption>Vertical <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">Bifacial</a> vs south facing solar array power output <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#00A2FF solid 3px;"> </span> Vertical <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">Bifacial</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:#EE220C solid 3px;"> </span> South facing solar array</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Vertical <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">bifacial solar cells</a> are oriented towards east and west to catch the sun's <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> more efficiently in the morning and evening. Applications include <a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">agrivoltaics</a>, solar fencing, highway and railroad noise dampeners and <a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">barricades</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roof">Roof</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Roof"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rooftop_solar_power" title="Rooftop solar power">Rooftop solar power</a></div> <p>Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.<sup id="cite_ref-eco_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roof-based mounting supports include: </p> <ul><li>Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.</li> <li>Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.</li> <li>All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solar_Canopy">Solar Canopy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Solar Canopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_(52937580768).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg/220px-Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg/330px-Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg/440px-Parking_under_Solar_Canopy_%2852937580768%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3780" data-file-height="2324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solar_canopy" title="Solar canopy">Solar canopy</a> parking lot in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven</a> at Hotel Marcel. There are EV <a href="/wiki/Charging_station#SAE" title="Charging station">level 2</a> chargers underneath the canopy and a 12-stall <a href="/wiki/Tesla_Supercharger" title="Tesla Supercharger">Tesla Supercharger</a> behind.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Solar_canopy" title="Solar canopy">Solar canopies</a> are <a href="/wiki/Solar_Arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Arrays">solar arrays</a> which are installed on top of a traditional <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(architecture)" title="Canopy (architecture)">canopy</a>. These canopies could be a parking lot canopy, <a href="/wiki/Carport" title="Carport">carport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gazebo" title="Gazebo">gazebo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pergola" title="Pergola">Pergola</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Patio_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Patio cover">patio cover</a>. </p><p>There are many benefits, which include maximizing the space available in urban areas while also providing shade for cars. The energy produced can be used to create electric vehicle (EV) charging stations.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portable">Portable</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Portable"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Portable solar panels can ensure electric current, enough to charge devices (mobile, radio, ...) via USB-port or to charge a powerbank f.e. </p><p>Special features of the panels include high flexibility, high durability & waterproof characteristics. They are good for travel or camping. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portable_solar_panel2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portable_solar_panel2.jpg/220px-Portable_solar_panel2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portable_solar_panel2.jpg/330px-Portable_solar_panel2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Portable_solar_panel2.jpg/440px-Portable_solar_panel2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A 5V, 2A, 10W solar panel with USB port</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tracking">Tracking</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tracking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar trackers</a> increase the energy produced per module at the cost of mechanical complexity and increased need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.<sup id="cite_ref-NREL_tracker_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NREL_tracker-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatively, fixed racks can hold modules stationary throughout the day at a given tilt (<a href="/wiki/Zenith_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Zenith angle">zenith angle</a>) and facing a given direction (<a href="/wiki/Azimuth_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Azimuth angle">azimuth angle</a>). Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are common. Some systems may also adjust the tilt angle based on the time of year.<sup id="cite_ref-mounting_tilt_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mounting_tilt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–west facing roof, for example) are commonly deployed. Even though such installations will not produce the maximum possible average power from the individual solar panels, the cost of the panels is now usually cheaper than the tracking mechanism and they can provide more economically valuable power during morning and evening peak demands than north or south facing systems.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentrator">Concentrator</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Concentrator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some special solar PV modules include <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrators</a> in which light is focused by <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the cost-effective use of highly efficient, but expensive cells (such as <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>) with the trade-off of using a higher solar exposure area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Concentrating the sunlight can also raise the efficiency to around 45%.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_capture">Light capture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Light capture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of light absorbed by a solar cell depends on the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)" title="Angle of incidence (optics)">angle of incidence</a> of whatever direct sunlight hits it. This is partly because the amount falling on the panel is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Cosine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosine">cosine</a> of the angle of incidence, and partly because at high angle of incidence more light is reflected. To maximize total energy output, modules are often oriented to face south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern Hemisphere) and tilted to allow for the latitude. <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar tracking">Solar tracking</a> can be used to keep the angle of incidence small. </p><p>Solar panels are often coated with an <a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">anti-reflective coating</a>, which is one or more thin layers of substances with refractive indices intermediate between that of silicon and that of air. This causes <a href="/wiki/Destructive_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Destructive interference">destructive interference</a> in the reflected light, diminishing the amount. Photovoltaic manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings or with textured glass.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_curve">Power curve</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Power curve"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png/220px-Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png/330px-Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png/440px-Solar-Cell-IV-curve-with-MPP.png 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A typical voltage/current curve for individual unshadowed solar panels. Maximum power point tracking ensures that as much power as possible is collected.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></div> <p>In general with individual solar panels, if not enough current is taken, then power isn't maximised. If too much current is taken then the voltage collapses. The optimum current draw is roughly proportional to the amount of sunlight striking the panel. Solar panel capacity is specified by the MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels in full sunlight. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inverters">Inverters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Inverters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverters</a> convert the DC power provided by panels to <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a> power. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png/220px-UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png/330px-UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png/440px-UP-curve_of_partially_shaded_solar_generator.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Power/Voltage-curve of a partially shaded PV module, with marked local and global MPP</figcaption></figure> <p>MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V<sub>mpp</sub>) and MPP current (I<sub>mpp</sub>). Performing <a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">maximum power point tracking</a> (MPPT), a solar inverter samples the output (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper electrical load to obtain maximum power. </p><p>An AC (<a href="/wiki/Alternating_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternating Current">alternating current</a>) solar panel has a small DC to AC <a href="/wiki/Microinverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Microinverter">microinverter</a> on the back and produces <a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a> with no external <a href="/wiki/DC_connector" title="DC connector">DC connector</a>. AC modules are defined by <a href="/wiki/Underwriters_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwriters Laboratories">Underwriters Laboratories</a> as the smallest and most complete system for harvesting solar energy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (January 2024)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Micro-inverters work independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a given amount of sunlight, but can be more expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Module_interconnection">Module interconnection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Module interconnection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png/220px-Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png/330px-Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png/440px-Photovoltaic_Diode_Connections.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A connection example, a blocking diode is placed in series with each module string, whereas bypass diodes are placed in parallel with modules.</figcaption></figure> <p>Module electrical connections are made with conducting wires that take the current off the modules and are sized according to the current rating and fault conditions, and sometimes include in-line fuses. </p><p>Panels are typically connected <a href="/wiki/Series_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Series circuits">in series</a> of one or more panels to form strings to achieve a desired output voltage, and strings can be connected <a href="/wiki/Parallel_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel circuits">in parallel</a> to provide the desired current capability (amperes) of the PV system. </p><p>In string connections the voltages of the modules add, but the current is determined by the lowest performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". In parallel connections the voltages will be the same, but the currents add. Arrays are connected up to meet the voltage requirements of the inverters and to not greatly exceed the current limits. </p><p>Blocking and bypass <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a> may be incorporated within the module or used externally to deal with partial array shading, in order to maximize output. For series connections, bypass diodes are placed in parallel with modules to allow current to bypass shaded modules which would otherwise severely limit the current. For paralleled connections, a blocking diode may be placed in series with each module's string to prevent current flowing backwards through shaded strings thus short-circuiting other strings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connectors">Connectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Connectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Outdoor solar panels usually include <a href="/wiki/MC4_connector" title="MC4 connector">MC4 connectors</a>, automotive solar panels may include an <a href="/wiki/Automobile_auxiliary_power_outlet" title="Automobile auxiliary power outlet">auxiliary power outlet</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a> adapter and indoor panels may have a <a href="/wiki/Microinverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Microinverter">microinverter</a>. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Efficiencies"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/280px-NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/420px-NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/560px-NREL_PV_Module_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 2x" data-file-width="5027" data-file-height="2458" /></a><figcaption>Reported timeline of champion solar module energy conversion efficiencies since 1988 (<a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p>Each module is rated by its <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> output power under standard test conditions (STC) and hence the on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to 365 <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Watts</a> (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output –  an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (September 2022)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial products<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to 175 W/m<sup>2</sup> (16.22 W/ft<sup>2</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current versus voltage curve of a module provides useful information about its electrical performance.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manufacturing processes often cause differences in the electrical parameters of different modules photovoltaic, even in cells of the same type. Therefore, only the experimental measurement of the I–V curve allows us to accurately establish the electrical parameters of a photovoltaic device. This measurement provides highly relevant information for the design, installation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems. Generally, the electrical parameters of photovoltaic modules are measured by indoor tests. However, outdoor testing has important advantages such as no expensive artificial light source required, no sample size limitation, and more homogeneous sample illumination. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor#Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a> of solar panels is limited primarily by geographic <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and varies significantly depending on cloud cover, dust, day length and other factors. In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, seasonal capacity factor ranges from 2% (December) to 20% (July), with average annual capacity factor of 10–11%, while in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> the value reaches 18%.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Globally, capacity factor for utility-scale PV farms was 16.1% in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (January 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Overheating is the most important factor for the efficiency of the solar panel.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation-dependent_efficiency">Radiation-dependent efficiency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Radiation-dependent efficiency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">frequencies of light</a>, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with <a href="/wiki/Monochromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic">monochromatic</a> light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance_and_degradation">Performance and degradation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Performance and degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Actual_output_in_volts,_amps,_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg/280px-Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg/420px-Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg/560px-Actual_output_in_volts%2C_amps%2C_and_wattage_from_a_100_Watt_Solar_module_in_August.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/280px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/420px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/560px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on solar energy production.</figcaption></figure> <p>Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> of 1,000 <a href="/wiki/W/m2" class="mw-redirect" title="W/m2">W/m<sup>2</sup></a>, solar <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Airmass" class="mw-redirect" title="Airmass">AM</a> 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a>, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, <a href="/wiki/Soiling_(solar_energy)" title="Soiling (solar energy)">soiling</a>, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger. </p><p>For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electrical characteristics include nominal power (P<sub>MAX</sub>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">W</a>), <a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">open-circuit voltage</a> (V<sub>OC</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Short-circuit_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-circuit current">short-circuit current</a> (I<sub>SC</sub>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>), maximum power voltage (V<sub>MPP</sub>), maximum power current (I<sub>MPP</sub>), peak power, (<a href="/wiki/Watt-peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-peak">watt-peak</a>, W<sub>p</sub>), and module efficiency (%). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">Open-circuit voltage</a> or V<sub>OC</sub> is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> V<sub>OC</sub> can be measured with a <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeter</a> directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable. </p><p>The peak power rating, W<sub>p</sub>, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_temperature">Influence of temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Influence of temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current I<sub>SC</sub>, the open circuit voltage V<sub>OC</sub> and the maximum power P<sub>max</sub>. In general, it is known that V<sub>OC</sub> shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for I<sub>SC</sub> this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in V<sub>OC</sub>. As a consequence, P<sub>max</sub> decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell. </p><p>Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction temperature. The values of these parameters can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module; are the following: </p><p>- β: V<sub>OC</sub> variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂V<sub>OC</sub>/∂T. </p><p>- α: Coefficient of variation of I<sub>SC</sub> with respect to T, given by ∂I<sub>SC</sub>/∂T. </p><p>- δ: Coefficient of variation of P<sub>max</sub> with respect to T, given by ∂P<sub>max</sub>/∂T. </p><p>Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degradation">Degradation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Potential-induced_degradation" title="Potential-induced degradation">Potential-induced degradation</a> (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (E<sub>B</sub>) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons. </p><p>The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year. </p><p>On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and even up to 2 years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline silicon.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maintenance">Maintenance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg/220px-Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg/330px-Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg/440px-Cleaning_solar_panel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>General cleaning of ground-based solar panels at the Shanta Gold mine in Tanzania</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg/220px-Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg/330px-Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg/440px-Googleplex_Solar_panels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Deeper level of cleaning with pressure washing of the car port solar panels at Googleplex, Mountain View, California</figcaption></figure> <p>Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Soiling_(solar_energy)" title="Soiling (solar energy)">soiling</a>. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to be at least 3% – 4%.<sup id="cite_ref-Ilse_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ilse-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-Ilse_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ilse-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of 2013 soiling-induced financial losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels in California lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazards_of_solar_panel_installation" title="Occupational hazards of solar panel installation">occupational hazards with solar panel installation</a> and maintenance. A 2015–2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious fires" directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> of the incidents a root cause was not established and in a majority of others was caused by poor installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was the DC isolators.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 study by kWh Analytics determined median annual degradation of PV systems at 1.09% for residential and 0.8% for non-residential ones, almost twice that previously assumed.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2021 module reliability study found an increasing trend in solar module failure rates with 30% of manufacturers experiencing safety failures related to junction boxes (growth from 20%) and 26% bill-of-materials failures (growth from 20%).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cleaning methods for solar panels can be divided into 5 groups: manual tools, mechanized tools (such as tractor mounted brushes), installed hydraulic systems (such as sprinklers), installed robotic systems, and deployable robots. Manual cleaning tools are by far the most prevalent method of cleaning, most likely because of the low purchase cost. However, in a Saudi Arabian study done in 2014, it was found that "installed robotic systems, mechanized systems, and installed hydraulic systems are likely the three most promising technologies for use in cleaning solar panels".<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Waste_and_recycling">Waste and recycling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Waste and recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were 30 thousand tonnes of PV waste in 2021, and the annual amount was estimated by Bloomberg NEF to rise to more than 1 million tons by 2035 and more than 10 million by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, 750 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a> waste was produced by coal power in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, around 90% of decommissioned solar panels end up in landfills as of 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some private companies and non-profit organizations take-back and recycle end-of-life modules.<sup id="cite_ref-Wambach_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wambach-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2023 Australian report said that there is a market for quality used panels and made recommendations for increasing reuse.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 33">: 33 </span></sup> </p><p>Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules: </p> <ul><li>Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated – glass, plastics and metals.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers, since the shape and composition of a PV module is similar to flat glass used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.</li> <li>Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">cadmium telluride</a> modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">List of photovoltaics companies</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="text-align:right; margin-left:1.4em;"> <caption>Top producers of PV systems, by shipped capacity in gigawatts </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Module producer </th> <th scope="col">Shipments<br /> in 2019<br /> (<a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">GW</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Jinko_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinko Solar">Jinko Solar</a> </th> <td>14.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a> </th> <td>10.3 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a> </th> <td>9.7 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/LONGi_Green_Energy_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="LONGi Green Energy Technology">LONGi Solar</a> </th> <td>9.0 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Solar" title="Canadian Solar">Canadian Solar</a> </th> <td>8.5 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_Cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q Cells">Hanwha Q Cells</a> </th> <td>7.3 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Risen Energy </th> <td>7.0 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a> </th> <td>5.5 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/GCL_System_Integration_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="GCL System Integration Technology">GCL System</a> </th> <td>4.8 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Shunfeng_Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunfeng Photovoltaic">Shunfeng Photovoltaic</a> </th> <td>4.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The production of PV systems has followed a classic <a href="/wiki/Learning_curve" title="Learning curve">learning curve</a> effect, with significant cost reduction occurring alongside large rises in efficiency and production output.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar modules in 2019. They actively expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt <a href="/wiki/GigaWatt" class="mw-redirect" title="GigaWatt">GW</a> players.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Pulse Solar, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2019 have experienced a rise in solar panel production by at least 25% compared to 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-pvmarketresearch1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pvmarketresearch1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basis of producing most solar panels is mostly on the use of silicon cells. These silicon cells are typically 10–20% efficient<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at converting sunlight into electricity, with newer production models exceeding 22%.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, the world's top five solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity during the calendar year of 2018 were <a href="/wiki/Jinko_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinko Solar">Jinko Solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/JA_Solar_Holdings" title="JA Solar Holdings">JA Solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longi_solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Longi solar">Longi solar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Solar" title="Canadian Solar">Canadian Solar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Price">Price</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Price"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/280px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/420px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/560px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Swanson%27s_law" title="Swanson's law">Swanson's law</a>–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "<a href="/wiki/Experience_curve_effects" title="Experience curve effects">learning rate</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">solar photovoltaics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OWID_PanelCostAndCapacity_2021_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OWID_PanelCostAndCapacity_2021-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Grid_parity" title="Grid parity">Grid parity</a></div> <p>The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it has become cheaper than <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> electricity from <a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">the electricity grid</a> since 2012, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Grid_parity" title="Grid parity">grid parity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UN-Energy-2012_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN-Energy-2012-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rise of global awareness, institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">IRS</a> have adopted a tax credit format, refunding a portion of any solar panel array for private use.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The price of a solar array only continues to fall. </p><p>Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers (typically up to 10 <a href="/wiki/MWp" class="mw-redirect" title="MWp">MWp</a> annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory—and with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example, in 2012 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60, which was 250 times lower than the cost in 1970 of US$150.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2015 study shows price/kWh dropping by 10% per year since 1980, and predicts that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity consumption by 2030, whereas the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> predicts 16% by 2050.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Real-world energy production costs depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy country such as the United Kingdom, the cost per produced kWh is higher than in sunnier countries like Spain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Energy_pricing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Energy_pricing.png/280px-Energy_pricing.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Energy_pricing.png/420px-Energy_pricing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Energy_pricing.png/560px-Energy_pricing.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>Short term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric generation technologies<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Energy_pricing_longterm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Energy_pricing_longterm.png/280px-Energy_pricing_longterm.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Energy_pricing_longterm.png/420px-Energy_pricing_longterm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Energy_pricing_longterm.png/560px-Energy_pricing_longterm.png 2x" data-file-width="884" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Long term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric generation technologies<sup id="cite_ref-MacDonald_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Following to <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocky Mountain Institute">RMI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance-of-System</a> (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-<a href="/wiki/Microinverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Microinverter">microinverter</a> solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various components) make up about half of the total costs of installations. </p><p>For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity transmission network, the cost of <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> will need to match the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or 'busbar parity'.<sup id="cite_ref-UN-Energy-2012_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN-Energy-2012-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards">Standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a> 61215 (<a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> performance), 61646 (<a href="/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin film</a> performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety), 61853 (Photovoltaic module performance testing & energy rating)</li> <li>ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.</li> <li>UL 1703 from <a href="/wiki/Underwriters_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwriters Laboratories">Underwriters Laboratories</a></li> <li>UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories</li> <li>UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CE_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="CE mark">CE mark</a></li> <li>Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_photovoltaics" title="Applications of photovoltaics">Applications of photovoltaics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">List of solar-powered products</a></div> <p>There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic systems</a> and include a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system#Other_systems" title="Photovoltaic system">large variety of electric devices</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_canal" title="Solar canal">Solar canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Photovoltaic power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_solar_PV" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop solar PV">Rooftop solar PV</a> systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PV_system#Standalone" class="mw-redirect" title="PV system">Standalone PV systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_hybrid_power_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar hybrid power systems">Solar hybrid power systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_solar" title="Floating solar">Floating solar</a>; water-borne solar panels</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar plane">Solar planes</a></li> <li>Solar-powered <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-pumped_laser" title="Solar-pumped laser">Solar-pumped lasers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">space stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_landfill" title="Solar landfill">Solar landfill</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limitations">Limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_electricity_network">Impact on electricity network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Impact on electricity network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, an electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2- way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland Australia, more than 30% of households used rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The <a href="/wiki/Duck_curve" title="Duck curve">duck curve</a> appeared often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may result as the electricity flows from PV households back to the network.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at the electricity distributor level, re-conducting the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions. </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Rooftop_solar_power" title="Rooftop solar power">rooftop solar</a> to be able to provide enough backup power during a power cut a <a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">battery</a> is often also required.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quality_assurance">Quality assurance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Quality assurance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Solar module quality assurance involves testing and evaluating <a href="/wiki/Solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cells">solar cells</a> and Solar Panels to ensure the quality requirements of them are met. Solar modules (or panels) are expected to have a long service life between 20 and 40 years.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They should continually and reliably convey and deliver the power anticipated. Solar modules can be tested through a combination of <a href="/wiki/Physical_property" title="Physical property">physical</a> tests, <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a> studies, and <a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical</a> <a href="/wiki/Analyses" class="mw-redirect" title="Analyses">analyses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, solar modules need to be assessed throughout the different stages of their <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/life_cycle" class="extiw" title="wikt:life cycle">life cycle</a>. Various companies such as Southern Research Energy & Environment, SGS Consumer Testing Services, <a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CV_Rheinland" class="mw-redirect" title="TÜV Rheinland">TÜV Rheinland</a>, Sinovoltaics, Clean Energy Associates (CEA), <a href="/w/index.php?title=CSA_Solar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CSA Solar (page does not exist)">CSA Solar</a> International and Enertis provide services in solar module quality assurance."The implementation of consistent traceable and stable manufacturing processes becomes mandatory to safeguard and ensure the quality of the PV Modules" <sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stages_of_testing">Stages of testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Stages of testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Solar_panel" title="Special:EditPage/Solar panel">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module_analysis_techniques" title="Photovoltaic module analysis techniques">Photovoltaic module analysis techniques</a></div> <p>The lifecycle stages of testing solar modules can include: the conceptual phase, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> phase, <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> and installation, <a href="/wiki/Project_commissioning" title="Project commissioning">commissioning</a> phase, and the in-service phase. Depending on the test phase, different test principles may apply. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conceptual_phase">Conceptual phase</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Conceptual phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first stage can involve <b>design verification</b> where the expected output of the module is tested through computer simulation. Further, the modules ability to withstand natural environment conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> and near-shadow effects is tested. The layout for <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> of the module and the quality of components and installation can also be tested at this stage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manufacturing_phase">Manufacturing phase</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Manufacturing phase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inspecting manufacturers of components is carried through visitation. The inspection can include assembly checks, material testing supervision and Non Destructive Testing (NDT). Certification is carried out according to ANSI/UL1703, IEC 17025, IEC 61215, IEC 61646, IEC 61701 and IEC 61730-1/-2. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Solar_panels" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Solar panels">Solar panels</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_chain_(electrical_engineering)" title="Daisy chain (electrical engineering)">Daisy chain (electrical engineering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_modeling_and_fabrication" title="Digital modeling and fabrication">Digital modeling and fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid-tied_electrical_system" title="Grid-tied electrical system">Grid-tied electrical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooker" title="Solar cooker">Solar cooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_still" title="Solar still">Solar still</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_panel&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photovoltaics" title="Template talk:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photovoltaics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_constant" title="Solar constant">Solar constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Quantum efficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_power_(photovoltaic)" title="Nominal power (photovoltaic)">Nominal power (Watt-peak)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell" title="Third-generation photovoltaic cell">Third-generation photovoltaic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_research" title="Solar cell research">Solar cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">Thermodynamic efficiency limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun-free_photovoltaics" title="Sun-free photovoltaics">Sun-free photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarizing_organic_photovoltaics" title="Polarizing organic photovoltaics">Polarizing organic photovoltaics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon (c-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">Cadmium telluride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon (a-Si)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic<br />system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell" title="Hybrid solar cell">Hybrid solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmonic_solar_cell" title="Plasmonic solar cell">Plasmonic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaics" title="Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics">Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_solar_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed solar panel">Printed solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance of system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charge_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar charge controller">Solar charge controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_shingles" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar shingles">Solar shingles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_mirror#Photovoltaic_augmentation" title="Solar mirror">Solar mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronverter" title="Synchronverter">Synchronverter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fill factor (solar cell)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system_performance" title="Photovoltaic system performance">PV system performance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Appliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_refrigerator" title="Solar-powered refrigerator">Solar-powered refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#Photovoltaic_(PV)_solar_cooling" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_watch" title="Solar-powered watch">Solar-powered watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_keyboard" title="Photovoltaic keyboard">Photovoltaic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_road_stud" title="Solar road stud">Solar road stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_radio" title="Solar-powered radio">Solar-powered radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_flashlight" title="Solar-powered flashlight">Solar-powered flashlight</a></li> <li>Solar-powered fan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_street_light" title="Solar street light">Solar street light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_traffic_light" title="Solar traffic light">Solar traffic light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Land transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_golf_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar golf cart">Solar golf cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quiet_Achiever" title="The Quiet Achiever">The Quiet Achiever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Air transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Solar_Riser" title="Mauro Solar Riser">Mauro Solar Riser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-Powered_Aircraft_Developments_Solar_One" title="Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One">Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinetiq_Zephyr" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinetiq Zephyr">Qinetiq Zephyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Water transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat#Types" title="Electric boat">Solar boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Solar vehicle racing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car_racing" title="Solar car racing">Solar car racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_car_teams" title="List of solar car teams">List of solar car teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_challenge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Solar challenge (disambiguation)">Solar challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge">World Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Challenge" title="American Solar Challenge">American Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_Sun_Grand_Prix" title="Formula Sun Grand Prix">Formula Sun Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Cup" title="Solar Cup">Solar Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Solar_Challenge" title="Frisian Solar Challenge">Frisian Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Splash" title="Solar Splash">Solar Splash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Solar_Challenge" title="South African Solar Challenge">South African Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_Sol" title="Tour de Sol">Tour de Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt-Winston_School_Solar_Car_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge">Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Model_Solar_Vehicle_Challenge" title="Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge">Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Generation<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="PV_power_station" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">PV power station</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">List of photovoltaic power stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Building-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">Rooftop photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Ark" title="Solar Ark">Solar Ark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Solar power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chile" title="Solar power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Switzerland" title="Solar power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">PV companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_production" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by photovoltaics production">List of countries by photovoltaics production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Individual producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_CELLS" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q CELLS">Hanwha Q CELLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motech_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Motech Solar">Motech Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation" title="Renewable Energy Corporation">REC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Solar" title="Sharp Solar">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Frontier" title="Solar Frontier">Solar Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solyndra" title="Solyndra">Solyndra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNGEN_International_Limited" title="SUNGEN International Limited">Sungen Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunpower">Sunpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suntech" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntech">Suntech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yingli_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingli Solar">Yingli Solar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roofs" title="Template:Roofs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roofs" title="Template talk:Roofs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roofs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roofs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roofs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Roof" title="Roof">Roofs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_roof_shapes" title="List of roof shapes">Roof shapes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arched_roof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arched roof (page does not exist)">Arched roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrel_roof" title="Barrel roof">Barrel roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_roof" title="Board roof">Board roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bochka_roof" title="Bochka roof">Bochka roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow roof">Bow roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_roof" title="Butterfly roof">Butterfly roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerestory" title="Clerestory">Clerestory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conical_roof" title="Conical roof">Conical roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">Dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_roof" title="Flat roof">Flat roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gable_roof" title="Gable roof">Gable roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gablet_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Gablet roof">Gablet roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambrel" title="Gambrel">Gambrel roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-hipped_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-hipped roof">Half-hipped roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_roof" title="Hip roof">Hip roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onion_dome" title="Onion dome">Onion dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansard_roof" title="Mansard roof">Mansard roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavilion_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavilion roof">Pavilion roof</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhombic_roof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhombic roof (page does not exist)">Rhombic roof</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ridged_roof&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ridged roof (page does not exist)">Ridged roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddle_roof" title="Saddle roof">Saddle roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saw-tooth_roof" title="Saw-tooth roof">Sawtooth roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono-pitched_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Mono-pitched roof">Shed roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tented_roof" title="Tented roof">Tented roof</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Steekdak.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-gabled roof"><img alt="Cross-gabled roof" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Steekdak.PNG/50px-Steekdak.PNG" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Steekdak.PNG/75px-Steekdak.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Steekdak.PNG/100px-Steekdak.PNG 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roof elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic" title="Attic">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shed_roof" title="Shed roof">Catslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimney" title="Chimney">Chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collar_beam" title="Collar beam">Collar beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormer" title="Dormer">Dormer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaves" title="Eaves">Eaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashing_(weatherproofing)" title="Flashing (weatherproofing)">Flashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gable" title="Gable">Gable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">Green roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_gutter" title="Rain gutter">Gutter</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hanging_beam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hanging beam (page does not exist)">Hanging beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joist" title="Joist">Joist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">Lightning rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loft" title="Loft">Loft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purlin" title="Purlin">Purlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafter" title="Rafter">Rafter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_vent" title="Ridge vent">Ridge vent</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roof_batten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roof batten (page does not exist)">Roof batten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof_garden" title="Roof garden">Roof garden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roofline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roofline (page does not exist)">Roofline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof" title="Roof">Roof ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roof_sheeting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roof sheeting (page does not exist)">Roof sheeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof_tiles" title="Roof tiles">Roof tiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_roof_truss" title="Timber roof truss">Roof truss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roof_window" title="Roof window">Roof window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skylight" title="Skylight">Skylight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soffit" 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