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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul Fildes</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84_%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3" title="پل فیلدس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پل فیلدس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paul Fildes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B2" title="بول فيلدز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بول فيلدز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">British pathologist and microbiologist (1882–1971)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Sir Paul Fildes</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Officer of the Order of the British Empire">OBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_(Samuel)_Luke_Fildes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Paul Fildes, in navy uniform" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg/300px-Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg/450px-Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg/600px-Sir_Paul_Fildes_by_Sir_%28Samuel%29_Luke_Fildes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3176" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Paul Fildes, as painted by his father, <a href="/wiki/Luke_Fildes" title="Luke Fildes">Luke Fildes</a> in 1919</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Paul Gordon Fildes</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1882-02-10</span>)</span>10 February 1882</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">5 February 1971<span style="display:none">(1971-02-05)</span> (aged 88)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Sir Paul Gordon Fildes</b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Officer of the Order of the British Empire">OBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span> (10 February 1882 – 5 February 1971) was a British <a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> who worked on the development of chemical-<a href="/wiki/Biological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapon">biological weaponry</a> at <a href="/wiki/Porton_Down" title="Porton Down">Porton Down</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-royal_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-royal-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-npg_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npg-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pasteur_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pasteur-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fildes was born in <a href="/wiki/Kensington" title="Kensington">Kensington</a>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, the son of the artist Sir <a href="/wiki/Luke_Fildes" title="Luke Fildes">Luke Fildes</a> and great grandson of reformist <a href="/wiki/Mary_Fildes" title="Mary Fildes">Mary Fildes</a>, Paul attended <a href="/wiki/Winchester_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester School">Winchester School</a> and then studied surgery at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, where he obtained an <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine_and_Surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery">MB BCh</a> degree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career">Career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fildes served as a <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_(Royal_Navy)" title="Lieutenant commander (Royal Navy)">lieutenant-commander</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Volunteer_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve">Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve</a>, stationed at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Hospital_Haslar" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Naval Hospital Haslar">Royal Naval Hospital Haslar</a> (1915–19) during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. In 1919 he was made an <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Officer of the Order of the British Empire">Officer of the Order of the British Empire</a>. </p><p>After working at the <a href="/wiki/London_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="London Hospital">London Hospital</a> as an assistant bacteriologist, he moved in 1934 to work at the <a href="/wiki/Middlesex_Hospital" title="Middlesex Hospital">Middlesex Hospital</a>. He was also elected a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-frs_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1940 he helped Donald D. Woods discover how <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulphonamides</a> worked. </p><p>He was a member of the scientific staff, <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a> (1934–49). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fildes asserted that he assisted with <a href="/wiki/Operation_Anthropoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Anthropoid">Operation Anthropoid</a> the assassination of top Nazi <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a> in Prague by providing the <a href="/wiki/Czech_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech people">Czech</a> agents of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive" title="Special Operations Executive">Special Operations Executive</a> with modified <a href="/wiki/No._73_Grenade" class="mw-redirect" title="No. 73 Grenade">No. 73 Grenades</a> filled with <a href="/wiki/Botulin_toxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Botulin toxin">botulin toxin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The story has been met with scepticism, given the absence of any indication that Heydrich displayed any of the highly distinctive symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Defalque_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Defalque-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1940 Fildes was put in charge of a newly created department, the Biology Department, Porton (BDP) at <a href="/wiki/Porton_Down" title="Porton Down">Porton Down</a> to study the defensive implications of a bacterial attack and there built up a team of microbiologists to study the use of biological weapons, including anthrax and botulinum toxin. An early project was the creation of a stockpile of a million anthrax impregnated cattle cakes to be used in a possible retaliatory attack. In 1942 it famously carried out tests of an anthrax bio-weapon developed at Porton Down at <a href="/wiki/Gruinard_Island" title="Gruinard Island">Gruinard Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc2024_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also assisted with the <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> strain tests on <a href="/wiki/Gruinard_Island" title="Gruinard Island">Gruinard Island</a>, performing necropsies on the bodies of anthrax-exposed sheep, to determine if they had died as a direct result of anthrax poisoning. This work produced the world's first working anthrax bomb in the summer of 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the war he returned to university life and handed over control of the department to his deputy <a href="/wiki/David_Willis_Wilson_Henderson" title="David Willis Wilson Henderson">David Henderson</a>, who oversaw the building of a new purpose designed laboratory facility and the creation of the autonomous <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_Research_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiological Research Department">Microbiological Research Department</a>. He was knighted in the <a href="/wiki/1946_New_Year_Honours" title="1946 New Year Honours">1946 New Year Honours</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years">Later years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war Fildes worked at the <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> in Oxford, headed by Nobel Prize winner Sir <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a>, to study on the biochemistry of bacteriophage T1 (and to a lesser extent, T2) multiplication.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fildes received the <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> in 1963 from the Royal Society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He was the author of works on <a href="/wiki/Haemophilia" title="Haemophilia">haemophilia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Fildes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frs-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGladstoneKnightWilson1973" class="citation journal cs1">Gladstone, G. P.; Knight, B. C. J. G.; Wilson, G. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0013">"Paul Gordon Fildes 1882–1971"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>19</b>: 317–347. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0013">10.1098/rsbm.1973.0013</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11615726">11615726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Paul+Gordon+Fildes+1882%E2%80%931971&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=317-347&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11615726&rft.aulast=Gladstone&rft.aufirst=G.+P.&rft.au=Knight%2C+B.+C.+J.+G.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1973.0013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaul+Fildes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-royal-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-royal_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=(((text)='Paul')AND((text)='Gordon')AND((text)='Fildes'))">Fellow list of the Royal Society</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-npg-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-npg_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp01572">Portraits of Paul Fildes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pasteur-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pasteur_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1940.html">Paul Fildes at Pasteur.fr</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902090150/http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/REG/causeries/dates_1940.html">Archived</a> 2 September 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris,_RobertPaxman,_Jeremy2002" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Robert; Paxman, Jeremy (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780812966534/page/90"><i>A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare</i></a>. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780812966534/page/90">90–96</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6653-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-6653-8"><bdi>0-8129-6653-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Higher+Form+of+Killing%3A+The+Secret+History+of+Chemical+and+Biological+Warfare&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=90-96&rft.pub=Random+House+Trade+Paperbacks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8129-6653-8&rft.au=Harris%2C+Robert&rft.au=Paxman%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780812966534%2Fpage%2F90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaul+Fildes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Defalque-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Defalque_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefalqueWright,_A._J.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Defalque, R. J.; Wright, A. J. (January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anesthesia.wisc.edu/Bulletin/January_2009.pdf">"The Puzzling Death of Reinhard Heydrich"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin of Anesthesia History</i>. <b>27</b> (1). Pittsburgh PA: Anesthesia History Association and Wood-Library Museum of Anesthesiology: 1, 4–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1522-8649%2809%2950001-7">10.1016/S1522-8649(09)50001-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20506755">20506755</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Anesthesia+History&rft.atitle=The+Puzzling+Death+of+Reinhard+Heydrich&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1%2C+4-7&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1522-8649%2809%2950001-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20506755&rft.aulast=Defalque&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft.au=Wright%2C+A.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anesthesia.wisc.edu%2FBulletin%2FJanuary_2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaul+Fildes" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc2024-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbc2024_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2024" class="citation news cs1">Burke, Myles (22 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240419-britains-mysterious-ww2-island-of-death?">"Britain's mysterious WW2 'island of death'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+mysterious+WW2+%27island+of+death%27&rft.date=2024-04-22&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fculture%2Farticle%2F20240419-britains-mysterious-ww2-island-of-death%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaul+Fildes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Guillemin" title="Jeanne Guillemin">Guillemin, Jeanne</a> (2005), <i>Biological Weapons: From the Invention of State-Sponsored Programs to Contemporary Bioterrorism</i>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231129428/page/109">Internet Archive</a>), Columbia University Press, pp. 50–56, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231129424" title="Special:BookSources/0231129424">0231129424</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Kingdom list (1): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette37407" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/37407/page/2">"No. 37407"</a>. <i>The London Gazette</i>. 28 December 1945. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+37407&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1945-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F37407%2Fpage%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaul+Fildes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoklik2005" class="citation journal cs1">Joklik, Wolfgang Karl (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jbc.org/content/280/49/40385.full">"Adventures of a Biochemist in Virology"</a>. <i>Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. <b>280</b> (49): 40385–40397. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2FJBC.X500005200">10.1074/JBC.X500005200</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16326717">16326717</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17390162">17390162</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1951–2000)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Keilin" title="David Keilin">David Keilin</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kluyver" title="Albert Kluyver">Albert Kluyver</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">John Edensor Littlewood</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paul Fildes</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Lawrence Bragg</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander R. Todd</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Robert Porter</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> (1984)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robin Hill</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James D. Watson</a> (1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank" title="Frederick Charles Frank">Frederick Charles Frank</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cottrell" title="Alan Cottrell">Alan Cottrell</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Huxley" title="Hugh Huxley">Hugh Huxley</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_R._Battersby" title="Alan R. Battersby">Alan Battersby</a> (2000)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935307#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935307#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q935307#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000409394675">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/303051407">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJtH3p8jKyXyFKQ6vC4KBP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2013183321">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0188154&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p197882358">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90569559">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000304510&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA14715937?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/121386694">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6877pxr">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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