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<span>Influential geographers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influential_geographers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subfield of geographic methods</div> <p><b>Quantitative geography</b> is a subfield and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">methodological</a> approach to <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> that develops, tests, and uses scientific, mathematical, and statistical methods to analyze and model geographic phenomena and patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yano1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yano1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It aims to explain and predict the distribution and dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a> through the collection and analysis of quantifiable data.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The approach quantitative geographers take is generally in line with the scientific method, where a <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiable hypothesis</a> is generated, and then tested through <a href="/wiki/Observational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational studies">observational studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yano1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yano1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeLyser1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeLyser1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Murray1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Li2021_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li2021-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has received criticism, and in recent years, quantitative geography has moved to include systematic model creation and understanding the limits of their models.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Franklin1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Franklin2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach is used to study a wide range of topics, including population demographics, urbanization, environmental patterns, and the spatial distribution of economic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The methods of quantitative geography are often contrasted by those employed by <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">qualitative geography</a>, which is more focused on observing and recording characteristics of geographic place. However, there is increasing interest in using combinations of both qualitative and quantitative methods through <a href="/wiki/Mixed-methods_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-methods research">mixed-methods research</a> to better understand and contextualize geographic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div> <p>Quantitative geography emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to the increasing demand for more systematic, empirical, and data-driven approaches to studying geographic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Murray1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a direct product of the <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">quantitative revolution</a> in geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was influenced by developments in statistics, mathematics, computer science, and the physical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferreira1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferreira1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantitative geographers sought to use mathematical and statistical methods to better understand patterns, relationships, and processes in the spatial distribution of human and physical phenomena. </p><p>Computers perhaps had the most profound impact on quantitative geography, with techniques such as map analysis, regression analysis, and spatial statistics to investigate various geographic questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1950s and 1960s, advances in computer technology facilitated the application of quantitative methods in geography, leading to new techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a> (GIS).<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable early pioneers in GIS are <a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferreira1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferreira1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simultaneously, new data sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> and <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a>, were incorporated into geographic research.<sup id="cite_ref-ieee2008_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee2008-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jensen1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tools enabled geographers to collect, analyze, and visualize large amounts of spatial data in new ways, further advancing the field of quantitative geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 20th century, quantitative geography became a central discipline within geography, and its influence was felt in fields such as urban, economic, and environmental geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within academia, groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> Study Group in Quantitative Methods focused on spreading these methods to students and the public through publications such as the <a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a> series.<sup id="cite_ref-Webber1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webber1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hall1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economics and <a href="/wiki/Spatial_econometrics" title="Spatial econometrics">spatial econometrics</a> both served as a driving force and area of application for quantitative geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Martinez2023_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martinez2023-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, research in quantitative geography continues, focusing on using innovative quantitative methods and technologies to address complex geographic questions and problems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_and_subfields">Techniques and subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Techniques and subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerycaption">Quantitative geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Worldwind.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geoinformatics"><img alt="Geoinformatics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/120px-Worldwind.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/180px-Worldwind.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Worldwind.png/240px-Worldwind.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_4.4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Geographic information science"><img alt="Geographic information science" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/120px-Fig_4.4.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/180px-Fig_4.4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Fig_4.4.png/240px-Fig_4.4.png 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Interpolation-nearest.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geostatistics"><img alt="Geostatistics" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Interpolation-nearest.svg/120px-Interpolation-nearest.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Interpolation-nearest.svg/180px-Interpolation-nearest.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Interpolation-nearest.svg/240px-Interpolation-nearest.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MapAlgebra.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map algebra"><img alt="Map algebra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MapAlgebra.png/120px-MapAlgebra.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MapAlgebra.png/180px-MapAlgebra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/MapAlgebra.png/240px-MapAlgebra.png 2x" data-file-width="2406" data-file-height="2051" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statistical geography"><img alt="Statistical geography" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/120px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/180px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg/240px-Euclidean_Voronoi_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_krig.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Spatial analysis"><img alt="Spatial analysis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/120px-Example_krig.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/180px-Example_krig.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Example_krig.png/240px-Example_krig.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantitative_revolution">Quantitative revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Quantitative revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_revolution&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laws_of_geography">Laws of geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Laws of geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main page: <a href="/wiki/Category:Laws_of_geography" title="Category:Laws of geography">Category: Laws of geography</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/250px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/375px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg/500px-Waldo_Tobler_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>The concept of laws in geography is a product of the quantitative revolution and is a central focus of quantitative geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their emergence is highly influential and one of the major contributions of quantitative geography to the broader branch of <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discipline of geography is unlikely to settle the matter anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most widely accepted. The first law of geography, and its relation to spatial autocorrelation, is highly influential in the development of technical geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many are proposed as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few of the proposed laws of geography are below: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">Tobler's first law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant"<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild2_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">Tobler's second law of geography</a>: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbia%27s_law_of_geography" title="Arbia's law of geography">Arbia's law of geography</a>: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."<sup id="cite_ref-Tobler3_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobler3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">Uncertainty</a> principle: "that the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of <a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">vagueness</a>, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."<sup id="cite_ref-Goodchild2_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodchild2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Quantitative_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Quantitative geography">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Critical geography presents critiques against the approach adopted in quantitative geography, sometimes labeled by the critics as a "positivist" approach particularly in relation to the so-called "quantitative revolution" of the 1960s. One of the primary criticisms is reductionism, contending that the emphasis on quantifying data and utilizing mathematical models tends to oversimplify the intricate nature of social and spatial phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Yano1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yano1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics also argue that quantitative methods may disregard the unique cultural and historical contexts of specific geographical locations. Critics have likewise argued that reliance on digital mapping tools and technology can restrict the capacity to address certain complex geographical issues and claim that quantitative data collection methods can introduce partiality into the analysis; for example, existing power structures can influence quantitative research by shaping the types of data collected and analyzed. </p><p>Quantitative geography has been criticized as being limited in scope because spatial data may not adequately capture certain dimensions of cultural, political, and social relations in human geographies. Lastly, critics emphasize the absence of a critical perspective within this approach, arguing that the unwavering focus on objective and empirical data analysis can divert attention from vital social and political questions, hindering a holistic understanding of geographical issues. The critics argue that these criticisms collectively suggest the need for a more nuanced and context-aware approach in the field of geography. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Response">Response</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quantitative geographers have responded to the criticisms to various degrees, including that the critiques' broad brush and associated labeling are misplaced. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Quantitative geographers do not often concern themselves with philosophy, and although externally we are often labeled (incorrectly in many cases) as positivists, such a label has little or zero impact on the way in which we prosecute research. We do not, for example, concern ourselves with whether our intended research strategy breaches some tenet of positivist philosophy. Indeed, most of us would have scant knowledge of what such tenets are. As Barnes (2001) observes, for many of us, our first experience with positivism occurs when it is directed at us as a form of criticism."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Stewart_Fotheringham" title="Stewart Fotheringham">Stewart Fotheringham</a>, <sup id="cite_ref-Fotheringham2006_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fotheringham2006-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influential_geographers">Influential geographers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influential geographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">List of geographers</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stewart_Fotheringham" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stewart Fotheringham">Alexander Stewart Fotheringham</a> (1954) – contributed to the development of geographically weighted regression.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Getis" title="Arthur Getis">Arthur Getis</a> (1934–2022) – influential in spatial statistics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Berry" title="Brian Berry">Brian Berry</a> (1934) – contributed to the refinement of central place theory.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_Tomlin" title="Dana Tomlin">Dana Tomlin</a> – developer of map algebra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_Marble" title="Duane Marble">Duane Marble</a> (1931-2022) – influential in geographic information science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Augustus_Ackerman" title="Edward Augustus Ackerman">Edward Augustus Ackerman</a> (1911–1973) - advocated for approaching human-environment interaction as an interaction between systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_K._Schaefer" title="Fred K. Schaefer">Fred K. Schaefer</a> (1904–1953)- called for a scientific approach to geography based upon the search for geographical laws</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Jenks" title="George F. Jenks">George F. Jenks</a> (1916-1996) – influential in computer cartography and thematic mapping</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mei-Po_Kwan" title="Mei-Po Kwan">Mei-Po Kwan</a> (born 1962) - geographer that coined the <a href="/wiki/Uncertain_geographic_context_problem" title="Uncertain geographic context problem">Uncertain geographic context problem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neighborhood_effect_averaging_problem" title="Neighborhood effect averaging problem">neighborhood effect averaging problem</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_DeMers" title="Michael DeMers">Michael DeMers</a> (born 1951) – geographer who wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Monmonier" title="Mark Monmonier">Mark Monmonier</a> (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Frank_Goodchild" title="Michael Frank Goodchild">Michael Frank Goodchild</a> (born 1944) – GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chorley" title="Richard Chorley">Richard J. Chorley</a> (1927–2002) - played an instrumental role in bringing in the use of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> to geography.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Tomlinson" title="Roger Tomlinson">Roger Tomlinson</a> (1933–2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Openshaw" title="Stan Openshaw">Stan Openshaw</a> (1946 – 2022) – influential British geographer in the use of computer-based/computational geography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvyn_Jones" title="Kelvyn Jones">Kelvyn Jones</a> (born 1953) - developed multilevel models that analyze at multiple scales simultaneously</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsten_H%C3%A4gerstrand" title="Torsten Hägerstrand">Torsten Hägerstrand</a> (1916–2004)- established the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">time geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldo_Tobler" class="mw-redirect" title="Waldo Tobler">Waldo Tobler</a> (1930–2018) – coined the <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_first_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's first law of geography">first</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tobler%27s_second_law_of_geography" title="Tobler's second law of geography">second</a> law of geography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bunge" title="William Bunge">William Bunge</a> (1928–2013) - early quantitative geographer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Garrison_(geographer)" title="William Garrison (geographer)">William Garrison</a> (1924–2015) - Early leader of the quantitative revolution and one of the founders of regional science.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areography_(geography_of_Mars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areography (geography of Mars)">Areography (geography of Mars)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Design of experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_communication_model" title="Map communication model">Map communication model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modifiable_areal_unit_problem" title="Modifiable areal unit problem">Modifiable areal unit problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modifiable_temporal_unit_problem" title="Modifiable temporal unit problem">Modifiable temporal unit problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Geography_Series" title="Scientific Geography Series">Scientific Geography Series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertain_geographic_context_problem" title="Uncertain geographic context problem">Uncertain geographic context problem</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantitative_geography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Fotheringham1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fotheringham1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFotheringhamBrunsdonCharlton2000" class="citation book cs1">Fotheringham, A. Stewart; Brunsdon, Chris; Charlton, Martin (2000). <i>Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis</i>. Sage Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5948-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5948-9"><bdi>978-0-7619-5948-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantitative+Geography%3A+Perspectives+on+Spatial+Data+Analysis&rft.pub=Sage+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-5948-9&rft.aulast=Fotheringham&rft.aufirst=A.+Stewart&rft.au=Brunsdon%2C+Chris&rft.au=Charlton%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurakamiYamagata2020" class="citation book cs1">Murakami, Daisuke; Yamagata, Yoshiki (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128131275000060">"Chapter Six - Models in quantitative geography"</a>. <i>Spatial Analysis Using Big Data: Chapter Six - Models in quantitative geography</i>. pp. 159–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-813127-5.00006-0">10.1016/B978-0-12-813127-5.00006-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128131275" title="Special:BookSources/9780128131275"><bdi>9780128131275</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213700891">213700891</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Six+-+Models+in+quantitative+geography&rft.btitle=Spatial+Analysis+Using+Big+Data%3A+Chapter+Six+-+Models+in+quantitative+geography&rft.pages=159-178&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213700891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-813127-5.00006-0&rft.isbn=9780128131275&rft.aulast=Murakami&rft.aufirst=Daisuke&rft.au=Yamagata%2C+Yoshiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780128131275000060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+geography" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yano1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yano1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yano1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yano1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYano2001" class="citation journal cs1">Yano, Keiji (2001). "GIS and quantitative geography". <i>GeoJournal</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 173–180. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1014252827646">10.1023/A:1014252827646</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126943446">126943446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeoJournal&rft.atitle=GIS+and+quantitative+geography&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=173-180&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1014252827646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126943446%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yano&rft.aufirst=Keiji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuantitative+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1977" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Peter J. 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial 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