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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Kingship and the royal court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingship_and_the_royal_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_pages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_pages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Royal pages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_pages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bodyguards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bodyguards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Bodyguards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bodyguards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Macedonian_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Macedonian_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Early Macedonian army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Macedonian_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>Philip II and Alexander the Great</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antigonid_period_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antigonid_period_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.3</span> <span>Antigonid 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political history topic</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_(359-336_B.C.E.).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two sides of a gold coin, with the obverse (left) showing a profile of Philip II wearing a lion skin, and the reverse (right) depicting a lion's forepart." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg/400px-Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg/600px-Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg/800px-Greek_Gold_Half_Stater_of_Philip_II_of_Macedonia_%28359-336_B.C.E.%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gold_coin" title="Gold coin">gold</a> half <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a></i></span> of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> produced at <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">the government mint</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, bearing the head of a young <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> wearing the <a href="/wiki/Nemean_Lion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nemean Lion">Nemean Lion</a>'s skin on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> and on the reverse the lion's forepart</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <b>government of ancient Macedonia</b> was established by the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian kings">Macedonian kings</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a> (8th–5th centuries BC). The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">early history</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_kingdom_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient kingdom of Macedonia">ancient kingdom of Macedonia</a> is obscure because of shortcomings in <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">the historical record</a>; little is known of governmental institutions before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> during the late <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical period</a> (480–336 BC). These bureaucratic organizations evolved in complexity under his successor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid</a> dynasties of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a> (336–146 BC). Following <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">the Roman</a> victory in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> over <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by four <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> republics. After a brief revival of the monarchy in 150–148 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> resulted in another Roman victory and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>. </p><p>It is unclear if there was a formally established constitution dictating the laws, organization, and divisions of power in ancient Macedonia's government, although some tangential evidence suggests this. The king (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a></i></span>) served as the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> and was assisted by his <a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">noble companions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal page">royal pages</a>. Kings served as the chief judges of the kingdom, although little is known about Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>. The kings were also expected to serve as <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priests</a> of the nation, using their wealth to sponsor various <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">religious cults</a>. The Macedonian kings had command over certain natural resources such as gold from mining and timber from logging. The right to mint <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">gold, silver, and bronze coins</a> was shared by the <a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central</a> and local governments. </p><p>The Macedonian kings served as the <a href="/wiki/Commanders-in-chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Commanders-in-chief">commanders-in-chief</a> of Macedonia's armed forces, while it was common for them to personally lead troops into battle. Surviving textual evidence suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">ancient Macedonian army</a> exercised its authority in matters such as the royal succession when there was no clear <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a> to rule the kingdom. The army upheld some of the functions of a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">popular assembly</a>, a <a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy" title="History of democracy">democratic</a> institution that otherwise existed in only a handful of municipal governments within the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth" title="Commonwealth">commonwealth</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon of Macedonians</a>. With their mining and tax revenues, the kings were responsible for funding the military, which included <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">a navy</a> that was established by Philip II and expanded during <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">the Antigonid period</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_and_historiography">Sources and historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources and historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historiography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Histories_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Histories of Alexander the Great">Histories of Alexander the Great</a></div> <p>The earliest known government in ancient Macedonia was their monarchy, which lasted until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans. Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>'s reign (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 359 – 336 BC</span>) is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of the 5th-century BC historians <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, the 1st-century AD <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, and the 2nd-century AD <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>. Contemporary accounts given by those such as <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> were often hostile and unreliable; even <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010373_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010373-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia, while later historians include <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010373–374_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010373–374-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of these historians affirm the <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchy</a> of Macedonia and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main textual primary sources for the organization of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonia's military</a> as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Quintus Curtius, Diodorus, and Plutarch, while modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">the Antigonid-period military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010446–447_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010446–447-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Division_of_power">Division of power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Division of power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Golden funerary larnax of Philip II depicting a 16-ray star on the lid." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg/220px-Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg/330px-Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg/440px-Image_larnax_of_philip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun" title="Vergina Sun">Vergina Sun</a>, the 16-ray star covering the royal burial <a href="/wiki/Larnax" title="Larnax">larnax</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 359 – 336 BC</span>), discovered in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, formerly ancient <a href="/wiki/Aigai,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aigai, Macedonia">Aigai</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the head of Macedonia's government was <a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Macedonian kings">the king</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a></i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing201036–37_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing201036–37-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From at least the reign of Philip II the king was assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Page_(servant)" title="Page (servant)">royal pages</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">basilikoi paides</i></span>), bodyguards (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes" title="Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a></i></span>), companions (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i></span>), friends (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Philoi" title="Philoi">philoi</a></i></span>), an assembly that included members of the military, and <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a> during the Hellenistic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220–221_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220–221-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence is lacking for the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010375-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1931, Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">customary privileges</a> to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">appoint a new king</a> and judge cases of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> stems from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 336 – 323 BC</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranier19314–28,_48–57_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier19314–28,_48–57-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374–375_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374–375-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_De_Francisci" title="Pietro De Francisci">Pietro De Francisci</a> refuted these ideas and advanced the theory that the Macedonian government was an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a> ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010375-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Francisci1948345–435_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Francisci1948345–435-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingship_and_the_royal_court">Kingship and the royal court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Kingship and the royal court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Wall fresco depicting Hades, riding in a horse-drawn chariot, beside Persephone, who is on the ground." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/400px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/600px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/800px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">Hades</a> abducting <a href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a>, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia, Greece">Macedonia, Greece</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 340 BC</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a>, perhaps evolving from a tribal system, and with roots in <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a> in view of its seemingly <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homeric</a> aristocratic attributes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375–376_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010375–376-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thucydides wrote that in previous ages Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each with its own <a href="/wiki/Petty_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty king">petty king</a>. The tribes of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia" title="Lower Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a> eventually coalesced under one great king, who exercised power as an <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">overlord</a> over the lesser kings of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia" title="Upper Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> lasted from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas I of Macedon">Perdiccas I of Macedon</a> until that of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323 – 310 BC</span>), supplanted by the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a> during the Hellenistic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010376_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010376-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The direct line of <a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">father-to-son succession</a> was broken after the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon" title="Orestes of Macedon">Orestes of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 399 – 396 BC</span>) in 396 BC, allegedly by his <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> and successor <a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus II of Macedon">Aeropus II of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 396 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 393 BC</span></span>), clouding the issue of whether <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">of the people</a> to choose another king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010376–377_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010376–377-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also unclear whether certain male offspring were considered more legitimate than others, since <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 413 – 399 BC</span>) was the son of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 454</span> – 413 BC</span>) and a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">slave woman</a>, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a> and son from another mother.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010377_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010377-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dionysos_on_a_cheetah,_Pella,_Greece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A nude Dionysos, adorned with divine regalia, riding on a cheetah." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/220px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/330px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/440px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1995" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The god <a href="/wiki/Dionysos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysos">Dionysos</a> riding a cheetah, <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> floor in the "House of Dionysos" at <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, Greece, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 330–300 BC</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Historical sources confirm that the Macedonian kings before Philip II at least upheld the privileges and responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, initiating the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating deals such as alliances with foreign powers. After the Greek victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> in 480 BC, the Persian commander <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> had <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 497</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 454 BC</span></span>) sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a>. The decision to send Alexander was based on his <a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_state" title="Marriage of state">marriage alliance</a> with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010378_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010378-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With their ownership of natural resources including <a href="/wiki/Gold#Cultural_history" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver#History" title="Silver">silver</a>, timber, and <a href="/wiki/Royal_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal land">royal land</a>, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribing</a> foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010379_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010379-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Little is known about the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial system</a> of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chief_judge" class="extiw" title="wikt:chief judge">chief judge</a> of the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Macedonian kings were also <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">supreme commanders</a> of the military, with early evidence including not only Alexander I's role in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> but also with the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea" title="Potidaea">Potidaea</a> accepting Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Potidaea" title="Battle of Potidaea">during their rebellion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> of Athens in 432 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010379_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010379-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990221_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990221-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the esteem won by serving as Macedonia's supreme commander, Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priest</a> of the nation. He performed daily <a href="/wiki/Ritual_sacrifice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritual sacrifice">ritual sacrifices</a> and led <a href="/wiki/Religious_festival" title="Religious festival">religious festivals</a>. Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010380-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of a Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010380-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father Philip II had already shown signs of being influenced by the Persian Empire when he adopted similar institutions, such as having a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Secretary">Royal Secretary</a>, royal archive, royal pages, and a <a href="/wiki/Throne" title="Throne">throne</a>, although there is some scholarly debate as to the level of Persian influence in Philip's court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2010345–346_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2010345–346-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_pages">Royal pages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Royal pages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases,_from_the_Agora,_end_of_4th_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(7065345633).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White relief depicting a youth ladlind wine from a krater, a type of container, next to a round table with vases." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>Fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive</a> <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> depicting a youth <a href="/wiki/Ladle_(spoon)" title="Ladle (spoon)">ladling</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">wine</a> from a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">krater</a></i></span> next to a round table with vases, from the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, end of 4th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men <a href="/wiki/Conscripted" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscripted">conscripted</a> from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence for their presence in the royal court dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010403–405_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010403–405-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010381_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010381-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010403_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010403-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposia</a></i></span> (i.e. formal drinking parties).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010404–405_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010404–405-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While conscripted pages would have looked forward to a lifelong career at court or even a prestigious post as a governor, they can also be regarded as <a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">hostages</a> held by the royal court in order to ensure the loyalty and obedience of their aristocratic fathers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010405_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010405-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The abusive punishment of pages, such as flogging, carried out by the king at times, led to intrigue and conspiracy against the Crown, as did the frequent <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">homosexual relations</a> between the pages and the elite, sometimes with the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010405–406_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010405–406-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there is little evidence for royal pages throughout the Antigonid period, it is known that a group of them fled with <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 179 – 168 BC</span>) to <a href="/wiki/Samothrace" title="Samothrace">Samothrace</a> following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">his defeat</a> by the Romans in 168 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010406_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010406-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bodyguards">Bodyguards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bodyguards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield. They were split into two categories: the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Agema" title="Agema">agema</a></i></span> or the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i></span>, a type of ancient <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a> usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged, respectively. Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010381_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010381-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies"><span id="Companions.2C_friends.2C_councils.2C_and_assemblies"></span>Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:350px;max-width:350px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White marble bust of Philip II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/171px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/257px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg/342px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN2263.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="6000" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White marble bust of Alexander the Great" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/171px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/257px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg/342px-Alexander_the_Great_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek_IN574_n1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="5000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left"><b>Left</b>: Roman copy of an original Greek bust of Philip II, dating from the 4th-century BC, now at the <a href="/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a> <br /><b>Right</b>: Hellenistic bust depicting a young Alexander the Great, dating to the 3rd-century BC, from <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, now at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</div></div></div></div> <p>The companions, including the elite <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">companion cavalry</a> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a></i></span> infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010382_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010382-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010404_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010404-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king, called the <a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">synedrion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010382_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010382-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small amount of evidence also suggests that an assembly of the army during times of war and a <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">people's assembly</a> during times of peace existed in ancient Macedonia. The first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together a number of assemblies to address them with speech and raise their morale following the death of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 365</span> – 359 BC</span>) in battle against the <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyrians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010384_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010384-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Members of the council had the right to speak their minds freely, and although there is no evidence that they voted on affairs of state or that the king was even obligated to implement their ideas, it is clear that he was at least occasionally pressured to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010382–383_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010382–383-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of <a href="/wiki/High_treason" class="mw-redirect" title="High treason">high treason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">assign punishments</a> for them, such as when Alexander III acted as <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> in the trial and ultimate conviction of three alleged conspirators in the plot to assassinate Philip II (while many others <a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">were acquitted</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank20015,_12_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank20015,_12-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld, constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010384–389_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010384–389-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">immediately formed a council</a> to assume control of his empire; however, it was soon destabilized by <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">open rivalry and conflict</a> between <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">its members</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010383–384_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010383–384-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army also used <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a> as a tool to achieve political ends. For instance, when <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> had Philip II's daughter <a href="/wiki/Cynane" title="Cynane">Cynane</a> murdered to prevent her own daughter <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_II_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice II of Macedon">Eurydice II of Macedon</a> from marrying <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323 – 317 BC</span>), the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990119–120_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990119–120-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states"><span id="Magistrates.2C_the_commonwealth.2C_local_government.2C_and_allied_states"></span>Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_(politarchs),_2nd_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6929923448).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fragment with writing on it, listing the names of six city archons." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/220px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/330px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/440px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>A fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscription">inscription</a> bearing the names of six city <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archons</a></i></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Politarch" title="Politarch">politarchs</a></i></span>), 2nd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There is <a href="/wiki/Epigraph_(literature)" title="Epigraph (literature)">epigraphic</a> evidence from the Hellenistic period and Antigonid dynasty that the Macedonian kingdom relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state. This included a number of high-ranking municipal officials, including the military-rooted <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a></i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Politarch" title="Politarch">politarch</a></i></span>, i.e. the elected governor (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archon</a></i></span>) of a large city (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i></span>), but also the politico-religious office of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Epistates" title="Epistates">epistates</a></i></span>. Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010390_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010390-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington" title="Robert Malcolm Errington">Robert Malcolm Errington</a> affirms that no evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been picked from the available aristocratic pools of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">philoi</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hetairoi</i></span> that were used to fill vacancies of officers in the army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">ancient Athens</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> in 322 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmemiya200711–12_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmemiya200711–12-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state, their membership determined by the value of their property.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Philip II conquered <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, <a href="/wiki/City_council" class="mw-redirect" title="City council">city council</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boule</a></i></span>), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">epistates</i></span>) to monitor the city's political affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990229–230_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990229–230-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a>, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth" title="Commonwealth">commonwealth</a> that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">ecclesia</a></i></span>) of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> seems to have had only a passive function in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990230_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990230-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cities also maintained their own municipal <a href="/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue">revenues</a>, although evidence is lacking as to whether this was derived from local taxation or <a href="/wiki/Grant_(money)" title="Grant (money)">grants</a> from the royal court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Macedonian king and central government otherwise sustained strict control over the finances administered by other cities, especially in regards to the revenues generated by <a href="/wiki/Greek_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek temple">temples</a> and cultic <a href="/wiki/Priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood">priesthoods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231–232_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231–232-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:438px;max-width:438px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:282px;max-width:282px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm,_364-363_BC,_Amphipolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two sides of a silver coin. The obverse (left) shows the head of the god Apollo, and the reverse (right) depicts a racing torch enclosed by a square." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/280px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/420px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/560px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="398" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anfipoli,_statere_di_filippo_II,_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Gold coin depciting the profile of Philip II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/150px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/225px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/300px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="670" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left"><b>Left</b>: a silver <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a></i></span> issued by the city of <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> in 357 BC), showing the head of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olympic_flame" title="Olympic flame">racing torch</a> on the reverse <br /><b>Right</b>: a golden <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a></i></span> depicting Philip II, <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">minted</a> at Amphipolis in 340 BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip II and incorporation into the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a></div></div></div></div> <p>Within the Macedonian commonwealth, or the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon of Macedonians</a>, there is some epigraphic evidence from the 3rd century BC that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although Macedonian cities nominally participated in <a href="/wiki/Panhellenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Panhellenic">panhellenic</a> events on their own accord, in reality the granting of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Asylia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asylia">asylia</a></i></span> (inviolability, <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity" title="Diplomatic immunity">diplomatic immunity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">right of asylum</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sanctuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctuaries">sanctuaries</a>) to certain cities (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Kyzikos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyzikos">Kyzikos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>) was handled directly by the king or a preexisting regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996365–366_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996365–366-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">koina</a></i></span> (i.e., federations of city-states, the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sympoliteia" title="Sympoliteia">sympoliteia</a></i></span>) obeyed the federal decrees <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">voted</a> on collectively by the members of their league.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Proxenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxenia">proxenia</a></i></span> (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996366–367_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996366–367-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there is plenty of surviving evidence that the granting of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">proxenia</i></span> was the sole <a href="/wiki/Prerogative" title="Prerogative">prerogative</a> of central authorities in the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a>, a small amount of evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996367–369_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996367–369-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, city-states that were <a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">allied</a> with the Kingdom of Macedonia and existed outside of Macedonia proper issued their own decrees regarding <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">proxenia</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996368–369_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996368–369-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the <a href="/wiki/Cretan_League" title="Cretan League">Cretan League</a> signed treaties with <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 222 – 179 BC</span>) as honorary protector (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Prostates" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostates">prostates</a></i></span>) of the league.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990242_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990242-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:346px;max-width:346px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two figures engaged in combat. The figure on the right is donned with armor and a shield; the one on the left appears to be unprotected and in a weaker position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/160px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/240px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/320px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="1412" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:180px;max-width:180px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A bronze shield depicting the 16-rayed Vergina Sun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg/178px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="247" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><b>Left image</b>: a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a <a href="/wiki/Hypaspist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspist">hypaspist</a>, equipped with an <i><a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a></i> shield and wearing a <a href="/wiki/Linothorax" title="Linothorax">linothorax</a> cuirass and <a href="/wiki/Thracian_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian helmet">Thracian helmet</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bas_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas relief">bas relief</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>, 4th century BC <br /><b>Right image</b>: an ancient Macedonian bronze <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shield</a> excavated from the archaeological site at <a href="/wiki/Bon%C4%8De" title="Bonče">Bonče</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of North Macedonia">Republic of North Macedonia</a>, dated 4th century BC</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Macedonian_army">Early Macedonian army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Macedonian army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic structure of the army was the division of the companion cavalry (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a></i></span>) with the foot companions (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a></i></span>), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990243–244_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990243–244-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire fighting the Greeks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a> in 479 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447–448_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447–448-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macedonian cavalry, wearing <a href="/wiki/Muscled_cuirass" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscled cuirass">muscled cuirasses</a>, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> (431–404 BC), at times siding with either <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained <a href="/wiki/Shepherd" title="Shepherd">shepherds</a> and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239,_243–244_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239,_243–244-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early 4th-century BC stone-carved <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> from Pella shows a Macedonian infantryman wearing a <a href="/wiki/Pileus_(hat)#Greece" title="Pileus (hat)"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pilos</i></span> helmet</a> and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Victor_Sekunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Victor Sekunda">Nicholas Victor Sekunda</a> writes that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity, and the true number could have been possibly lower or even higher than the amount stated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990239–240_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990239–240-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great">Philip II and Alexander the Great</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philip II and Alexander the Great"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_in_Ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Military tactics in Ancient Greece">Military tactics in Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalian cavalry">Thessalian cavalry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Figures lined up in a row, all with military equipment and dressed colorfully." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/220px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/330px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/440px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="285" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agios-Athanasios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="More figures, with some riding on horses." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/220px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/330px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/440px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a>, Greece, 4th century BC</div></div></div></div> <p>Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and issuance of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment" title="Ancient Greek military personal equipment">standard equipment</a> for citizen soldiery, Philip II transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a <a href="/wiki/Professional_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional army">well-trained fighting force</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II's infantry wielded <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">peltai</i></span> shields that already diverged from the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a></i></span> style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a <a href="/wiki/Katerini" title="Katerini">Katerini</a> tomb dated perhaps to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III of Macedon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and <a href="/wiki/Greave" title="Greave">greaves</a>, as well as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a></i></span> <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikes</a>, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as <a href="/wiki/Cuirass" title="Cuirass">cuirasses</a>, since the <i><a href="/wiki/Third_Philippic" title="Third Philippic">Third Philippic</a></i> of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a> instead of lighter <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–450_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–450-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>, troops serving Alexander the Great were also armored in the hoplite fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Errington argues that <a href="/wiki/Breastplate" title="Breastplate">breastplates</a> were not worn by the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> <a href="/wiki/Pikemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikemen">pikemen</a> of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by <a href="/wiki/Military_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Military officer">military officers</a>, while pikemen wore the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kotthybos" title="Kotthybos">kotthybos</a></i></span> stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">dagger</a> as a secondary weapon along with their <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shields</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The elite <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypaspistai</i></span> infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pezhetairoi</i></span> and perhaps synonymous with earlier <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">doryphoroi</i></span>, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990244_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990244-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">somatophylakes</i></span>) and royal pages (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">basilikoi paides</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II was also able to field <a href="/wiki/Archer" class="mw-redirect" title="Archer">archers</a>, including mercenary <a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a> and perhaps some <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">native Macedonians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unclear if the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paionians" class="mw-redirect" title="Paionians">Paionians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> fighting as <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a> throwers, <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">slingers</a>, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as <a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">allies</a> via a <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaty</a> or were simply hired <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II hired engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Polyidus_of_Thessaly" title="Polyidus of Thessaly">Polyidus of Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diades_of_Pella" title="Diades of Pella">Diades of Pella</a>, who were capable of building <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_art" title="State of the art">state of the art</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> firing large <a href="/wiki/Crossbow_bolt" title="Crossbow bolt">bolts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at <a href="/wiki/Krinides" title="Krinides">Krinides</a> (renamed Philippi), the royal <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasury</a> could afford to field a permanent, professional <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–451_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–451-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in state revenues allowed the Macedonians to build a <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">small navy</a> for the first time, which included <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200124–26_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200124–26-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to successfully adopt the <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">military tactics</a> of its enemies, such as the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Embolon" class="mw-redirect" title="Embolon">embolon</a></i></span> (i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of the <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythians</a>. This offered cavalry far greater maneuverability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thueros_affresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fresco showing an upright soldier with chainmail armor and a shield." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/220px-Thueros_affresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/330px-Thueros_affresco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/440px-Thueros_affresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3564" /></a><figcaption>Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Thorakitai" title="Thorakitai">thorakites</a></i></span>) wearing <a href="/wiki/Chainmail" class="mw-redirect" title="Chainmail">chainmail</a> armor and bearing a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Thureos" class="mw-redirect" title="Thureos">thureos</a></i></span> shield, 3rd century BC, <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0stanbul_Archaeology_Museums" class="mw-redirect" title="İstanbul Archaeology Museums">İstanbul Archaeology Museums</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the reign of Alexander the Great, the only Macedonian cavalry units attested in battle were the companion cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, during his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(cavalry_officer)" title="Hipparchus (cavalry officer)">hipparchia</a></i></span> (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010453_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010453-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalian cavalry">from Thessaly</a>, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Prodromoi" title="Prodromoi">prodromoi</a></i></span> cavalry from <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. Antipater was able to quickly levy 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a> when it began in 323 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010454_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010454-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his infantry, the most elite members of his <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypaspistai</i></span> were designated as the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">agema</i></span>, yet a new term for <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypaspistai</i></span> emerged after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC: the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Argyraspides" title="Argyraspides">argyraspides</a></i></span> ('silver shields').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990245_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990245-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, his pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypaspista</i></span> and 9,000 of which were <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pezhetairoi</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455–457_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455–457-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chiliarch" title="Chiliarch">chiliarchs</a></i></span> (units comprising around a thousand men each).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010458–459_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010458–459-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antigonid_period_military">Antigonid period military</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Antigonid period military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_Decree_of_Amphipolis" title="Military Decree of Amphipolis">Military Decree of Amphipolis</a></div> <p>The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">somatophylakes</i></span>, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hypaspistai</i></span> seem to have morphed into assistants of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">somatophylakes</i></span> rather than a separate unit in their own right.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae" title="Battle of Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a> in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010461_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010461-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexander the Great's 'royal squadron' of companion cavalry were similarly numbered to the 800 cavalrymen of the 'sacred squadron' (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sacra ala</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hiera ile</i></span>) commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War</a> of 219 BC. Due to the Roman historian Livy's accounts of the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicus" title="Battle of Callinicus">Callinicus</a> in 171 BC and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">Pydna</a> in 168 BC, it is known that the Macedonian cavalry were also divided into groups with similarly named officers as had existed in Alexander's day. The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the 'sacred squadron' and 'royal cavalry'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010460_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010460-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe">Celtic invaders</a> of the 270s BC who settled in <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>, central Anatolia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010469_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010469-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Several figures dressed in military attire on a warship." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/220px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/330px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png/440px-D473-bir%C3%A8me_romaine-Liv2-ch10.png 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman naval</a> <a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">bireme</a> depicted in a <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> from the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Fortuna_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortuna (mythology)">Fortuna Primigenia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Praeneste" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeneste">Praeneste</a> (<a href="/wiki/Palestrina" title="Palestrina">Palastrina</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaddington2011204,_Plate_12.2_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaddington2011204,_Plate_12.2-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was built <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 120 BC</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoarelli198735–84_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoarelli198735–84-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Museo_Pio-Clementino" class="mw-redirect" title="Museo Pio-Clementino">Museo Pio-Clementino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Thanks to <a href="/wiki/Military_Decree_of_Amphipolis" title="Military Decree of Amphipolis">contemporary inscriptions</a> from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V, such as its command by <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">tetrarchai</i></span> officers assisted by <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">grammateis</i></span> (i.e. secretaries or clerks).<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most elite, veteran Antigonid-period Macedonian infantry from at least the time of Antigonus III Doson were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">peltai</i></span> javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">agema</i></span> <a href="/wiki/Vanguard" title="Vanguard">vanguard</a>, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010462_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010462-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men (the largest figure mentioned by ancient historians, an amount that existed in the Social War of 219 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peltasts fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into 'bronze shield' (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides" title="Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a></i></span>) and 'white shield' (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Leukaspides" title="Leukaspides">leukaspides</a></i></span>) regiments, up until the very end of the kingdom in 168 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463–464_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463–464-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the initiative of Philip II, Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip <a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">the navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> maintained <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">a small fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pydna" title="Pydna">Pydna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 294 – 288 BC</span>) had one at <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 229</span> – 222 BC</span>), while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in <a href="/wiki/Demetrias" title="Demetrias">Demetrias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalkis">Chalkis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>. The navy was considerably expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a> (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy in the 255 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cos" title="Battle of Cos">Battle of Cos</a> and 245 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andros_(246_BC)" title="Battle of Andros (246 BC)">Battle of Andros</a>, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the <a href="/wiki/Cyclades" title="Cyclades">Cyclades</a>. Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, while Philip V allegedly sent two-hundred ships, some of them captured from the Ptolemies, to fight in the (unsuccessful) <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Battle of Chios</a> in 201 BC. The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> that concluded the <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second Macedonian War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Lemboi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemboi">lemboi</a></i></span> at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> in 171 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990248_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990248-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Currency,_finances,_and_resources"><span id="Currency.2C_finances.2C_and_resources"></span>Currency, finances, and resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Currency, finances, and resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Ancient Greek coinage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy of ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="One side of a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The obverse, depicted, shows his profile in armor." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/200px-INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/300px-INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/400px-INC-2032-a_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5_%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Alexander the Great minted at <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, depicting his profile in armor</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">minting</a> of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins in addition to minting copper coins in order to promote foreign and domestic commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoisman2010156–157_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoisman2010156–157-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macedonians were the first who issued different coins for <a href="/wiki/Circulation_(currency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulation (currency)">internal and external circulation</a>, a sophisticated approach which shows an elaborate monetary system at an early date.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKremydi2011163_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKremydi2011163-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to properly pay the soldiers of the Macedonian army with something other than general spoils of war, the minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the <a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills" title="Pangaion Hills">Pangaion Hills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990246_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990246-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Kingdom of Pergamon</a> exercised <a href="/wiki/State_monopoly" title="State monopoly">full monopolistic control</a> over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996379_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996379-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Conquests_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquests of Alexander the Great">conquests of Alexander the Great</a>, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> were producing nearly identical standard coins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeadows2008773_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeadows2008773-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the right to mint coins was shared by the <a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central</a> and some local governments, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Autonomous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a> municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996432–433_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996432–433-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to mining, the crown and central authorities also raised revenues by collecting produce from <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable lands</a>, timber from forests, and <a href="/wiki/Tax#History" title="Tax">taxes</a> on imports and exports at <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king was capable of exploiting the mines, <a href="/wiki/Grove_(nature)" title="Grove (nature)">groves</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">agricultural lands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">forests</a> belonging to the Macedonian state, although these were often <a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">leased</a> as <a href="/wiki/Asset" title="Asset">assets</a> or given as grants to members of the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> such as the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hetairoi</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">philoi</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996434_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996434-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariffs</a> exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a> began since at least the reign of Amyntas III, while the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Oikonomika</i></span> by <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudo-Aristotle</a> explains how <a href="/wiki/Callistratus_of_Aphidnae" title="Callistratus of Aphidnae">Callistratus of Aphidnae</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350 BC</span>) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433–434_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433–434-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoisman2010163_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoisman2010163-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the defeat of Perseus of Macedon at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a> which replaced the Macedonian monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBringmann200799–100_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringmann200799–100-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996373–375_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996373–375-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990216–217,_223_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990216–217,_223-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the monarchy was briefly revived by the <a href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</a> to the throne <a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a> in 150–148 BC, followed by the Roman victory in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBringmann2007104–105_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringmann2007104–105-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckstein2010247–248_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein2010247–248-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990203–205,_216–217_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990203–205,_216–217-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman-era historians Livy and Diodorus Siculus asserted that the law was originally conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990223_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990223-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also possible that the Romans were concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased <a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">money supply</a> from Macedonian silver mining.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996374-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC, and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may have only reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Ancient Macedonian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Macedonia" title="Demographic history of Macedonia">Demographic history of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">List of ancient Macedonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonians_(Greeks)" title="Macedonians (Greeks)">Macedonians (Greeks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contrary to Carol J. King, however, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Macedon">the king</a> and involving a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">popular assembly</a> of the army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200112–13_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200112–13-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 446–447 writes the following: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>' in particular and the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>'... In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid army</a> ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an argument about the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a> of the Macedonian monarchy, see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the <a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Military campaigns of Alexander the Great">military campaigns of Alexander the Great</a> in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380–381_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010380–381-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/N.G.L._Hammond" class="mw-redirect" title="N.G.L. Hammond">N.G.L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F.W._Walbank" class="mw-redirect" title="F.W. Walbank">F.W. Walbank</a> state that the royal pages are attested to as far back as the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200113_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200113-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12: under <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a>'s oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachma</a></i></span>. <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> reconquered the city, which came under the regency of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">drachma</i></span>, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a> was restored. <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I of Egypt">Ptolemy I of Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a>, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> conquered both Macedonia and then <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Greece">mainland Greece</a> by 146 BC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a>; see <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 238; 247 writes the following: "the crucial necessity of <a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">drilling</a> troops must have become clear to Philip at the latest during his time as a hostage in <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–456; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: in regards to both the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Argyraspides" title="Argyraspides">argyraspides</a></i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides" title="Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a></i></span>, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_V._Sekunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas V. Sekunda">Nicholas V. Sekunda</a> and in discussing the discrepancies among <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_historiographers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek historiographers">ancient historians</a> about the size of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army, <a href="/wiki/N.G.L._Hammond" class="mw-redirect" title="N.G.L. Hammond">N.G.L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F.W._Walbank" class="mw-redirect" title="F.W. Walbank">F.W. Walbank</a> choose <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200122–23_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200122–23-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 459; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>. One is the evolution of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i></span> from an elite unit to a form of <a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">military police</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bodyguard" title="Bodyguard">bodyguard</a> under <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a>; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 242–243 for further details.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 461–462; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245 writes the following: "The other development, which happened at the latest under <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Doson</a>, was the formation and training of a special unit of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltastai</a></i></span> separate from the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">phalanx</a>. This unit operated as a form of <a href="/wiki/Royal_guard" title="Royal guard">royal guard</a> similar in function to the earlier <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a></i></span>."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010373-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010373_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 373.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010373–374-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010373–374_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 373–374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200112–13-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200112–13_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010446–447-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010446–447_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 446–447.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing201036–37-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing201036–37_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220–221-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220–221_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010375-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGranier19314–28,_48–57-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGranier19314–28,_48–57_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGranier1931">Granier 1931</a>, pp. 4–28, 48–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010374–375-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010374–375_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 374–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Francisci1948345–435-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Francisci1948345–435_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Francisci1948">de Francisci 1948</a>, pp. 345–435.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990220_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010375–376-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010375–376_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 375–376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010376-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010376_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010376–377-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010376–377_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 376–377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010377-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010377_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010378-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010378_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010379-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010379_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010379_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 379.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990222_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990221-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990221_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010380-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2010345–346-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlbrycht2010345–346_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 345–346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010403–405-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010403–405_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 403–405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010380–381-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010380–381_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 380–381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200113-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200113_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010381-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010381_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010381_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010403-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010403_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010404–405-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010404–405_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 404–405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010405-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010405_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 405.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010405–406-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010405–406_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 405–406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010406-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010406_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010382-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010382_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010382_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010404-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010404_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 404.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010384-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010384_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESawada2010382–383-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESawada2010382–383_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 382–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank20015,_12-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank20015,_12_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5, 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010384–389-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010384–389_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 384–389.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010383–384-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010383–384_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 383–384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990119–120-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990119–120_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2010390-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2010390_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmemiya200711–12-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmemiya200711–12_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990229–230-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990229–230_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 229–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990230-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990230_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231–232-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990231–232_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 231–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996365–366-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996365–366_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 365–366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996366–367-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996366–367_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996367–369-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996367–369_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 367–369.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996368–369-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996368–369_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 368–369.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990242-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990242_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 447.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990243–244-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990243–244_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 243–244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447–448-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010447–448_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 447–448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010448–449_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 448–449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239,_243–244-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238–239,_243–244_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239, 243–244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990239–240-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990239–240_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 239–240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–450-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–450_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990238_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010450_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990244-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990244_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010452_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010451_72-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990241–242_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 241–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–451-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010449–451_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–451.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990247–248_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 247–248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200124–26-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200124–26_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 24–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010453-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010453_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 453.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010454-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010454_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 455.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990245-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990245_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455–457-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010455–457_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–457.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200122–23-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammondWalbank200122–23_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010458–459-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010458–459_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 458–459.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010461-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010461_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 461.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010460-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010460_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 460.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010469-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010469_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 469.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaddington2011204,_Plate_12.2-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaddington2011204,_Plate_12.2_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaddington2011">Saddington 2011</a>, pp. 204, Plate 12.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoarelli198735–84-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoarelli198735–84_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoarelli1987">Coarelli 1987</a>, pp. 35–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010462-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010462_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463–464-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESekunda2010463–464_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 463–464.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990248-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990248_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoisman2010156–157-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoisman2010156–157_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKremydi2011163-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKremydi2011163_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKremydi2011">Kremydi 2011</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990246-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990246_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996379-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996379_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 379.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeadows2008773-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeadows2008773_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeadows2008">Meadows 2008</a>, p. 773.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996432–433-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996432–433_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 432–433.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 433.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996434-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996434_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433–434-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHatzopoulos1996433–434_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 433–434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoisman2010163-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoisman2010163_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringmann200799–100-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBringmann200799–100_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996373–375-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996373–375_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 373–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990216–217,_223-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990216–217,_223_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 216–217, 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringmann2007104–105-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBringmann2007104–105_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein2010247–248-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEckstein2010247–248_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 247–248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990203–205,_216–217-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990203–205,_216–217_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 203–205, 216–217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374–375_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, pp. 374–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington1990223-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErrington1990223_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreister1996374-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreister1996374_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreister1996">Treister 1996</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAmemiya2007" class="citation book cs1">Amemiya, Takeshi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AGTAgAAQBAJ"><i>Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece</i></a>. London & New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-70154-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-70154-9"><bdi>978-0-415-70154-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economy+and+Economics+of+Ancient+Greece&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-70154-9&rft.aulast=Amemiya&rft.aufirst=Takeshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AGTAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBringmann2007" class="citation book cs1">Bringmann, Klaus (2007) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745633701"><i>A History of the Roman Republic</i></a>. Translated by Smyth, W. J. Cambridge & Malden: Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3371-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3371-8"><bdi>978-0-7456-3371-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+Malden&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3371-8&rft.aulast=Bringmann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polity.co.uk%2Fbook.asp%3Fref%3D9780745633701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoarelli1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Coarelli, Filipp (1987). <i>I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana</i> (in Italian). Rome: NIS. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-430-0679-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-430-0679-3"><bdi>978-88-430-0679-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Santuari+del+Lazio+in+et%C3%A0+repubblicana&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=NIS&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-88-430-0679-3&rft.aulast=Coarelli&rft.aufirst=Filipp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Francisci1948" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Francisci, Pietro (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sudoc.abes.fr/DB=2.1//SRCH?IKT=12&TRM=06072403X&COOKIE=U10178,Klecteurweb,I250,B341720009+,SY,NLECTEUR+WEBOPC,D2.1,E420a3868-3fa,A,H,R68.100.129.235,FY"><i>Arcana Imperii II</i></a> (in Italian). Vol. 1. Milan: A. Giuffrè. pp. IV–495. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490968395">490968395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arcana+Imperii+II&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=IV-495&rft.pub=A.+Giuffr%C3%A8&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490968395&rft.aulast=de+Francisci&rft.aufirst=Pietro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sudoc.abes.fr%2FDB%3D2.1%2F%2FSRCH%3FIKT%3D12%26TRM%3D06072403X%26COOKIE%3DU10178%2CKlecteurweb%2CI250%2CB341720009%2B%2CSY%2CNLECTEUR%2BWEBOPC%2CD2.1%2CE420a3868-3fa%2CA%2CH%2CR68.100.129.235%2CFY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Eckstein, Arthur M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonia and Rome, 221–146 BC"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 225–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Macedonia+and+Rome%2C+221%E2%80%93146+BC&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=225-250&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Eckstein&rft.aufirst=Arthur+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErrington1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington" title="Robert Malcolm Errington">Errington, Robert Malcolm</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC"><i>A History of Macedonia</i></a>. Translated by Catherine Errington. Berkeley, Los Angeles, & Oxford: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06319-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-06319-8"><bdi>0-520-06319-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Macedonia&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%2C+%26+Oxford&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-520-06319-8&rft.aulast=Errington&rft.aufirst=Robert+Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranier1931" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Granier, Friedrich (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up"><i>Die makedonische Heeresversammlung: ein Beitrag zum antiken Staatsrecht</i></a>. Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und antiken Rechtsgeschichte 13. Heft (in German). Munich: CH Beck Verlag. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9909564">9909564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+makedonische+Heeresversammlung%3A+ein+Beitrag+zum+antiken+Staatsrecht&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=M%C3%BCnchener+Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Papyrusforschung+und+antiken+Rechtsgeschichte+13.+Heft&rft.pub=CH+Beck+Verlag&rft.date=1931&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9909564&rft.aulast=Granier&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondWalbank2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière</a>; <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">Walbank, Frank William</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpb3JdwuDQIC"><i>A History of Macedonia: 336–167 B.C.</i></a> Vol. 3 (reprint ed.). Oxford & New York: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814815-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814815-1"><bdi>0-19-814815-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Macedonia%3A+336%E2%80%93167+B.C.&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press+of+the+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-814815-1&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft.au=Walbank%2C+Frank+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqpb3JdwuDQIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatzopoulos1996" class="citation book cs1">Hatzopoulos, M. B. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qTRBAAAAMAAJ"><i>Macedonian Institutions Under the Kings: a Historical and Epigraphic Study</i></a>. Vol. 1. Athens & Paris: Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation; Diffusion de Boccard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-7094-90-5" title="Special:BookSources/960-7094-90-5"><bdi>960-7094-90-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Macedonian+Institutions+Under+the+Kings%3A+a+Historical+and+Epigraphic+Study&rft.place=Athens+%26+Paris&rft.pub=Research+Centre+for+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquity%2C+National+Hellenic+Research+Foundation%3B+Diffusion+de+Boccard&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=960-7094-90-5&rft.aulast=Hatzopoulos&rft.aufirst=M.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqTRBAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Carol J. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 373–391. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Macedonian+Kingship+and+Other+Political+Institutions&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=373-391&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Carol+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKremydi2011" class="citation book cs1">Kremydi, S. (2011). "Coinage and Finance". In Lane Fox, Robin James (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr"><i>Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon</i></a></span>. Leiden: Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brillscompaniont00foxr/page/n173">159</a>–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20650-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20650-2"><bdi>978-90-04-20650-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Coinage+and+Finance&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedon&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=159-178&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20650-2&rft.aulast=Kremydi&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrillscompaniont00foxr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeadows2008" class="citation book cs1">Meadows, Andrew (2008). "Technologies of Calculation, Part 2: Coinage". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a>. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 769–776. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Technologies+of+Calculation%2C+Part+2%3A+Coinage&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Engineering+and+Technology+in+the+Classical+World&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.pages=769-776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518731-1&rft.aulast=Meadows&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtjrRCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlbrycht2010" class="citation book cs1">Olbrycht, Marck Jan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Macedonia and Persia"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 342–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Macedonia+and+Persia&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=342-370&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Olbrycht&rft.aufirst=Marck+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoisman2010" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 145–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+Macedonia+to+Perdiccas+III&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=145-165&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaddington2011" class="citation book cs1">Saddington, D. B. (2011) [2007]. "Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1D612o_X2VYC"><i>A Companion to the Roman Army</i></a>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 201–217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-2153-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classes%3A+the+Evolution+of+the+Roman+Imperial+Fleets&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=201-217&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8&rft.aulast=Saddington&rft.aufirst=D.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1D612o_X2VYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawada2010" class="citation book cs1">Sawada, Noriko (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 392–408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Customs+and+Institutions%3A+Aspects+of+Macedonian+Elite+Society&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=392-408&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Sawada&rft.aufirst=Noriko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekunda2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Sekunda" title="Nicholas Sekunda">Sekunda, Nicholas Victor</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Macedonian Army"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i>. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Macedonian+Army&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+Chichester%2C+%26+Malden&rft.pages=446-471&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Sekunda&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreister1996" class="citation book cs1">Treister, Michail Yu (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dcTexDa4I0kC&pg=PA375"><i>The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History</i></a>. Leiden, New York, Köln: E. J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10473-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10473-9"><bdi>90-04-10473-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+Metals+in+Ancient+Greek+History&rft.place=Leiden%2C+New+York%2C+K%C3%B6ln&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=90-04-10473-9&rft.aulast=Treister&rft.aufirst=Michail+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdcTexDa4I0kC%26pg%3DPA375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGovernment+of+Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Greek_Macedonia" title="Template:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="View this template" style="color: blue">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_Macedonia" title="Template talk:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color: blue">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_Macedonia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color: blue">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Macedonia_(Greece)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia (Greece)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonians_(Greeks)" title="Macedonians (Greeks)">Macedonians (Greeks)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonians_(Greek)" title="List of Macedonians (Greek)">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thessaloniki" title="History of the Jews in Thessaloniki">Jews of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_speakers_of_Greek_Macedonia" title="Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia">Slavic speakers</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><i><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Bulgarians" title="Macedonian Bulgarians">Macedonian Bulgarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Macedonians">Ethnic Macedonians</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanians" title="Megleno-Romanians">Megleno-Romanians</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/75px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/113px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/150px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Ancient Macedonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Roman Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">Barbarian invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(theme)" title="Macedonia (theme)">Theme of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalonica_(theme)" title="Thessalonica (theme)">Theme of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strymon_(theme)" title="Strymon (theme)">Theme of Strymon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thessalonica_(904)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (904)">Sack of Thessalonica (904)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_wars" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian wars">Byzantine–Bulgarian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thessalonica_(1185)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (1185)">Sack of Thessalonica (1185)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Thessalonica" title="Kingdom of Thessalonica">Kingdom of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Empire of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%931328" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328">Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealots_of_Thessalonica" title="Zealots of Thessalonica">Zealots of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">Byzantine–Ottoman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)">Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumelia_Eyalet" title="Rumelia Eyalet">Rumelia Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence#Macedonia" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manastir_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Manastir Vilayet">Manastir Vilayet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Monastir" title="Sanjak of Monastir">Sanjak of Monastir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Serfi%C4%9Fe" title="Sanjak of Serfiğe">Sanjak of Serfiğe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salonica_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Salonica Vilayet">Salonica Vilayet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Drama" title="Sanjak of Drama">Sanjak of Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Salonica" title="Sanjak of Salonica">Sanjak of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Siroz" title="Sanjak of Siroz">Sanjak of Siroz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Struggle" title="Macedonian Struggle">Macedonian Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_front" title="Macedonian front">Macedonian front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Defence" title="Provisional Government of National Defence">Provisional Government of National Defence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Axis occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_naming_dispute" title="Macedonia naming dispute">Macedonia naming dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prespa_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prespa agreement">Prespa agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace">Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia" title="Western Macedonia">Western Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Eastern Macedonia and Thrace">Eastern Macedonia and Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agios_Dimitrios_Power_Plant" title="Agios Dimitrios Power Plant">Agios Dimitrios Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntaio_Power_Plant" title="Amyntaio Power Plant">Amyntaio Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drama_coal_mine" title="Drama coal mine">Drama coal mine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerakini_mine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerakini mine (page does not exist)">Gerakini mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_mine" title="Olympias mine">Olympias mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piavitsa_mine" title="Piavitsa mine">Piavitsa mine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Port_of_Kavala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Port of Kavala (page does not exist)">Port of Kavala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Thessaloniki" title="Port of Thessaloniki">Port of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prinos_oil_field" title="Prinos oil field">Prinos oil field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaida-Florina_coal_mine" title="Ptolemaida-Florina coal mine">Ptolemaida-Florina coal mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skouries_mine" title="Skouries mine">Skouries mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratoni_mine" title="Stratoni mine">Stratoni mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki_International_Fair" title="Thessaloniki International Fair">Thessaloniki International Fair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavala" title="Kavala">Kavala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastoria" title="Kastoria">Kastoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serres" title="Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Veria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katerini" title="Katerini">Katerini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Greece" title="Edessa, Greece">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florina" title="Florina">Florina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drama,_Greece" title="Drama, Greece">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naousa,_Imathia" title="Naousa, Imathia">Naousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kozani" title="Kozani">Kozani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siatista" title="Siatista">Siatista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilkis" title="Kilkis">Kilkis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities in Greece">Other</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vardar" title="Vardar">Axios River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doiran_Lake" title="Doiran Lake">Doiran Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falakro" title="Falakro">Falakro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallikos_(river)" title="Gallikos (river)">Galikos River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliacmon" title="Haliacmon">Haliacmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Kerkini" title="Lake Kerkini">Lake Kerkini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Koroneia" title="Lake Koroneia">Lake Koroneia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Orestiada" title="Lake Orestiada">Lake Orestiada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Prespa" title="Lake Prespa">Lake Prespa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_Prespa_Lake" title="Small Prespa Lake">Small Prespa Lake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Vegoritida" title="Lake Vegoritida">Lake Vegoritida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Volvi" title="Lake Volvi">Lake Volvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Paiko" title="Mount Paiko">Mount Paiko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestos_(river)" title="Nestos (river)">Nestos (river)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills" title="Pangaion Hills">Pangaion Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindus" title="Pindus">Pindus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pindus_National_Park" title="Pindus National Park">Pindus National Park</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petralona_cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Petralona cave">Petralona cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struma_(river)" title="Struma (river)">Strymon River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasilitsa" title="Vasilitsa">Vasilitsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermio_Mountains" title="Vermio Mountains">Vermio Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kato_Vermio" title="Kato Vermio">Seli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verno" title="Verno">Verno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voras_Mountains" title="Voras Mountains">Voras Mountains</a></li> <li><b>Islands</b>: <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammouliani" title="Ammouliani">Ammouliani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrion_(Litochoro)" title="Alexandrion (Litochoro)">Alexandrion (Litochoro)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Amphipolis" title="Lion of Amphipolis">Lion of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb" title="Kasta Tomb">Kasta Tomb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Archaeological_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Dion, Archaeological Park">Archaeological Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_theatre_of_Dion" title="Hellenistic theatre of Dion">Hellenistic theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Judgement,_Lefkadia" title="Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia">Tomb of Judgement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Palmettes" title="Tomb of the Palmettes">Tomb of the Palmettes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleochristian_and_Byzantine_monuments_of_Thessaloniki" title="Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki">Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platamon_Castle" title="Platamon Castle">Platamon Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a></li> <li><i>Museums </i>: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Amphipolis" title="Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis">Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aiani_Archaeological_Museum" title="Aiani Archaeological Museum">Aiani Archaeological Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Archaeological_Museum" title="Dion, Archaeological Museum">Archaeological Museum of Dion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki" title="Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki">Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Byzantine culture">Museum of Byzantine culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun" title="Vergina Sun">Vergina Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Flag of Macedonia (Greece)">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Music of Macedonia (Greece)">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_cuisine_(Greek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian cuisine (Greek)">Cuisine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background: #cedff2;"><div><b>Greek Macedonia Portal</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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