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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endogenous_vs._exogenous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Endogenous vs. exogenous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endogenous_vs._exogenous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Implications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Implications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habitat_and_biodiversity_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat_and_biodiversity_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Habitat and biodiversity loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_and_biodiversity_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Informed_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informed_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Informed conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informed_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Genetic risks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gene_Flow_and_Inbreeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_Flow_and_Inbreeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Gene Flow and Inbreeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_Flow_and_Inbreeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Genetic drift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_consequences_of_habitat_fragmentation_for_plant_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_consequences_of_habitat_fragmentation_for_plant_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2.1</span> <span>Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_consequences_of_habitat_fragmentation_for_plant_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Adaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_impacted_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_impacted_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Examples of impacted species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_impacted_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_animal_behaviours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_animal_behaviours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Effect on animal behaviours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_animal_behaviours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Predation_behaviours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predation_behaviours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Predation behaviours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predation_behaviours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boreal_woodland_caribous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boreal_woodland_caribous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.1</span> <span>Boreal woodland caribous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boreal_woodland_caribous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication_behaviours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication_behaviours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Communication behaviours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication_behaviours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_microorganisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_microorganisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Effect on microorganisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_microorganisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_mutualistic_and_antagonistic_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_mutualistic_and_antagonistic_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_mutualistic_and_antagonistic_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_ecosystem_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_ecosystem_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Effect on ecosystem services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_ecosystem_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Forest fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forest_fragmentation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forest fragmentation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forest_fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Implications_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_forest_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_forest_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Sustainable forest management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_forest_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches_to_understanding_habitat_fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_to_understanding_habitat_fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Approaches_to_understanding_habitat_fragmentation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Approaches_to_understanding_habitat_fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Species-oriented_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Species-oriented_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Species-oriented approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Species-oriented_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pattern-oriented_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern-oriented_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Pattern-oriented approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern-oriented_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variegation_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variegation_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Variegation model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variegation_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat fragmentation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86" title="تجزؤ الموطن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجزؤ الموطن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Раздробяване на местообитанията – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Раздробяване на местообитанията" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentacija_stani%C5%A1ta" title="Fragmentacija staništa – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fragmentacija staništa" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentaci%C3%B3_de_l%27h%C3%A0bitat" title="Fragmentació de l'hàbitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fragmentació de l'hàbitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitattrennung" title="Habitattrennung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Habitattrennung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elupaiga_fragmenteerumine" title="Elupaiga fragmenteerumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elupaiga fragmenteerumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentaci%C3%B3n_de_h%C3%A1bitat" title="Fragmentación de hábitat – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fragmentación de hábitat" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitata_fragmentado" title="Habitata fragmentado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Habitata fragmentado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87" title="گسستگی زیستگاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گسستگی زیستگاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentation_(%C3%A9cologie)" title="Fragmentation (écologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fragmentation (écologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentaci%C3%B3n_do_h%C3%A1bitat" title="Fragmentación do hábitat – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fragmentación do hábitat" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%8B%9D%EC%A7%80_%EB%8B%A8%ED%8E%B8%ED%99%94" title="서식지 단편화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서식지 단편화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%A8" title="पर्यावास विखंडन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पर्यावास विखंडन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentasi_habitat" title="Fragmentasi habitat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fragmentasi habitat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frammentazione_ambientale" title="Frammentazione ambientale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Frammentazione ambientale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentasi_habitat" title="Fragmentasi habitat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fragmentasi habitat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitatfragmentatie" title="Habitatfragmentatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Habitatfragmentatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%81%AF%E5%9C%B0%E5%88%86%E6%96%AD%E5%8C%96" title="生息地分断化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生息地分断化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentacion_ecologica" title="Fragmentacion ecologica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fragmentacion ecologica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentacja_siedliska" title="Fragmentacja siedliska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fragmentacja siedliska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmenta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_habitat" title="Fragmentação de habitat – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fragmentação de habitat" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фрагментация среды обитания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фрагментация среды обитания" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Habitat fragmentation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Фрагментација станишта – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фрагментација станишта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmentering_(ekologi)" title="Fragmentering (ekologi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fragmentering (ekologi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="வாழிடத் துண்டாக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வாழிடத் துண்டாக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_par%C3%A7alanmas%C4%B1" title="Habitat parçalanması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Habitat parçalanması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Discontinuities in an organism's environment causing population fragmentation.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grasp_africa-vi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Grasp_africa-vi.png/220px-Grasp_africa-vi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Grasp_africa-vi.png 1.5x" data-file-width="251" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Predicted fragmentation and destruction of <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Great Ape</a> habitat in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/GLOBIO_Model" title="GLOBIO Model">GLOBIO</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and GRASP projects in 2002. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/250px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/375px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/500px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. France is the most deforested country in Europe, with only 15% of the native vegetation remaining.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sugarcane_Deforestation,_Bolivia,_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/250px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/375px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/500px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5270" data-file-height="3953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, 2016.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Habitat fragmentation</b> describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred <a href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a>), causing <a href="/wiki/Population_fragmentation" title="Population fragmentation">population fragmentation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_decay" title="Ecosystem decay">ecosystem decay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Causes of habitat fragmentation include <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (suspected of being <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">one of the major causes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a><sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and human activity such as <a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">land conversion</a>, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of many species. More specifically, <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena: </p> <ul><li>Reduction in the total area of the habitat</li> <li>Decrease of the interior: <a href="/wiki/Edge_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge effect">edge</a> ratio</li> <li>Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat</li> <li>Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches</li> <li>Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat</li></ul> <p>"fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (April 2018)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup>. Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>, or whether the term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2003_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would refer to the loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat. </p><p>Furthermore, habitat fragmentation is considered as an invasive threat to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, due to its implications of affecting large number of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> than <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">biological invasions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddad2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddad2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as <a href="/wiki/Native_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Native plant">native plants</a>, to be able to effectively adapt to their changing environments. Ultimately, this prevents <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a> from one generation of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population</a> to the next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">genetic mutations</a> which can arise and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a> impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat loss</a> which both tie into destructing <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> as a whole. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_causes">Natural causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Natural causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence of <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> through natural processes such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>, fire, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate change</a> is found in the fossil record.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (February 2018)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup>Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level<sup id="cite_ref-auto_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the period of 1955-1978<sup id="cite_ref-auto_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>and also, <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" title="Carboniferous rainforest collapse">habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica</a> 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_causes">Human causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Human causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when <a href="/wiki/Native_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Native plant">native plants</a> are cleared for human activities such as <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subdivision_(land)" title="Subdivision (land)">rural development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in the near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> farming in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>. In the wheat belt of central-western <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the <a href="/wiki/Tall_grass_prairie" class="mw-redirect" title="Tall grass prairie">tall grass prairie</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endogenous_vs._exogenous">Endogenous vs. exogenous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Endogenous vs. exogenous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have a substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_and_biodiversity_loss">Habitat and biodiversity loss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Habitat and biodiversity loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></div> <p>One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants and other <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-Lienert2004_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lienert2004-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habitat fragmentation consistently reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75% and impairs key ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and altering <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycles</a>. This underscores the severe and lasting ecological impacts of fragmentation, which could be highlighted in the sections discussing the consequences of fragmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p><p> Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2003_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), has been suggested to be small.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2013_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2013-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2017_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent size.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2017_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2017_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2017-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg/300px-Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg/450px-Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg/600px-Indiana_Dunes_Habitat_Fragmentation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Dunes_National_Park" title="Indiana Dunes National Park">Indiana Dunes National Park</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenzweig_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenzweig-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenzweig_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenzweig-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asynchronous" class="extiw" title="wikt:asynchronous">asynchronously</a>. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_(biology)" title="Colonisation (biology)">immigrants</a> by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_spotted_frog" title="Columbia spotted frog">Columbia spotted frog</a> are reliant on the <a href="/wiki/Rescue_effect" title="Rescue effect">rescue effect</a>. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to <a href="/wiki/Edge_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge effect">edge effects</a>. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Fires</a> become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the remaining terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a> habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through the development of <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban expansion</a> such as roads interfering with <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>. Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interbasin_transfer" title="Interbasin transfer">water diversions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Habitat_Loss_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Habitat_Loss-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes.<sup id="cite_ref-Habitat_Loss_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Habitat_Loss-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although the counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddad2015_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddad2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informed_conservation">Informed conservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Informed conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming <a href="/wiki/Threatened" class="mw-redirect" title="Threatened">threatened</a> or <a href="/wiki/Endangered" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered">endangered</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a <a href="/wiki/Conservation_reliant_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation reliant species">conservation reliant species</a> may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the validity of this claim has been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Fahrig2013_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fahrig2013-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation is often referred to as <a href="/wiki/SLOSS_debate" title="SLOSS debate">SLOSS</a> (Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting <a href="/wiki/Habitat_corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat corridor">corridors</a> of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers. </p><p>Due to the continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at <a href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">green roofs</a> being possible vectors of habitat corridors. A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore. </p><p>The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of <a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">metapopulations</a> <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_risks">Genetic risks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Genetic risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, have a smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However, in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Borrell2018_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borrell2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gene_Flow_and_Inbreeding">Gene Flow and Inbreeding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gene Flow and Inbreeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a> occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migration</a>. When a habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lienert2004_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lienert2004-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a> between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding is associated with fitness reduction it is called <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>. Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of <a href="/wiki/Homozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygosity">homozygosity</a> increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Pavolva2017_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pavolva2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_drift">Genetic drift</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Genetic drift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Small populations are more susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>. Genetic drift is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for the genetic diversity of the populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Pavolva2017_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pavolva2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less.<sup id="cite_ref-Borrell2018_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borrell2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Genetic_consequences_of_habitat_fragmentation_for_plant_populations">Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a> and increased methods of inter-population <a href="/wiki/Genetic_divergence" title="Genetic divergence">genetic divergence</a> due to increased effects of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">random genetic drift</a>, elevating <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">inbreeding</a> and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down local genetic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adaptation">Adaptation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_impacted_species">Examples of impacted species</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Examples of impacted species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macquarie_perch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Macquarie_perch.jpg/220px-Macquarie_perch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Macquarie_perch.jpg/330px-Macquarie_perch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Macquarie_perch.jpg/440px-Macquarie_perch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1062" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>Macquarie perch</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Macquaria_australasica" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquaria australasica">Macquaria australasica</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Pavolva2017_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pavolva2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fagus_sylvatica" title="Fagus sylvatica">Fagus sylvatica</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Betula_nana" title="Betula nana">Betula nana</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Borrell2018_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borrell2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhinella_ornata" title="Rhinella ornata">Rhinella ornata</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ochotona_princeps" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochotona princeps">Ochotona princeps</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uta_stansburiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Uta stansburiana">Uta stansburiana</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Delany2010_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delany2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plestiodon_skiltonianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Plestiodon skiltonianus">Plestiodon skiltonianus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Delany2010_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delany2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sceloporus_occidentalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sceloporus occidentalis">Sceloporus occidentalis</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Delany2010_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delany2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chamaea_fasciata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamaea fasciata">Chamaea fasciata</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Delany2010_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delany2010-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_animal_behaviours">Effect on animal behaviours</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effect on animal behaviours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at a great risk and further decreases their chances of survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddad2015_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddad2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Predation_behaviours">Predation behaviours</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Predation behaviours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species.<sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community <sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so-called "behavioral space race".<sup id="cite_ref-Shneider2001_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shneider2001-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap.<sup id="cite_ref-Shneider2001_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shneider2001-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner.<sup id="cite_ref-Shneider2001_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shneider2001-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey.<sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.<sup id="cite_ref-Banks2007_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2007-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Boreal_woodland_caribous">Boreal woodland caribous</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Boreal woodland caribous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMars2017_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMars2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMars2017_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMars2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMars2017_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMars2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communication_behaviours">Communication behaviours</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Communication behaviours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMars2017_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMars2017-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Larks have two distinct vocalizations, the song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song.<sup id="cite_ref-Laiolo2005_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laiolo2005-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Laiolo2007_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laiolo2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted.<sup id="cite_ref-Laiolo2005_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laiolo2005-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Laiolo2007_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laiolo2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.<sup id="cite_ref-Laiolo2007_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laiolo2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Humans</a> have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for <a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a> industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">aquatic insects</a> are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Polarized_light_pollution" title="Polarized light pollution">polarized light</a> to guide them, however, due to <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_microorganisms">Effect on microorganisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Effect on microorganisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on the <a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a> of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to.<sup id="cite_ref-Nordén2013_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nordén2013-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, edge effects have been shown to result in significantly varied <a href="/wiki/Microenvironment_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microenvironment (ecology)">microenvironments</a> compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">generalist</a> species to thrive at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">specialists</a> that depend on specific environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Nordén2013_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nordén2013-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_mutualistic_and_antagonistic_relationships">Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effect on mutualistic and antagonistic relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivory</a>, to a less degree.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the mutualistic relationship between <i><a href="/wiki/Mesogyne_insignis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesogyne insignis">Mesogyne insignis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Megachile" title="Megachile">Megachile</a></i>. A study has found greater <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> and increased fruit production of <i>M. insignis</i> in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation, a study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the <a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">edge effect</a> hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_ecosystem_services">Effect on ecosystem services</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Effect on ecosystem services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Habitat fragmentation has profound effects on <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>, impacting nutrient retention, species richness, and local biophysical conditions. Fragmentation-mediated processes cause generalizable responses at the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> levels, resulting in decreased nutrient retention.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, habitat fragmentation alters relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning across multiple scales, affecting both the local loss of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and the local loss of function.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, fragmentation can change the <a href="/wiki/Microclimate" title="Microclimate">microclimate</a> at both local and regional scales, influencing biodiversity through interactions with anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, habitat fragmentation significantly disrupts ecosystem services by altering nutrient retention, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning at various spatial and temporal scales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forest_fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Forest fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this section be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> out into another article. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Habitat_fragmentation" title="Talk:Habitat fragmentation">Discuss</a>) <small><i>(November 2022)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Forest_fragmentation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p>Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010LinksDiversityVertebrates-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, <a href="/wiki/Farmland" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmland">farmland</a>, or developed areas. Following the principles of <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a>, remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_decay" title="Ecosystem decay">ecosystem decay</a>. </p><p>Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell2005_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees <sup id="cite_ref-Russell2005_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and grassland species,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage. </p><p>Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> and making them less likely to perform <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">interbreeding</a> - lowering genetic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, forest fragmentation affects the native plant species present within the area by dividing large populations into smaller ones. In turn, smaller populations are more inclined to be affected by genetic drift and population performance, as well as experience increases in inbreeding activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, fragmentation can affect the relationship present between animals and plants, such as the relationships regarding seed-dispersal or pollinator-plant relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implications_2">Implications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> in forests, especially in the tropics.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem of <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by: </p> <ul><li>the inability of individual forest fragments to support viable populations, especially of large vertebrates</li> <li>the local <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of species that do not have at least one fragment capable of supporting a viable population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge effect">edge effects</a> that alter the conditions of the outer areas of the fragment, greatly reducing the amount of true forest interior habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The effect of fragmentation on the <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and the contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforested</a> or allowed to <a href="/wiki/Natural_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural regeneration">regenerate</a>, the increasing <a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_diversity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Structural diversity (page does not exist)">structural diversity</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the <a href="/wiki/Biota_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biota (biology)">biota</a> within them, are often highly isolated. </p><p>Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support the same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Maulino_forest" title="Maulino forest">Maulino forest</a> of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bosque2020-3_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosque2020-3-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> released a university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and the pattern that long temporal scales are required to discern many strong system responses.<sup id="cite_ref-Haddad2015_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haddad2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainable_forest_management">Sustainable forest management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sustainable forest management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> in adjacent <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production, <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticide regulation">pesticide regulation</a>, carbon storage, <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a>, and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec, Canada</a>. Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> (beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a> to risk further loss. </p><p>There is a high industrial demand for <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">pulp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, and other resources which the <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The <a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance" title="Rainforest Alliance">rainforest alliance</a> has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. Their <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">tree</a> species to maintain <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>, and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">wildlife species</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">forest fires</a> can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>’s culturally and ecologically significant <a href="/wiki/Pet%C3%A9n_Department" title="Petén Department">Petén</a> region, researchers were able to find over a 20-year period, actively managed <a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a>-certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas.<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Sustainable_Forestry-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>, such as e.g. verifying <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks.</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches_to_understanding_habitat_fragmentation">Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Species-oriented_approach">Species-oriented approach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Species-oriented approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pattern-oriented_approach">Pattern-oriented approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Pattern-oriented approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pattern-oriented approach is based on land cover and its patterning in correlation with species occurrences. One model of study for landscape patterning is the patch-matrix-corridor model developed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Forman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Forman">Richard Forman</a> The pattern-oriented approach focuses on land cover defined by human means and activities. This model has stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a> and tries to infer causal relationships between the defined landscapes and the occurrence of species or groups of species within them. The approach has limitations in its collective assumptions across species or landscapes which may not account for variations amongst them.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Variegation_model">Variegation model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Variegation model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other model is the variegation model. Variegated landscapes retain much of their natural vegetation but are intermixed with gradients of modified habitat <sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model of habitat fragmentation typically applies to landscapes that are modified by agriculture. In contrast to the fragmentation model that is denoted by isolated patches of habitat surrounded by unsuitable landscape environments, the variegation model applies to landscapes modified by agriculture where small patches of habitat remain near the remnant original habitat. In between these patches are a matrix of grassland that is often modified versions of the original habitat. These areas do not present as much of a barrier to native species.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lindenmayer D.B & Fischer J (2013) <i>Habitat Fragmentation and Landscape Change: An Ecological and Conservation Synthesis</i> (Island Press)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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(May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x">"Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis"</a>. <i>Global Ecology and Biogeography</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 265–280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GloEB..16..265F">2007GloEB..16..265F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1466-8238.2007.00287.x">10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1466-822X">1466-822X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Ecology+and+Biogeography&rft.atitle=Landscape+modification+and+habitat+fragmentation%3A+a+synthesis&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-280&rft.date=2007-05&rft.issn=1466-822X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1466-8238.2007.00287.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007GloEB..16..265F&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Joern&rft.au=Lindenmayer%2C+David+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1466-8238.2007.00287.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitat+fragmentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="2" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.veac.vic.gov.au/reports/Chapter%202%20-%20Landscape%20Ecology%20and%20Landscape%20Change.pdf">"Landscape Ecology and Landscape Change"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Landscape+Ecology+and+Landscape+Change&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.veac.vic.gov.au%2Freports%2FChapter%25202%2520-%2520Landscape%2520Ecology%2520and%2520Landscape%2520Change.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitat+fragmentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntyreBarrett1992" class="citation journal cs1">McIntyre, S.; Barrett, G. W. (1992). "Habitat Variegation, An Alternative to Fragmentation". <i>Conservation Biology</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 146–147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992ConBi...6..146M">1992ConBi...6..146M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1992.610146.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610146.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2385863">2385863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=Habitat+Variegation%2C+An+Alternative+to+Fragmentation&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=146-147&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2385863%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1992.610146.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992ConBi...6..146M&rft.aulast=McIntyre&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Barrett%2C+G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabitat+fragmentation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habitat_fragmentation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecological_fragmentation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ecological fragmentation">Ecological fragmentation</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globio.info">GLOBIO</a>, an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120217000742/http://vlab.infotech.monash.edu.au/simulations/cellular-automata/population-genetics/">Monash Virtual Laboratory</a> – Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University's Virtual Laboratory.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf">Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) – Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: Jan 22, 2009</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf">Wildlife passages – De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands – How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: Jan 22, 2009</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/landscape-fragmentation-in-europe">Landscape Fragmentation in Europe</a> The technical report from 2006 - the result of a collaboration between the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the European Environment Agency (EEA). Accessed: Feb 22, 2016</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24229723">Kinver, Mark. (2013, September 26). 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title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh96009184">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13743430c">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13743430c">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="fragmentace krajiny"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph381262&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566275705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conservation_of_species" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservation_of_species" title="Template talk:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conservation_of_species" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation of species</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_conservation_articles" title="Index of conservation articles">Index of conservation articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation<br />biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity#Conservation" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captive_breeding" title="Captive breeding">Captive breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservation" title="Compassionate conservation">Compassionate conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_behavior" title="Conservation behavior">Conservation behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-dependent_species" title="Conservation-dependent species">Conservation-dependent species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-induced_extinction" title="Conservation-induced extinction">Conservation-induced extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-situ_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-situ conservation">Ex-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-situ_conservation" title="In-situ conservation">In-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualisms_and_conservation" title="Mutualisms and conservation">Mutualisms and conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology_of_parasites" title="Conservation biology of parasites">Conservation biology of parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_translocation" title="Species translocation">Species translocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_welfare" title="Conservation welfare">Conservation welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_and_susceptibility_in_conservation_biology" title="Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology">Vulnerability and susceptibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_agriculture" title="Conservation agriculture">Conservation agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_finance" title="Conservation finance">Conservation finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_management_system" title="Conservation management system">Conservation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_psychology" title="Conservation psychology">Conservation psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_conservation" title="Conspicuous conservation">Conspicuous conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_conservation" title="Community-based conservation">Community-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion_conservation_status" title="Ecoregion conservation status">Ecoregion conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Conservation_and_Development_Project" title="Integrated Conservation and Development Project">Integrated Conservation and Development Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_effective_area-based_conservation_measures" title="Other effective area-based conservation measures">Other effective area-based conservation measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">Riparian buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadless_area_conservation" title="Roadless area conservation">Roadless area conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadside_conservation" title="Roadside conservation">Roadside conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-based_conservation" title="Site-based conservation">Site-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Wetland conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected<br />areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_designation" title="Conservation designation">Conservation designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation district">Conservation district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_easement" title="Conservation easement">Conservation easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_reserve" title="Conservation reserve">Conservation reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_analysis_(conservation)" title="Gap analysis (conservation)">Gap analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_conservation_value_area" class="mw-redirect" title="High conservation value area">High conservation value area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape-scale_conservation" title="Landscape-scale conservation">Landscape-scale conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxan" title="Marxan">Marxan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">Open space reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">Wildlife corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/30_by_30" title="30 by 30">30 by 30 target</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_refugee" title="Conservation refugee">Conservation refugee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93wildlife_conflict" title="Human–wildlife conflict">Human–wildlife conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem restoration">Ecosystem restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding" title="Rewilding">Rewilding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_rewilding" title="Sea rewilding">marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_reintroduction" title="Species reintroduction">Species reintroduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By taxon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_hotel" title="Insect hotel">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_honeycreeper_conservation" title="Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation">Hawaiian honeycreeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptor_conservation" title="Raptor conservation">Raptor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Status_and_conservation_of_the_golden_eagle" title="Status and conservation of the golden eagle">Golden eagle</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_fungi" title="Conservation of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li>Land mammal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_American_bison" title="Conservation of American bison">American bison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_oryx_reintroduction" title="Arabian oryx reintroduction">Arabian oryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_conservation" title="Bear conservation">Bear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear_conservation" title="Polar bear conservation">Polar bear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah_reintroduction_in_India" title="Cheetah reintroduction in India">Cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of elephants">Elephant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Elephant" title="Project Elephant">Indian elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_slow_lorises" title="Conservation of slow lorises">Slow loris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_conservation" title="Tiger conservation">Tiger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Tiger" title="Project Tiger">Bengal Tiger</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction" title="Wolf reintroduction">Wolf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dolphin_(India)" title="Project Dolphin (India)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_nurse_shark_conservation" title="Grey nurse shark conservation">Gray nurse shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manatee_conservation" title="Manatee conservation">Manatee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_painted_turtles" title="Conservation of painted turtles">Painted turtle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_conservation" title="Salmon conservation">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_otter_conservation" title="Sea otter conservation">Sea otter</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plant <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cryopreservation" title="Plant cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Angola" title="Conservation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Australia" title="Conservation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Belize" title="Conservation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Brazil" title="Conservation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Conservation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Iceland" title="Conservation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_India" title="Conservation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Conservation in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Italy" title="Conservation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_Wildlife_Conservancies_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_New_Zealand" title="Conservation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Pakistan" title="Conservation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Conservation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Uganda" title="Conservation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Scotland" title="Conservation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Forest conservation in the United States">forests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_officer" title="Conservation officer">Conservation officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NatureServe_conservation_status" title="NatureServe conservation status">NatureServe conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation" title="Special Area of Conservation">Special Area of Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservation_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservation issues">List of conservation issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_conservation_organizations" title="List of nature conservation organizations">List of 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