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href="#Convection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Convection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Convection-cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convection-cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Convection-cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convection-cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Convection_vs._conduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convection_vs._conduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Convection vs. conduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convection_vs._conduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Phase transition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phase_transition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phase transition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phase_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boiling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boiling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Boiling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boiling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Condensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Condensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Condensation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Condensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Melting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Melting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modeling_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modeling_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modeling approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modeling_approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modeling approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modeling_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heat_equation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_equation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Heat equation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_equation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lumped_system_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lumped_system_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Lumped system analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lumped_system_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Climate models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Engineering</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Engineering subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insulation,_radiance_and_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insulation,_radiance_and_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Insulation, radiance and resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insulation,_radiance_and_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heat_exchangers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_exchangers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Heat exchangers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_exchangers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Climate engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Greenhouse effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_transfer_in_the_human_body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_transfer_in_the_human_body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Heat transfer in the human body</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_transfer_in_the_human_body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Cooling techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evaporative_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evaporative_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.1</span> <span>Evaporative cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evaporative_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laser_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laser_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.2</span> <span>Laser cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laser_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.3</span> <span>Magnetic cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiative_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiative_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.4</span> <span>Radiative cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiative_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_energy_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_energy_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Thermal energy storage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_energy_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newton's_law_of_cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newton's_law_of_cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Newton's law of cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newton's_law_of_cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_conduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_conduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Thermal conduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_conduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_convection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_convection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Thermal convection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_convection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Thermal radiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_conductivity_of_different_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_conductivity_of_different_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Thermal conductivity of different metals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_conductivity_of_different_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benjamin_Thompson's_experiments_on_heat_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benjamin_Thompson's_experiments_on_heat_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Benjamin Thompson's experiments on heat transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benjamin_Thompson's_experiments_on_heat_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conductivity_experiments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conductivity_experiments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Conductivity experiments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conductivity_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"New_Experiments_upon_Heat"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"New_Experiments_upon_Heat""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1.1</span> <span>"New Experiments upon Heat"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"New_Experiments_upon_Heat"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temperature_vs._sensible_heat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_vs._sensible_heat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1.1.1</span> <span>Temperature vs. sensible heat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_vs._sensible_heat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coining_of_the_term_"convection"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coining_of_the_term_"convection""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Coining of the term "convection"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coining_of_the_term_"convection"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Heat transfer</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmteoordrag" title="Warmteoordrag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Warmteoordrag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="انتقال الحرارة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انتقال الحرارة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="তাপ সঞ্চালন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="তাপ সঞ্চালন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tresferencia_de_calor" title="Tresferencia de calor – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tresferencia de calor" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0stilik_m%C3%BCbadil%C9%99si" title="İstilik mübadiləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İstilik mübadiləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8" title="তাপ সঞ্চালন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তাপ সঞ্চালন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Цеплаперадача – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цеплаперадача" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Цеплаперадача – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Цеплаперадача" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Топлообмен – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Топлообмен" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmissi%C3%B3_t%C3%A8rmica" title="Transmissió tèrmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Transmissió tèrmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82%D1%88%C4%83%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%83" title="Ăшăяру – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ăшăяру" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C3%AD%C5%99en%C3%AD_tepla" title="Šíření tepla – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Šíření tepla" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmeoverf%C3%B8rsel" title="Varmeoverførsel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Varmeoverførsel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%A4rme%C3%BCbertragung" title="Wärmeübertragung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wärmeübertragung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soojus%C3%BClekanne" title="Soojusülekanne – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Soojusülekanne" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC_%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεταφορά θερμότητας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταφορά θερμότητας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transferencia_de_calor" title="Transferencia de calor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Transferencia de calor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmotransdono" title="Varmotransdono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Varmotransdono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bero_transferentzia" title="Bero transferentzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bero transferentzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7" title="انتقال گرما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انتقال گرما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfert_thermique" title="Transfert thermique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Transfert thermique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmisi%C3%B3n_de_calor" title="Transmisión de calor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Transmisión de calor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EC%A0%84%EB%8B%AC" title="열전달 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열전달" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ջերմափոխանակություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջերմափոխանակություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8A%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="ऊष्मा अन्तरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऊष्मा अन्तरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prijenos_topline" title="Prijenos topline – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prijenos topline" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalorala_transfero" title="Kalorala transfero – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kalorala transfero" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpindahan_panas" title="Perpindahan panas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perpindahan panas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trasmissione_del_calore" title="Trasmissione del calore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trasmissione del calore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9D" title="מעבר חום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מעבר חום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%96_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%86" title="ಶಾಖ ವರ್ಗಾವಣೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶಾಖ ವರ್ಗಾವಣೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%83_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%83" title="Жылу алмасу – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жылу алмасу" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transf%C3%A8_t%C3%A8mik" title="Transfè tèmik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Transfè tèmik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%AE%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99" title="ການໂອນຄວາມຮ້ອນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການໂອນຄວາມຮ້ອນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%91%C3%A1tad%C3%A1s" title="Hőátadás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hőátadás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8" title="उष्णता वहन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उष्णता वहन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemindahan_haba" title="Pemindahan haba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemindahan haba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Дулаан дамжуулал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дулаан дамжуулал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%95%E1%80%B0%E1%80%80%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အပူကူးပြောင်းခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အပူကူးပြောင်းခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakata_tokitaki" title="Katakata tokitaki – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Katakata tokitaki" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmteoverdracht" title="Warmteoverdracht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Warmteoverdracht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%9D%E7%86%B1" title="伝熱 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="伝熱" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmetransport" title="Varmetransport – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Varmetransport" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmetransport" title="Varmetransport – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Varmetransport" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calor" title="Calor – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Calor" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wymiana_ciep%C5%82a" title="Wymiana ciepła – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wymiana ciepła" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaga%C3%A7%C3%A3o_t%C3%A9rmica" title="Propagação térmica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Propagação térmica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmiterea_c%C4%83ldurii" title="Transmiterea căldurii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Transmiterea căldurii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Теплопередача – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теплопередача" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="තාප පරිවහනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තාප පරිවහනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Heat transfer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C3%ADrenie_tepla" title="Šírenie tepla – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Šírenie tepla" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenos_toplote" title="Prenos toplote – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prenos toplote" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenos_toplote" title="Prenos toplote – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Prenos toplote" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenos_toplote" title="Prenos toplote – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prenos toplote" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4mm%C3%B6n_siirtyminen" title="Lämmön siirtyminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lämmön siirtyminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4rme%C3%B6verf%C3%B6ring" title="Värmeöverföring – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Värmeöverföring" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transport of thermal energy in physical systems</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convection-snapshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png/400px-Convection-snapshot.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png/600px-Convection-snapshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Convection-snapshot.png 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Simulation of thermal convection in the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">Earth's mantle</a>. Colors span from red and green to blue with decreasing temperatures. A hot, less-dense lower boundary layer sends plumes of hot material upwards, and cold material from the top moves downwards.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Heat transfer</b> is a discipline of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">thermal engineering</a> that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermal conduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">thermal convection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>, and transfer of energy by <a href="/wiki/Phase_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase changes">phase changes</a>. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species (mass transfer in the form of <a href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">advection</a>), either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system. </p><p>Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchanges of kinetic energy of particles (such as molecules) or quasiparticles (such as lattice waves) through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> from another body or its surroundings, <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in <a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">thermal equilibrium</a>. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described in the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a>. </p><p>Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries its heat through the fluid. All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". The former process is often called "forced convection." In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan, or other mechanical means. </p><p>Thermal radiation occurs through a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> or any <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (optics)">transparent</a> <a href="/wiki/Optical_medium" title="Optical medium">medium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>). It is the transfer of energy by means of <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic waves">electromagnetic waves</a> governed by the same laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Geankoplis_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geankoplis-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer_physics" title="Heat transfer physics">Heat transfer physics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erbe.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Erbe.gif/300px-Erbe.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Erbe.gif/450px-Erbe.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Erbe.gif 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Earth's longwave thermal <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget#Outgoing_energy" title="Earth's energy budget">radiation</a> intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and surface.</figcaption></figure> <p>Heat transfer is the energy exchanged between materials (solid/liquid/gas) as a result of a temperature difference. The <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">thermodynamic free energy</a> is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform. <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">thermodynamic potential</a>, designated by the letter "H", that is the sum of the <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energy</a> of the system (U) plus the product of <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> (P) and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> (V). <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">Joule</a> is a unit to quantify <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, work, or the amount of heat.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heat transfer is a <a href="/wiki/Process_function" title="Process function">process function</a> (or path function), as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Functions_of_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Functions of state">functions of state</a>; therefore, the amount of heat transferred in a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_process" title="Thermodynamic process">thermodynamic process</a> that changes the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">state</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">system</a> depends on how that process occurs, not only the net difference between the initial and final states of the process. </p><p>Thermodynamic and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical</a> heat transfer is calculated with the <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer_coefficient" title="Heat transfer coefficient">heat transfer coefficient</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)" title="Proportionality (mathematics)">proportionality</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">heat flux</a> and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat. Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of heat flow through a surface.<sup id="cite_ref-NJIT_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NJIT-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In engineering contexts, the term <i>heat</i> is taken as synonymous with thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_L%C3%A9onard_Sadi_Carnot#The_second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot">historical interpretation</a> of heat as a fluid (<i>caloric</i>) that can be transferred by various causes,<sup id="cite_ref-lienhard_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lienhard-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Transport_phenomena" title="Transport phenomena">transport</a> equations for thermal energy (<a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction#Fourier's_law" title="Thermal conduction">Fourier's law</a>), mechanical momentum (<a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newton's law for fluids</a>), and mass transfer (<a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion" title="Fick's laws of diffusion">Fick's laws of diffusion</a>) are similar,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and analogies among these three transport processes have been developed to facilitate the prediction of conversion from any one to the others.<sup id="cite_ref-Faghri_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faghri-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal engineering</a> concerns the generation, use, conversion, storage, and exchange of heat transfer. As such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">thermal conduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">thermal convection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>, and transfer of energy by <a href="/wiki/Phase_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase changes">phase changes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg/250px-Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg/375px-Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg/500px-Heat-transmittance-means2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>The four fundamental modes of heat transfer illustrated with a campfire</figcaption></figure> <p>The fundamental modes of heat transfer are: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">Advection</a></dt> <dd>Advection is the transport mechanism of a <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> from one location to another, and is dependent on <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> of that fluid.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">Conduction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">diffusion</a></dt> <dd>The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a> is the property of a material to conduct heat and is evaluated primarily in terms of <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction#Fourier's_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">Fourier's law</a> for heat conduction.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">Convection</a></dt> <dd>The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Radiation</a></dt> <dd>The transfer of energy by the emission of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advection">Advection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Advection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is <a href="/wiki/Thermal_hydraulics" title="Thermal hydraulics">thermal hydraulics</a>. This can be described by the formula: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=v\rho c_{p}\Delta T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>v</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=v\rho c_{p}\Delta T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54df1e300db07138617e86508f9ae085d168878e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:13.44ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=v\rho c_{p}\Delta T}"></span> where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/39325e80de2e894f398f268cd7eb38ecffce21a3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.374ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}"></span> is <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">heat flux</a> (W/m<sup>2</sup>),</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> is density (kg/m<sup>3</sup>),</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c_{p}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c_{p}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/77463f4fbb953a6f1fe19d83708e553f6d21457f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.066ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c_{p}}"></span> is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kg·K),</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e61e7deb9c7c7b7dda762b0935e757add2acc559" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.572ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta T}"></span> is the difference in temperature (K),</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></span> is velocity (m/s).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conduction">Conduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">Thermal conduction</a></div> <p>On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in <a href="/wiki/Thermal_contact" title="Thermal contact">thermal contact</a>. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_contact_conductance" title="Thermal contact conductance">Thermal contact conductance</a> is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction, such as when placing a hand on a cold glass of water—heat is conducted from the warm skin to the cold glass, but if the hand is held a few inches from the glass, little conduction would occur since air is a poor conductor of heat. Steady-state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant so that after a time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further (see <a href="/wiki/Fourier%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourier's law">Fourier's law</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out, since the temperature change (a measure of heat energy) is zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of steady state conduction is the heat flow through walls of a warm house on a cold day—inside the house is maintained at a high temperature and, outside, the temperature stays low, so the transfer of heat per unit time stays near a constant rate determined by the insulation in the wall and the spatial distribution of temperature in the walls will be approximately constant over time. </p><p><i>Transient conduction</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Heat_equation" title="Heat equation">Heat equation</a>) occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex, and analytic solutions of the heat equation are only valid for idealized model systems. Practical applications are generally investigated using numerical methods, approximation techniques, or empirical study.<sup id="cite_ref-Abbott_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbott-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convection">Convection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Convection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Convective_heat_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective heat transfer">Convective heat transfer</a></div> <p>The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced convection. In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump, fan, or other mechanical means. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">Convective heat transfer</a>, or simply, convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of <a href="/wiki/Fluids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluids">fluids</a>, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via <a href="/wiki/Mass_transfer" title="Mass transfer">mass transfer</a>. The bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as between a solid surface and the fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction. </p><p>Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. <i>Forced</i> convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating an artificially induced convection current.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Convection-cooling">Convection-cooling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Convection-cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nusselt_number" title="Nusselt number">Nusselt number</a></div> <p>Convective cooling is sometimes described as <a href="/wiki/Convective_heat_transfer#Newton's_law_of_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Convective heat transfer">Newton's law of cooling</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings</i>.</p></blockquote><p> However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general, convection is not linearly dependent on <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradients</a>, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convection_vs._conduction">Convection vs. conduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Convection vs. conduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction, and convection can be considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_number" title="Rayleigh number">Rayleigh number</a> (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a95c3bd5aa4871fc92ec0992fd0991ca0aed5f68" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.873ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} }"></span>) is the product of the Grashof (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Gr} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">G</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Gr} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2efa55faa66be02ed71dde4e6afbf6e1f6cd81b4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.736ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Gr} }"></span>) and Prandtl (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Pr} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Pr} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/757245552c21a1fd126ea0783a09844d6f423a9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.494ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Pr} }"></span>) numbers. It is a measure that determines the relative strength of conduction and convection.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} =\mathrm {Gr} \cdot \mathrm {Pr} ={\frac {g\Delta \rho L^{3}}{\mu \alpha }}={\frac {g\beta \Delta TL^{3}}{\nu \alpha }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">G</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">P</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">r</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> <msup> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mi>β</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>T</mi> <msup> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} =\mathrm {Gr} \cdot \mathrm {Pr} ={\frac {g\Delta \rho L^{3}}{\mu \alpha }}={\frac {g\beta \Delta TL^{3}}{\nu \alpha }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8341c4227f2dea831f1f7b4d5933028dffbb4472" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:36.298ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {Ra} =\mathrm {Gr} \cdot \mathrm {Pr} ={\frac {g\Delta \rho L^{3}}{\mu \alpha }}={\frac {g\beta \Delta TL^{3}}{\nu \alpha }}}"></span> where </p> <ul><li><i>g</i> is the acceleration due to gravity,</li> <li><i>ρ</i> is the density with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ac7403b36530639e4330396cb1a8264b5c08693" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.138ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta \rho }"></span> being the density difference between the lower and upper ends,</li> <li><i>μ</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_viscosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic viscosity">dynamic viscosity</a>,</li> <li><i>α</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_diffusivity" title="Thermal diffusivity">Thermal diffusivity</a>,</li> <li><i>β</i> is the volume <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal expansivity">thermal expansivity</a> (sometimes denoted <i>α</i> elsewhere),</li> <li><i>T</i> is the temperature,</li> <li><i>ν</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Kinematic_viscosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinematic viscosity">kinematic viscosity</a>, and</li> <li><i>L</i> is characteristic length.</li></ul> <p>The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conduction timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the geometry of the system. </p><p>The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L^{3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> <msup> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L^{3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/732532910d4944835437d8a9f69127a91d2a16fe" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.891ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L^{3}}"></span>, so the corresponding pressure is roughly <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aba37ba05226ec35afd5cdb02ad325cbb67c5744" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.837ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L}"></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a>, this is canceled by the <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a> due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu V/L=\mu /T_{\text{conv}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>L</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>conv</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu V/L=\mu /T_{\text{conv}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/50ae86205a8d90b0510a28b213aae87179a28dec" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.521ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu V/L=\mu /T_{\text{conv}}}"></span>, where <i>V</i> is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{\text{conv}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>conv</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{\text{conv}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/25b153431e217c62c05404ad1d8b802ba8719fed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.924ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{\text{conv}}}"></span> the order of its timescale.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conduction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{\text{cond}}=L^{2}/\alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>cond</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>L</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{\text{cond}}=L^{2}/\alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/58cf74e01bd09961045630a45f4e6c89fe41f15b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.355ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{\text{cond}}=L^{2}/\alpha }"></span>. </p><p>Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000–2,000. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation">Radiation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hot_metalwork.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Hot_metalwork.jpg/220px-Hot_metalwork.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Hot_metalwork.jpg/330px-Hot_metalwork.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Hot_metalwork.jpg/440px-Hot_metalwork.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1163" /></a><figcaption>Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment through thermal radiation</figcaption></figure> <p>Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of energy via <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a>, i.e., <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic waves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Geankoplis_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geankoplis-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It occurs across <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> or any <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (optics)">transparent</a> <a href="/wiki/Optical_medium" title="Optical medium">medium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thermal radiation is emitted by all objects at temperatures above <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, due to random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (<a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>), their movement results in the emission of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> which carries away energy. Radiation is typically only important in engineering applications for very hot objects, or for objects with a large temperature difference. </p><p>When the objects and distances separating them are large in size and compared to the wavelength of thermal radiation, the rate of transfer of <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a> is best described by the <a href="/wiki/Stefan-Boltzmann_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan-Boltzmann equation">Stefan-Boltzmann equation</a>. For an object in vacuum, the equation is: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma T^{4}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> <msup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma T^{4}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1ddcc4ed4e02b285939202dfab979adb4540157f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.167ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma T^{4}.}"></span> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Radiative_transfer" title="Radiative transfer">radiative transfer</a> between two objects, the equation is as follows: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma F(T_{a}^{4}-T_{b}^{4}),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ϵ</mi> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>F</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msubsup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma F(T_{a}^{4}-T_{b}^{4}),}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cb5b745fbb42756d4dc54a6030240a586e57d61f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:20.332ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}=\epsilon \sigma F(T_{a}^{4}-T_{b}^{4}),}"></span> where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/39325e80de2e894f398f268cd7eb38ecffce21a3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.374ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{q}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">heat flux</a>,</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \epsilon }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϵ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \epsilon }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3837cad72483d97bcdde49c85d3b7b859fb3fd2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.944ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \epsilon }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">emissivity</a> (unity for a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a>),</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>σ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f59b7c3e6fdb1d0365a494b81fb9a696138c36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma }"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan–Boltzmann constant">Stefan–Boltzmann constant</a>,</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle F}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle F}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/545fd099af8541605f7ee55f08225526be88ce57" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.741ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle F}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/View_factor" title="View factor">view factor</a> between two surfaces a and b,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{a}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{a}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d54b73a473771885bb5d025ecd2fb10469ab859d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.459ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{a}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{b}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{b}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/74c8b2d230dda9ccb7e55c237c918a935037c9d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.295ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{b}}"></span> are the absolute temperatures (in <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Degrees_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Degrees Rankine">degrees Rankine</a>) for the two objects.</li></ul> <p>The blackbody limit established by the <a href="/wiki/Stefan-Boltzmann_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan-Boltzmann equation">Stefan-Boltzmann equation</a> can be exceeded when the objects exchanging thermal radiation or the distances separating them are comparable in scale or smaller than the <a href="/wiki/Wien%27s_displacement_law" title="Wien's displacement law">dominant thermal wavelength</a>. The study of these cases is called <a href="/wiki/Near-field_radiative_heat_transfer" title="Near-field radiative heat transfer">near-field radiative heat transfer</a>. </p><p>Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation – arriving within a narrow-angle i.e. coming from a source much smaller than its distance – can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in <a href="/wiki/Concentrating_solar_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrating solar power">concentrating solar power</a> generation or a <a href="/wiki/Burning_glass" title="Burning glass">burning glass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the <a href="/wiki/PS10_solar_power_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="PS10 solar power tower">PS10 solar power tower</a> and during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reachable temperature at the target is limited by the temperature of the hot source of radiation. (T<sup>4</sup>-law lets the reverse flow of radiation back to the source rise.) The (on its surface) somewhat 4000 K hot <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> allows to reach coarsely 3000 K (or 3000 °C, which is about 3273 K) at a small probe in the focus spot of a big concave, concentrating mirror of the <a href="/wiki/Mont-Louis_Solar_Furnace" title="Mont-Louis Solar Furnace">Mont-Louis Solar Furnace</a> in France.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phase_transition">Phase transition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phase transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/220px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/330px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg/440px-Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1327" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> is a highly visible form of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> transfer and is an example of plasma present at Earth's surface. Typically, lightning discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts, and emits light, radio waves, X-rays and even gamma rays.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 kelvins (27,726.85 °C) (49,940.33 °F) and electron densities may exceed 10<sup>24</sup> m<sup>−3</sup>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transition</a> or phase change, takes place in a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">thermodynamic system</a> from one phase or <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state of matter</a> to another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water. The <a href="/wiki/Mason_equation" title="Mason equation">Mason equation</a> explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of heat transport on <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> and condensation. </p><p>Phase transitions involve the <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter#Four_fundamental_states" title="State of matter">four fundamental states of matter</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solid</a> – Deposition, freezing, and solid-to-solid transformation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a> – Condensation and <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting / fusion</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a> – Boiling / evaporation, <a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">recombination</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Deionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Deionization">deionization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> – <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boiling">Boiling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Boiling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kochendes_wasser02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/220px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/330px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/440px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Nucleate boiling of water.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> of a substance is the temperature at which the <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the liquid <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporates</a> resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume. </p><p>In a <a href="/wiki/Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed system</a>, <i>saturation temperature</i> and <i>boiling point</i> mean the same thing. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition. </p><p>At standard atmospheric pressure and <b>low temperatures</b>, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is <i>sub-cooled nucleate boiling</i>, and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the <a href="/wiki/Nucleate_boiling#Departure_from_nucleate_boiling" title="Nucleate boiling">departure from nucleate boiling</a>, or DNB). </p><p>At similar standard atmospheric pressure and <b>high temperatures</b>, the hydrodynamically quieter regime of <a href="/wiki/Boiling#Film" title="Boiling">film boiling</a> is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact between the fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ("spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a>"). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the <a href="/wiki/Critical_heat_flux" title="Critical heat flux">critical heat flux</a>, or CHF). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_Effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Leidenfrost Effect">Leidenfrost Effect</a> demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles on the heater's surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid-phase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas <a href="/wiki/Thermal_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal barrier">thermal barrier</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Condensation">Condensation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Condensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a> occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During condensation, the <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent heat of vaporization">latent heat of vaporization</a> must be released. The amount of heat is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are several types of condensation: </p> <ul><li>Homogeneous condensation, as during the formation of fog.</li> <li>Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.</li> <li>Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most common mode used in industry: <div><ul><li>Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface.</li><li>Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.</li></ul></div> Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is normally designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melting">Melting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Melting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melting_icecubes.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Melting_icecubes.gif/170px-Melting_icecubes.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Melting_icecubes.gif/255px-Melting_icecubes.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Melting_icecubes.gif 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Ice melting</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a> is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energy</a> of a substance is increased, typically through heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of its temperature to the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>, at which the ordering of ionic or molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid liquefies. Molten substances generally have reduced viscosity with elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, whose viscosity increases to a point due to <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modeling_approaches">Modeling approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modeling approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Heat transfer can be modeled in various ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_equation">Heat equation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Heat equation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Heat_equation" title="Heat equation">heat equation</a> is an important <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equation</a> that describes the distribution of heat (or temperature variation) in a given region over time. In some cases, exact solutions of the equation are available;<sup id="cite_ref-Wendl_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wendl-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in other cases the equation must be solved numerically using <a href="/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics" title="Computational fluid dynamics">computational methods</a> such as DEM-based models for thermal/reacting particulate systems (as critically reviewed by Peng et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Peng_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peng-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lumped_system_analysis">Lumped system analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Lumped system analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the equations to one first-order linear differential equation, in which case heating and cooling are described by a simple exponential solution, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a>. </p><p>System analysis by the <a href="/wiki/Lumped_capacitance_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumped capacitance model">lumped capacitance model</a> is a common approximation in transient conduction that may be used whenever heat conduction within an object is much faster than heat conduction across the boundary of the object. This is a method of approximation that reduces one aspect of the transient conduction system—that within the object—to an equivalent steady-state system. That is, the method assumes that the temperature within the object is completely uniform, although its value may change over time. </p><p>In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance across the object's boundary, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Biot_number" title="Biot number">Biot number</a></i>, is calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation of <i>spatially uniform temperature within the object</i> can be used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the object.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_models">Climate models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate models">Climate models</a> study the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">radiant heat transfer</a> by using quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engineering">Engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg/220px-Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg/330px-Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg/440px-Nelson_tulsa_test.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2970" data-file-height="2072" /></a><figcaption>Heat exposure as part of a fire test for firestop products</figcaption></figure> <p>Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of numerous devices and systems. Heat-transfer principles may be used to preserve, increase, or decrease temperature in a wide variety of circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">automotive engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_of_electronic_devices_and_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal management of electronic devices and systems">thermal management of electronic devices and systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">climate control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Process_(engineering)" title="Process (engineering)">materials processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a> engineering. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insulation,_radiance_and_resistance"><span id="Insulation.2C_radiance_and_resistance"></span>Insulation, radiance and resistance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Insulation, radiance and resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulators</a> are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal resistance">Thermal resistance</a> is a heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radiance" title="Radiance">Radiance</a>, or spectral radiance, is a measure of the quantity of radiation that passes through or is emitted. <a href="/wiki/Radiant_barrier" title="Radiant barrier">Radiant barriers</a> are materials that <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflect</a> radiation, and therefore reduce the flow of heat from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and a poor insulator. </p><p>The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its <b>reflectivity</b>, which is the fraction of radiation reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice versa. At any specific wavelength, reflectivity=1 - emissivity. An ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1, and would therefore reflect 100 percent of incoming radiation. <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_flasks" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum flasks">Vacuum flasks</a>, or Dewars, are <a href="/wiki/Silvered" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvered">silvered</a> to approach this ideal. In the vacuum of space, satellites use <a href="/wiki/Multi-layer_insulation" title="Multi-layer insulation">multi-layer insulation</a>, which consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny) <a href="/wiki/Mylar" class="mw-redirect" title="Mylar">Mylar</a> to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control satellite temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devices">Devices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat_engine.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Heat_engine.png/220px-Heat_engine.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Heat_engine.png/330px-Heat_engine.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Heat_engine.png/440px-Heat_engine.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Schematic flow of energy in a heat engine.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">heat engine</a> is a system that performs the conversion of a flow of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> (heat) to <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">mechanical energy</a> to perform <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical work">mechanical work</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouple</a> is a temperature-measuring device and a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_cooler" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoelectric cooler">thermoelectric cooler</a> is a solid-state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the device to the other when an electric current is passed through it. It is based on the <a href="/wiki/Peltier_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Peltier effect">Peltier effect</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Thermal_diode" title="Thermal diode">thermal diode</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thermal_rectifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal rectifier">thermal rectifier</a> is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heat_exchangers">Heat exchangers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Heat exchangers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a> is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Space heating">space heating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Power generation">power generation</a>, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant fluid</a> is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids move in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the fluids move in opposite directions; and in cross flow, the fluids move at <a href="/wiki/Right_angle" title="Right angle">right angles</a> to each other. Common types of heat exchangers include <a href="/wiki/Shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell and tube heat exchanger">shell and tube</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger#Double_pipe_heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">double pipe</a>, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate. Each type has certain advantages and disadvantages over other types.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (November 2010)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sink</a> is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid medium, such as air or a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the radiator in a car. A <a href="/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe">heat pipe</a> is another heat-transfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently transfer heat between two solid interfaces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture, condensation and <a href="/wiki/Air_current" title="Air current">air currents</a> can cause cosmetic or structural damage. An <a href="/wiki/Energy_audit" title="Energy audit">energy audit</a> can help to assess the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks, or the addition of energy-efficient windows and doors.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smart_meter" title="Smart meter">Smart meter</a> is a device that records <a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">electric energy consumption</a> in intervals.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_transmittance" title="Thermal transmittance">Thermal transmittance</a> is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure. It is expressed in watts per square meter per kelvin, or W/(m<sup>2</sup>K). Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance, whereas poorly-insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">Thermostat</a> is a device to monitor and control temperature.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_engineering">Climate engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Climate engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic heat">Anthropogenic heat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biochar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biochar.jpg/220px-Biochar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biochar.jpg/330px-Biochar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biochar.jpg/440px-Biochar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1069" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>An example application in climate engineering includes the creation of <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> process. Thus, storing greenhouse gases in carbon reduces the radiative forcing capacity in the atmosphere, causing more long-wave (<a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>) radiation out to Space.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate engineering</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation management">solar radiation management</a>. Since the amount of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> determines the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiative balance">radiative balance</a> of Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a>. Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>. </p><p>An alternative method is <a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a>, which enhances terrestrial heat flow to outer space through the <a href="/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">infrared window</a> (8–13 μm).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:023_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:023-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than merely blocking solar radiation, this method increases outgoing <a href="/wiki/Long-wave_infrared" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-wave infrared">longwave infrared</a> (LWIR) <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> heat transfer with the extremely cold temperature of outer space (~2.7 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>) to lower ambient temperatures while requiring zero energy input.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_effect">Greenhouse effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Greenhouse effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_green_house_effect.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/The_green_house_effect.svg/310px-The_green_house_effect.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/The_green_house_effect.svg/465px-The_green_house_effect.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/The_green_house_effect.svg/620px-The_green_house_effect.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source (the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>), the Earth's surface, the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, and the ultimate sink <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The ability of the atmosphere to redirect and recycle<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> energy emitted by the Earth surface is the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases and clouds, and is re-radiated in all directions, resulting in a reduction in the amount of thermal radiation reaching space relative to what would reach space in the absence of absorbing materials. This reduction in outgoing radiation leads to a rise in the temperature of the surface and troposphere until the rate of outgoing radiation again equals the rate at which heat arrives from the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-ipccar6wg1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipccar6wg1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_transfer_in_the_human_body">Heat transfer in the human body</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Heat transfer in the human body"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">Wet-bulb temperature</a></div> <p>The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">Heat transfer by convection</a> is driven by the movement of fluids over the surface of the body. This convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air.<sup id="cite_ref-Cengel,_Yunus_A_2010_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cengel,_Yunus_A_2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The normal temperature of the body is approximately 37 °C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the surroundings is significantly less than the normal body temperature. This concept explains why a person feels cold when not enough covering is worn when exposed to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat flow over the covered portion of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered. </p><p>To ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a convective fluid and helps to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This flow of blood through the vessels can be modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel, the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">thickness of the fluid</a>, the velocity of the flow, and the heat transfer coefficient of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and fluid thickness can all be related to the <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds Number">Reynolds Number</a>, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of fluids. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a> loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, accounts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body. When the core temperature of the body increases, the body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surface of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rate of evaporation heat loss is directly related to the <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> at the skin surface and the amount of moisture present on the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Cengel,_Yunus_A_2010_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cengel,_Yunus_A_2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the skin is completely wet. The body continuously loses water by evaporation but the most significant amount of heat loss occurs during periods of increased physical activity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling_techniques">Cooling techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Cooling techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evaporative_cooling">Evaporative cooling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Evaporative cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_cooler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Air_cooler.jpg/170px-Air_cooler.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Air_cooler.jpg/255px-Air_cooler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Air_cooler.jpg/340px-Air_cooler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>A traditional air cooler in <a href="/wiki/Mirzapur" title="Mirzapur">Mirzapur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">Evaporative cooling</a> happens when water vapor is added to the surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent heat, while the air remains at a constant <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a>. Latent heat describes the amount of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and surfaces. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water in the air occurs; thus, there is no cooling effect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laser_cooling">Laser cooling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Laser cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_cooling" title="Laser cooling">laser cooling</a> is used to achieve temperatures of near <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a> (−273.15 °C, −459.67 °F) of atomic and molecular samples to observe unique <a href="/wiki/Quantum_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum effects">quantum effects</a> that can only occur at this heat level. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doppler_cooling" title="Doppler cooling">Doppler cooling</a> is the most common method of laser cooling.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_cooling" title="Sympathetic cooling">Sympathetic cooling</a> is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type. Typically, atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows the cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser-cooled directly.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Magnetic_cooling">Magnetic cooling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Magnetic cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_refrigeration" title="Magnetic refrigeration">Magnetic refrigeration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic evaporative cooling">Magnetic evaporative cooling</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic evaporative cooling">Magnetic evaporative cooling</a> is a process for lowering the temperature of a group of atoms, after pre-cooled by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making use of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_refrigeration#The_magnetocaloric_effect" title="Magnetic refrigeration">magnetocaloric effect</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radiative_cooling">Radiative cooling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Radiative cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Radiative_cooling" title="Radiative cooling">Radiative cooling</a> is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget#Outgoing_energy" title="Earth's energy budget">Outgoing</a> energy is an important effect in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget#Outgoing_energy" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a>. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. The thermosphere (top of atmosphere) cools to space primarily by infrared energy radiated by carbon dioxide (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) at 15 μm and by nitric oxide (NO) at 5.3 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_energy_storage">Thermal energy storage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Thermal energy storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a> includes technologies for collecting and <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">storing energy</a> for later use. It may be employed to balance energy demand between day and nighttime. The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above or below that of the ambient environment. Applications include space heating, domestic or process hot water systems, or generating electricity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newton's_law_of_cooling"><span id="Newton.27s_law_of_cooling"></span>Newton's law of cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Newton's law of cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enoch_Seeman_the_younger_-_Isaac_Newton_-_NPG_558_-_National_Portrait_Gallery_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of Isaac Newton" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Enoch_Seeman_the_younger_-_Isaac_Newton_-_NPG_558_-_National_Portrait_Gallery_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="238" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="162" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>Isaac Newton</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krzywa_ostygania.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph showing Newton's law of cooling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Krzywa_ostygania.svg/220px-Krzywa_ostygania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Krzywa_ostygania.svg/330px-Krzywa_ostygania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Krzywa_ostygania.svg/440px-Krzywa_ostygania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="231" /></a><figcaption>Newton's law of cooling. <i>T</i><sub>0</sub> = original temperature, <i>T</i><sub><i>R</i></sub> = ambient temperature, <i>t</i> = time</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1701, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> anonymously published an article in <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a></i> noting (in modern terms) that the rate of temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">graduum caloris</i></span>, "degrees of heat") between the body and its surroundings.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phrase "temperature change" was later replaced with "heat loss", and the relationship was named Newton's law of cooling. In general, the law is valid only if the temperature difference is small and the heat transfer mechanism remains the same. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_conduction">Thermal conduction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Thermal conduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In heat conduction, the law is valid only if the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> of the warmer body is independent of temperature. The thermal conductivity of most materials is only weakly dependent on temperature, so in general the law holds true. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_convection">Thermal convection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Thermal convection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In convective heat transfer, the law is valid for forced air or pumped fluid cooling, where the properties of the fluid do not vary strongly with temperature, but it is only approximately true for buoyancy-driven convection, where the velocity of the flow increases with temperature difference. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_radiation">Thermal radiation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Thermal radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the case of heat transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law of cooling holds only for very small temperature differences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_conductivity_of_different_metals">Thermal conductivity of different metals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Thermal conductivity of different metals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Ingenhousz_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Jan_Ingenhousz_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>Jan Ingenhousz</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG/170px-Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG/255px-Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG/340px-Appareil_Ingenhousz.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Apparatus for measuring the relative thermal conductivities of different metals</figcaption></figure> <p>In a 1780 letter to <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, Dutch-born British scientist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> relates an experiment which enabled him to rank seven different metals according to their thermal conductivities:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You remembre you gave me a wire of five metals all drawn thro the same hole Viz. one, of gould, one of silver, copper steel and iron. I supplyed here the two others Viz. the one of tin the other of lead. I fixed these seven wires into a wooden frame at an equal distance of one an other ... I dipt the seven wires into this melted wax as deep as the wooden frame ... By taking them out they were covred with a coat of wax ... When I found that this crust was there about of an equal thikness upon all the wires, I placed them all in a glased earthen vessel full of olive oil heated to some degrees under boiling, taking care that each wire was dipt just as far in the oil as the other ... Now, as they had been all dipt alike at the same time in the same oil, it must follow, that the wire, upon which the wax had been melted the highest, had been the best conductor of heat. ... Silver conducted heat far the best of all other metals, next to this was copper, then gold, tin, iron, steel, Lead.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benjamin_Thompson's_experiments_on_heat_transfer"><span id="Benjamin_Thompson.27s_experiments_on_heat_transfer"></span>Benjamin Thompson's experiments on heat transfer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Benjamin Thompson's experiments on heat transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson#Experiments_on_heat" title="Benjamin Thompson">Benjamin Thompson § Experiments on heat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Benjamin_Thompson,_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Sir_Benjamin_Thompson%2C_Count_von_Rumford_by_Moritz_Kellerhoven_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="1441" /></a><figcaption>Benjamin Thompson</figcaption></figure> <p>During the years 1784 – 1798, the British physicist <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson" title="Benjamin Thompson">Benjamin Thompson</a> (Count Rumford) lived in <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, reorganizing the Bavarian army for the <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">Prince-elector</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Theodore,_Elector_of_Bavaria" title="Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria">Charles Theodore</a> among other official and charitable duties. The Elector gave Thompson access to the facilities of the Electoral Academy of Sciences in <a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a>. During his years in Mannheim and later in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, Thompson made a large number of discoveries and inventions related to heat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conductivity_experiments">Conductivity experiments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Conductivity experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id=""New_Experiments_upon_Heat""><span id=".22New_Experiments_upon_Heat.22"></span>"New Experiments upon Heat"</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: "New Experiments upon Heat""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1785 Thompson performed a series of thermal conductivity experiments, which he describes in great detail in the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a></i> article "New Experiments upon Heat" from 1786.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786273-304_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786273-304-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that good <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductors</a> are often also good <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">heat conductors</a> and vice versa must have been well known at the time, for Thompson mentions it in passing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786274_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786274-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He intended to measure the relative conductivities of mercury, water, moist air, "common air" (dry air at normal atmospheric pressure), dry air of various rarefication, and a "<a href="/wiki/Torricellian_vacuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Torricellian vacuum">Torricellian vacuum</a>". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From the striking analogy between the electric fluid and heat respecting their conductors and non-conductors (having found that bodies, in general, which are conductors of the electric fluid, are likewise good conductors of heat, and, on the contrary, that electric bodies, or such as are bad conductors of the electric fluid, are likewise bad conductors of heat), I was led to imagine that the Torricellian vacuum, which is known to afford so ready a passage to the electric fluid, would also have afforded a ready passage to heat.</p></blockquote> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Medium </th> <th>Relative conductivity </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mercury </td> <td>1000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Moist air </td> <td>330 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Water </td> <td>313 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dry air (1 atm) </td> <td>80.41 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dry air (1/4 atm) </td> <td>80.23 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dry air (1/24 atm) </td> <td>78 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Torricellian vacuum </td> <td>55 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For these experiments, Thompson employed a thermometer inside a large, closed glass tube. Under the circumstances described, heat may—unbeknownst to Thompson—have been transferred more by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">radiation</a> than by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">conduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-148_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-148-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were his results. </p><p>After the experiments, Thompson was surprised to observe that a vacuum was a significantly poorer heat conductor than air "which of itself is reckoned among the worst",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786277_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786277-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but only a very small difference between common air and rarefied air.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786300_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786300-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also noted the great difference between dry air and moist air,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786296_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786296-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the great benefit this affords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786297-298_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786297-298-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I cannot help observing, with what infinite wisdom and goodness Divine Providence appears to have guarded us against the evil effects of excessive heat and cold in the atmosphere; for if it were possible for the air to be equally damp during the severe cold of the winter ... as it sometimes is in summer, its conducing power, and consequently its apparent coldness ... would become quite intolerable; but, happily for us, its power to hold water in solution is diminished, and with it its power to rob us of our animal heat.</p></blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Every body knows how very disagreeable a very moderate degree of cold is when the air is very damp; and from hence it appears, why the thermometer is not always a just measure of the apparent or sensible heat of the atmosphere. If colds ... are occasioned by our bodies being robbed of our animal heat, the reason is plain why those disorders prevail most during the cold autumnal rains, and upon the breaking up of the frost in the spring. It is likewise plain [why] ... inhabiting damp houses, is so very dangerous; and why the evening air is so pernicious in summer ... and why it is not so during the hard frosts of winter.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Temperature_vs._sensible_heat">Temperature vs. sensible heat</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Temperature vs. sensible heat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thompson concluded with some comments on the important difference between temperature and <a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">sensible heat</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The ... sensation of hot or cold depends not intirely upon the temperature of the body exciting in us those sensations ... but upon the quantity of heat it is capable of communicating to us, or receiving from us ... and this depends in a great measure upon the conducing powers of the bodies in question. The sensation of hot is the entrance of heat into our bodies; that of cold is its exit ... This is another proof that the thermometer cannot be a just measure of sensible heat ... or rather, that the touch does not afford us a just indication of ... real temperatures.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coining_of_the_term_"convection""><span id="Coining_of_the_term_.22convection.22"></span>Coining of the term "convection"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Coining of the term "convection""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prout_William_painting_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of William Prout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Prout_William_painting_%28cropped%29.jpg/130px-Prout_William_painting_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Prout_William_painting_%28cropped%29.jpg/195px-Prout_William_painting_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Prout_William_painting_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="314" /></a><figcaption>William Prout</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fireplace_(60857557)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Fireplace with grate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/130px-Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/195px-Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Fireplace_%2860857557%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption>Fireplace, with grate and chimney</figcaption></figure><p> In the 1830s, in <i><a href="/wiki/Bridgewater_Treatises" title="Bridgewater Treatises">The Bridgewater Treatises</a></i>, the term <i>convection</i> is attested in a scientific sense. In treatise VIII by <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a>, in the book on <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, it says:<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>This motion of heat takes place in three ways, which a common fire-place very well illustrates. If, for instance, we place a thermometer directly before a fire, it soon begins to rise, indicating an increase of temperature. In this case the heat has made its way through the space between the fire and the thermometer, by the process termed <i><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a></i>. If we place a second thermometer in contact with any part of the grate, and away from the direct influence of the fire, we shall find that this thermometer also denotes an increase of temperature; but here the heat must have travelled through the metal of the grate, by what is termed <i><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">conduction</a></i>. Lastly, a third thermometer placed in the chimney, away from the direct influence of the fire, will also indicate a considerable increase of temperature; in this case a portion of the air, passing through and near the fire, has become heated, and has <i>carried</i> up the chimney the temperature acquired from the fire. There is at present no single term in our language employed to denote this third mode of the propagation of heat; but we venture to propose for that purpose, the term <i>convection</i>, [in footnote: [Latin] <i>Convectio</i>, a carrying or conveying] which not only expresses the leading fact, but also accords very well with the two other terms.</p></blockquote><p>Later, in the same treatise VIII, in the book on <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, the concept of convection is also applied to "the process by which heat is communicated through water". </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combined_forced_and_natural_convection" title="Combined forced and natural convection">Combined forced and natural convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer_enhancement" title="Heat transfer enhancement">Heat transfer enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer_physics" title="Heat transfer physics">Heat transfer physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_contact_conductance" title="Thermal contact conductance">Thermal contact conductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_physics" title="Thermal physics">Thermal physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal resistance">Thermal resistance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Geankoplis-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Geankoplis_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geankoplis_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGeankoplis2003" class="citation book cs1">Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). <i>Transport Processes and Separation Principles</i> (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-101367-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-101367-X"><bdi>0-13-101367-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transport+Processes+and+Separation+Principles&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-13-101367-X&rft.aulast=Geankoplis&rft.aufirst=Christie+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbedin2023" class="citation web cs1">Abedin, Engineer Zain ul (9 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechanicalmentor.com/basic-concepts-of-thermodynamics">"What are the Basic Concepts of Engineering Thermodynamics?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.eia.gov&rft.atitle=Solar+thermal+power+plants+-+U.S.+Energy+Information+Administration+%28EIA%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eia.gov%2Fenergyexplained%2Fsolar%2Fsolar-thermal-power-plants.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Megan Crouse: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.manufacturing.net/news/2016/07/gigantic-solar-furnace-can-melt-steel">This Gigantic Solar Furnace Can Melt Steel</a> manufacturing.net, 28 July 2016, retrieved 14 April 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/rhessi_tgf.html">Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid.E._Goldberg1988" class="citation book cs1">David.E. 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Earl Thompson <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070965">https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070965</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1700.0082">"VII. Scala graduum caloris"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>22</b> (270): 824–829. 1701. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1700.0082">10.1098/rstl.1700.0082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=VII.+Scala+graduum+caloris&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=270&rft.pages=824-829&rft.date=1701&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1700.0082&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1700.0082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngenhousz1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ingenhousz, Jan (1998) [1780]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-34-02-0080">"To Benjamin Franklin from Jan Ingenhousz, 5 December 1780"</a>. In Oberg, Barbara B. (ed.). <i>The Papers of Benjamin Franklin</i>. Vol. 34, November 16, 1780, through April 30, 1781. Yale University Press. pp. 120–125 – via Founders Online, National Archives.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+Benjamin+Franklin+from+Jan+Ingenhousz%2C+5+December+1780&rft.btitle=The+Papers+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.pages=120-125&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Ingenhousz&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffounders.archives.gov%2Fdocuments%2FFranklin%2F01-34-02-0080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartin1951">Martin 1951</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786273-304-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786273-304_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 273-304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786274-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786274_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-148-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1951147-148_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartin1951">Martin 1951</a>, p. 147-148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786277-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786277_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786300-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786300_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786296-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786296_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson1786297-298-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThompson1786297-298_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson1786">Thompson 1786</a>, p. 297-298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProut1834" class="citation book cs1">Prout, William (1834). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/chemistrymeteoro00pro"><i>Chemistry, meteorology and the function of digestion: considered with reference to natural theology</i></a>. The Bridgewater Treatises: On the power, wisdom and goodness of God as manifested in the creation. Treatise 8. William Pickering. pp. 65–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%2C+meteorology+and+the+function+of+digestion%3A+considered+with+reference+to+natural+theology&rft.series=The+Bridgewater+Treatises%3A+On+the+power%2C+wisdom+and+goodness+of+God+as+manifested+in+the+creation.+Treatise+8.&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=William+Pickering&rft.date=1834&rft.aulast=Prout&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchemistrymeteoro00pro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1951" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Thomas (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4024834">"The Experimental Researches of Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the British Society for the History of Science</i>. <b>1</b> (6): 144–158). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0950563600000567">10.1017/S0950563600000567</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4024834">4024834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+British+Society+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Experimental+Researches+of+Benjamin+Thompson%2C+Count+Rumford&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=144-158%29&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0950563600000567&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4024834%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4024834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1786" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Benjamin (1 January 1786). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1786.0014">"XIV. New experiments upon heat. By Colonel Sir Benjamin Thompson, Knt. F. R. S. In a letter to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P. R. S."</a> <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>76</b>: 273–304. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1786.0014">10.1098/rstl.1786.0014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=XIV.+New+experiments+upon+heat.+By+Colonel+Sir+Benjamin+Thompson%2C+Knt.+F.+R.+S.+In+a+letter+to+Sir+Joseph+Banks%2C+Bart.+P.+R.+S.&rft.volume=76&rft.pages=273-304&rft.date=1786-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1786.0014&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsocietypublishing.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1786.0014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHeat+transfer" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_transfer&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Heat_transfer" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ahtt.mit.edu">A Heat Transfer Textbook</a> - (free download).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Main_Page">Thermal-FluidsPedia</a> - An online thermal fluids encyclopedia.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heatra.html">Hyperphysics Article on Heat Transfer</a> - Overview</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icax.co.uk/thermalbank.html">Interseasonal Heat Transfer</a> - a practical example of how heat transfer is used to heat buildings without burning fossil fuels.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2007/HT/heat_transfer.html">Aspects of Heat Transfer, Cambridge University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/">Thermal-Fluids Central</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://intofuture.org/energy2d.html">Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for Everyone</a></li></ul> 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_changes_per_hour" title="Air changes per hour">Air changes per hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bake-out" title="Bake-out">Bake-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_envelope" title="Building envelope">Building envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump_and_refrigeration_cycle" title="Heat pump and refrigeration cycle">Heat pump and refrigeration cycle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(HVAC)" title="Infiltration (HVAC)">Infiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">Sensible heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_effect" title="Stack effect">Stack effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">Thermal comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_destratification" title="Thermal destratification">Thermal destratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure_of_water" title="Vapour pressure of water">Vapour pressure of water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorption-compression_heat_pump" title="Absorption-compression heat pump">Absorption-compression heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_barrier" title="Air barrier">Air barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">Antifreeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile air conditioning">Automobile air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_building" title="Autonomous building">Autonomous building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation_material" title="Building insulation material">Building insulation materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_solar_heating" title="Central solar heating">Central solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_beam" title="Chilled beam">Chilled beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_water" title="Chilled water">Chilled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_air_volume" title="Constant air volume">Constant air volume</a> (CAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">Coolant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_ventilation" title="Cross ventilation">Cross ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedicated_outdoor_air_system" title="Dedicated outdoor air system">Dedicated outdoor air system</a> (DOAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_water_source_cooling" title="Deep water source cooling">Deep water source cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_controlled_ventilation" title="Demand controlled ventilation">Demand controlled ventilation</a> (DCV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_ventilation" title="Displacement ventilation">Displacement ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_cooling" title="District cooling">District cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">Electric heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery_ventilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy recovery ventilation">Energy recovery ventilation</a> (ERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestop" title="Firestop">Firestop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air" title="Forced-air">Forced-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air_gas" title="Forced-air gas">Forced-air gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_cooling" title="Free cooling">Free cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_ventilation" title="Heat recovery ventilation">Heat recovery ventilation</a> (HRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_heat" title="Hybrid heat">Hybrid heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronics" title="Hydronics">Hydronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storage_air_conditioning" title="Ice storage air conditioning">Ice storage air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_ventilation" title="Kitchen ventilation">Kitchen ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-mode_ventilation" title="Mixed-mode ventilation">Mixed-mode ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">Passive cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_ventilation" title="Passive ventilation">Passive ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating_and_cooling" title="Radiant heating and cooling">Radiant heating and cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant cooling">Radiant cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant heating">Radiant heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">Renewable heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_air_distribution" title="Room air distribution">Room air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_heat" title="Solar air heat">Solar air heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cooling">Solar cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">Solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">Thermosiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_air_distribution" title="Underfloor air distribution">Underfloor air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">Underfloor heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_barrier" title="Vapor barrier">Vapor barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration" title="Vapor-compression refrigeration">Vapor-compression refrigeration</a> (VCRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_air_volume" title="Variable air volume">Variable air volume</a> (VAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_refrigerant_flow" title="Variable refrigerant flow">Variable refrigerant flow</a> (VRF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">Ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioner_inverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Air conditioner inverter">Air conditioner inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_door" title="Air door">Air door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_handler" title="Air handler">Air handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_ioniser" title="Air ioniser">Air ionizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-mixing_plenum" title="Air-mixing plenum">Air-mixing plenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_purifier" title="Air purifier">Air purifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_source_heat_pump" title="Air source heat pump">Air source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_fan" title="Attic fan">Attic fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_balancing_valve" title="Automatic balancing valve">Automatic balancing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_boiler" title="Back boiler">Back boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_pipe" title="Barrier pipe">Barrier pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_damper" title="Blast damper">Blast damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_fan" title="Centrifugal fan">Centrifugal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_heater" title="Ceramic heater">Ceramic heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiller" title="Chiller">Chiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensate_pump" title="Condensate pump">Condensate pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">Condenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensing_boiler" title="Condensing boiler">Condensing boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_heater" title="Convection heater">Convection heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damper_(flow)" title="Damper (flow)">Damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">Dehumidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_(flow)" title="Duct (flow)">Duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economizer" title="Economizer">Economizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_hood" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaust hood">Exhaust hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_coil_unit" title="Fan coil unit">Fan coil unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_filter_unit" title="Fan filter unit">Fan filter unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_heater" title="Fan heater">Fan heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_damper" title="Fire damper">Fire damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace" title="Fireplace">Fireplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace_insert" title="Fireplace insert">Fireplace insert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_stat" title="Freeze stat">Freeze stat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue" title="Flue">Flue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">Fume hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">Furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_heater" title="Gas heater">Gas heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_heater" title="Gasoline heater">Gasoline heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_duct" title="Grease duct">Grease duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grille_(architecture)" title="Grille (architecture)">Grille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground-coupled_heat_exchanger" title="Ground-coupled heat exchanger">Ground-coupled heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pump" title="Ground source heat pump">Ground source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe">Heat pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_film" title="Heating film">Heating film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_system" title="Heating system">Heating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HEPA" title="HEPA">HEPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_efficiency_glandless_circulating_pump" title="High efficiency glandless circulating pump">High efficiency glandless circulating pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_cut-off_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure cut-off switch">High-pressure cut-off switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidifier" title="Humidifier">Humidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_heater" title="Infrared heater">Infrared heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverter_compressor" title="Inverter compressor">Inverter compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene_heater" title="Kerosene heater">Kerosene heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louver" title="Louver">Louver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_room" title="Mechanical room">Mechanical room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_heater" title="Oil heater">Oil heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaged_terminal_air_conditioner" title="Packaged terminal air conditioner">Packaged terminal air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenum_space" title="Plenum space">Plenum space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurisation_ductwork" title="Pressurisation ductwork">Pressurisation ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_duct_work" title="Process duct work">Process duct work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_(heating)" title="Radiator (heating)">Radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_reflector" title="Radiator reflector">Radiator reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">Recuperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">Refrigerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(air_and_heating)" title="Register (air and heating)">Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_valve" title="Reversing valve">Reversing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-around_coil" title="Run-around coil">Run-around coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail_switch" title="Sail switch">Sail switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll_compressor" title="Scroll compressor">Scroll compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-assisted_heat_pump" title="Solar-assisted heat pump">Solar-assisted heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_heater" title="Space heater">Space heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_canopy" title="Smoke canopy">Smoke canopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_damper" title="Smoke damper">Smoke damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_exhaust_ductwork" title="Smoke exhaust ductwork">Smoke exhaust ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion_valve" title="Thermal expansion valve">Thermal expansion valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_wheel" title="Thermal wheel">Thermal wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickle_vent" title="Trickle vent">Trickle vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trombe_wall" title="Trombe wall">Trombe wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TurboSwing" title="TurboSwing">TurboSwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_vanes_(HVAC)" title="Turning vanes (HVAC)">Turning vanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low_particulate_air" title="Ultra-low particulate air">Ultra-low particulate air</a> (ULPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-house_fan" title="Whole-house fan">Whole-house fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-burning_stove" title="Wood-burning stove">Wood-burning stove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_valve" title="Zone valve">Zone valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement<br />and control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_flow_meter" title="Air flow meter">Air flow meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquastat" title="Aquastat">Aquastat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BACnet" title="BACnet">BACnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blower_door" title="Blower door">Blower door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_automation" title="Building automation">Building automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sensor" title="Carbon dioxide sensor">Carbon dioxide sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_air_delivery_rate" title="Clean air delivery rate">Clean air delivery rate</a> (CADR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_valve" title="Control valve">Control valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_detector" title="Gas detector">Gas detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_monitor" title="Home energy monitor">Home energy monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidistat" title="Humidistat">Humidistat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HVAC_control_system" title="HVAC control system">HVAC control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_thermometer" title="Infrared thermometer">Infrared thermometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent buildings">Intelligent buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LonWorks" title="LonWorks">LonWorks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_efficiency_reporting_value" title="Minimum efficiency reporting value">Minimum efficiency reporting value</a> (MERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal temperature and pressure">Normal temperature and pressure</a> (NTP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenTherm" title="OpenTherm">OpenTherm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_communicating_thermostat" title="Programmable communicating thermostat">Programmable communicating thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_thermostat" title="Programmable thermostat">Programmable thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">Room temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_thermostat" title="Smart thermostat">Smart thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">Standard temperature and pressure</a> (STP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermographic camera">Thermographic camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">Thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions,<br />trades,<br />and services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_technologist" title="Architectural technologist">Architectural technologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">Building information modeling</a> (BIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_energy_retrofit" title="Deep energy retrofit">Deep energy retrofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Duct cleaning">Duct cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_leakage_testing" title="Duct leakage testing">Duct leakage testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronic_balancing" title="Hydronic balancing">Hydronic balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_exhaust_cleaning" title="Kitchen exhaust cleaning">Kitchen exhaust cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold_growth,_assessment,_and_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold growth, assessment, and remediation">Mold growth, assessment, and remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant_reclamation" title="Refrigerant reclamation">Refrigerant reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing,_adjusting,_balancing" title="Testing, adjusting, balancing">Testing, adjusting, balancing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry <br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Conditioning,_Heating_and_Refrigeration_Institute" title="Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute">AHRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Movement_and_Control_Association" title="Air Movement and Control Association">AMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASHRAE" title="ASHRAE">ASHRAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">ASTM International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_Research_Establishment" title="Building Research Establishment">BRE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSRIA" title="BSRIA">BSRIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institution_of_Building_Services_Engineers" title="Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers">CIBSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="Institute of Refrigeration">Institute of Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="International Institute of Refrigeration">IIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">LEED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheet_Metal_and_Air_Conditioning_Contractors%27_National_Association" title="Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association">SMACNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Mechanical_Code" title="Uniform Mechanical Code">UMC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a> (IAQ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">Passive smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome" title="Sick building syndrome">Sick building syndrome</a> (SBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a> (VOC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASHRAE_Handbook" title="ASHRAE Handbook">ASHRAE Handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_science" title="Building science">Building science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireproofing" title="Fireproofing">Fireproofing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_HVAC_terms" title="Glossary of HVAC terms">Glossary of HVAC terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_Spaces" title="Warm Spaces">Warm Spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Refrigeration_Day" title="World Refrigeration Day">World Refrigeration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Home_automation" title="Template:Home automation">Template:Home automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_energy" title="Template:Solar energy">Template:Solar energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chemical_engineering_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_eng" title="Template:Chemical eng"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_eng" title="Template talk:Chemical eng"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_eng" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical eng"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chemical_engineering_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering" title="History of chemical engineering">History of chemical engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PlatformHolly.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/PlatformHolly.jpg/170px-PlatformHolly.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/PlatformHolly.jpg/255px-PlatformHolly.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/PlatformHolly.jpg/340px-PlatformHolly.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">Unit operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_process" title="Unit process">Unit processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineer" title="Chemical engineer">Chemical engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_process" title="Chemical process">Chemical process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unit_operation" title="Unit operation">Unit operations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Momentum_transfer" title="Momentum transfer">Momentum transfer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_transfer" title="Mass transfer">Mass transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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