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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petroleum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Electricity generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reservoirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservoirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Reservoirs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservoirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Nuclear power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Mitigation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mitigation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Energy conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Energy policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9" title="الأثر البيئي لصناعة الطاقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأثر البيئي لصناعة الطاقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AB%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C" title="تاثیر زیست‌محیطی صنعت انرژی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاثیر زیست‌محیطی صنعت انرژی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarin_muhalli_na_masana%27antar_makamashi" title="Tsarin muhalli na masana'antar makamashi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tsarin muhalli na masana'antar makamashi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiental_efekti_dil_energiala_produktado" title="Ambiental efekti dil energiala produktado – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ambiental efekti dil energiala produktado" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8A%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ഊർജ്ജവ്യവസായത്തിന്റെ പരിസ്ഥിതി ആഘാതം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഊർജ്ജവ്യവസായത്തിന്റെ പരിസ്ഥിതി ആഘാതം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_ambiental_da_ind%C3%BAstria_energ%C3%A9tica" title="Impacto ambiental da indústria energética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impacto ambiental da indústria energética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BD%D1%94_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5" title="Вплив енергетики на навколишнє середовище – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вплив енергетики на навколишнє середовище" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1c_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_c%E1%BB%A7a_c%C3%B4ng_nghi%E1%BB%87p_n%C4%83ng_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_l%C3%AAn_m%C3%B4i_tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng" title="Tác động của công nghiệp năng lượng lên môi trường – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tác động của công nghiệp năng lượng lên môi trường" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E7%94%A2%E6%A5%AD%E5%B0%8D%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF" title="能源產業對環境的影響 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="能源產業對環境的影響" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_energy_consumption.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/World_energy_consumption.svg/250px-World_energy_consumption.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/World_energy_consumption.svg/375px-World_energy_consumption.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/World_energy_consumption.svg/500px-World_energy_consumption.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>World consumption of primary energy by energy type.<sup id="cite_ref-BP-Review-2012_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BP-Review-2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Energy_per_capita.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Energy_per_capita.png/250px-Energy_per_capita.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Energy_per_capita.png/375px-Energy_per_capita.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Energy_per_capita.png/500px-Energy_per_capita.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_energy_consumption_per_capita" title="List of countries by energy consumption per capita">Energy consumption per capita per country</a> (2001). Red hues indicate increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>environmental impact of the energy industry</b> is significant, as <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resource</a> consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an environmental impact.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a> for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">commercialization of various renewable energy sources</a>. Scientific consensus on some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are considered to be increasing concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>, causing a warming effect, global changes to land surface, such as <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, for a warming effect, increasing concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a>, mainly for a cooling effect.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rapidly advancing technologies can potentially achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of <a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">systems ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">industrial ecology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quest_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quest-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/300px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/450px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg/600px-20200324_Global_average_temperature_-_NASA-GISS_HadCrut_NOAA_Japan_BerkeleyE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Global average surface temperature</a> datasets from various scientific organizations show the progress and extent of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Attribution of recent climate change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg/300px-1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg/450px-1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg/600px-1979-_Radiative_forcing_-_climate_change_-_global_warming_-_EPA_NOAA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption> The warming influence (called <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a>) of long-lived greenhouse gases has nearly doubled in 40 years, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA_AGGI_2023_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA_AGGI_2023-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific opinion on climate change">scientific consensus on global warming and climate change</a> is that it is caused by <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions">anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions</a>, the majority of which comes from burning <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> with <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and some agricultural practices being also major contributors.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 study showed that two thirds of the industrial greenhouse gas emissions are due to the fossil-fuel (and cement) production of just ninety companies around the world (between 1751 and 2010, with half emitted since 1986).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there is a highly publicized <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">denial of climate change</a>, the vast majority of scientists working in <a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">climatology</a> accept that it is due to human activity. The <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> report <i>Climate Change 2007: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</i> predicts that climate change will cause shortages of food and water and increased risk of flooding that will affect billions of people, particularly those living in poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One measurement of greenhouse gas related and other <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a> comparisons between energy sources can be found in the ExternE project by the <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scherrer_Institut" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Scherrer Institut">Paul Scherrer Institut</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Stuttgart" title="University of Stuttgart">University of Stuttgart</a> which was funded by the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ExternEFTR_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ExternEFTR-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to that study,<sup id="cite_ref-ExternEGraphs_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ExternEGraphs-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> electricity produces the lowest CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> emissions, <a href="/wiki/Wind_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind energy">wind</a> produces the second-lowest, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a> produces the third-lowest and <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar</a> <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> produces the fourth-lowest.<sup id="cite_ref-ExternEGraphs_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ExternEGraphs-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, the same research study (ExternE, Externalities of Energy), undertaken from 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal or oil would double over its present value, and the cost of electricity production from gas would increase by 30% if external costs such as damage to the environment and to human health, from the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric particulate matter">airborne particulate matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromium VI">chromium VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> emissions produced by these sources, were taken into account. It was estimated in the study that these external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1–2% of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_European_Union" title="Economy of the European Union">EU's entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP)</a>, and this was before the external cost of global warming from these sources was even included.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study also found that the environmental and health costs of nuclear power, per unit of energy delivered, was €0.0019/kWh, which was found to be lower than that of many <a href="/wiki/Renewable" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable">renewable</a> sources including that caused by <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> and photovoltaic <a href="/wiki/Solar_panels" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar panels">solar panels</a>, and was thirty times lower than coal at €0.06/kWh, or 6 cents/kWh, with the energy sources of the lowest external environmental and health costs associated with it being <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> at €0.0009/kWh.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biofuel_use">Biofuel use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biofuel use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biofuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biofuels">Environmental impact of biofuels</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a> is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living biological material and is different from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, which are derived from long-dead biological material. Various <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bio-diesel">Bio-diesel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bio-diesel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of biodiesel">Environmental effects of biodiesel</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></div> <p>High use of bio-diesel leads to <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">land use changes</a> including <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Firewood">Firewood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Firewood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unsustainable <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">firewood</a> harvesting can lead to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">loss of biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> due to loss of forest cover. An example of this is a 40-year study done by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leeds" title="University of Leeds">University of Leeds</a> of African forests, which account for a third of the world's total <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forest</a> which demonstrates that <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> is a significant <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> expert, Lee White states that "To get an idea of the value of the sink, the removal of nearly 5 billion tonnes of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> by intact tropical forests is at issue. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/U.N." class="mw-redirect" title="U.N.">U.N.</a> the African continent is losing forest twice as fast as the rest of the world. "Once upon a time, Africa boasted seven million square kilometers of forest but a third of that has been lost, most of it to <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_fuel_use">Fossil fuel use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fossil fuel use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/220px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/330px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg/440px-Global_Carbon_Emissions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>Global fossil <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> emission by fuel type, 1800–2007 AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>The three <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> types are <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. It was estimated by the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">Energy Information Administration</a> that in 2006 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.8%, coal 26.6%, natural gas 22.9%, amounting to an 86% share for <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a> in primary energy production in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013 the burning of fossil fuels produced around 32 billion <a href="/wiki/Tonnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonnes">tonnes</a> (32 <a href="/wiki/Gigatonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigatonne">gigatonnes</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and additional <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>. This caused negative <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a> of $4.9 trillion due to global warming and health problems (> 150 $/ton carbon dioxide).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbon dioxide is one of the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> that enhances <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> and contributes to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, causing the <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">average surface temperature</a> of the Earth to rise in response, which <a href="/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific opinion on climate change">climate scientists</a> agree will cause major adverse <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of global warming">effects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coal">Coal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">Health and environmental impact of the coal industry</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/220px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/330px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg/440px-Coal_mine_in_Dhanbad%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>A coal surface mining site in Bihar, India</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MTR1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MTR1.jpg/220px-MTR1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MTR1.jpg/330px-MTR1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/MTR1.jpg/440px-MTR1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mining" title="Mountaintop removal mining">mountaintop removal mining</a> operation in the United States</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">health and environmental impact of the coal industry</a> includes issues such as <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">coal mining</a>, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coal_burning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coal burning (page does not exist)">coal burning</a> produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bottom_ash" title="Bottom ash">bottom ash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">flue-gas desulfurization</a> sludge, that contain <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>. </p><p>There are severe health effects caused by burning coal.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_lungusa_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_lungusa-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_ucsusa_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_ucsusa-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worldwide 25 people die early for each <a href="/wiki/Terawatt_hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt hour">terawatt hour</a> of electricity generated by coal, around a thousand times more than nuclear or solar.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> In addition, there have been many coal <a href="/wiki/Mining_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining disasters">mining disasters</a>, although work related coal deaths has declined substantially as safety measures have been enacted and underground mining has given up market share to surface mining.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> explosions. Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_Coal_mining_fatalities_1900-2016_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry_Coal_mining_fatalities_1900-2016-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of people died in coal mine accidents in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Petroleum">Petroleum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Petroleum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry">Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg/220px-An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg/330px-An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg/440px-An_oil_rig_offshore_Vungtau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Routine_flaring" title="Routine flaring">Flaring</a> of gas from offshore oil extraction platforms</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil-spill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Oil-spill.jpg/220px-Oil-spill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Oil-spill.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>A beach after an <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spill</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg/220px-Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg/330px-Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg/440px-Plastic_Pollution_in_Ghana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a> on a beach.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact">environmental impact</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">petroleum industry</a> is extensive and expansive due to <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> having many uses. <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">Crude oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> are <a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">primary energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a> sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>. Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing <a href="/wiki/Human_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population">human population</a>, creativity, knowledge, and <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Substantial quantities of <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a> and non-toxic waste are generated during the <a href="/wiki/Oil_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil extraction">extraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refinement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_transport" title="Petroleum transport">transportation</a> stages of oil and gas. Some industry by-products, such as <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen</a> & <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_compounds" title="Sulfur compounds">sulfur compounds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">spilled oil</a> can pollute the air, water and soil at levels that are harmful to life, when improperly managed.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate warming">Climate warming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> are global changes enhanced by the industry's emissions of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> like <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and micro-particulate <a href="/wiki/Aerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosols">aerosols</a> like <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vehicle <a href="/wiki/Tailpipe_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Tailpipe emissions">tailpipe emissions</a> kill many people.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among all human activities, <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> is the largest contributor to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">buildup of carbon</a> in the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_heede_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_heede-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> and others report that oil & gas use comprises over 55% (18 billion tons) of the recorded 32.8 billion tons (BT) of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> released into the atmosphere from all energy sources in year 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieaco2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieaco2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a> use comprised most of the remaining 45%. Total <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">emissions</a> continue to rise nearly every year: from 1.7% to 33.1 BT in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through its operations, the petroleum industry directly contributed about 8% (2.7 BT) of the 32.8 BT in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieaco2_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieaco2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieach4_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieach4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, due to its intentional and other releases of natural gas, the industry directly contributed at least<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 79 million tons of methane (2.4 BT CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalent) that same year; an amount equal to about 14% of all known <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">anthropogenic</a> and natural emissions of the potent warming gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieach4_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry_ieach4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with fuels like <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquified_natural_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified natural gas">liquified natural gas</a>, petroleum enables many consumer chemicals and products, such as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>. Most alternative technologies for energy generation, transportation, and storage can only be realized at this time because of its diverse usefulness.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <a href="/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation (ethic)">Conservation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">efficiency</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Waste_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste reduction">minimizing waste impacts</a> of petroleum products are effective industry and consumer actions toward achieving better <a href="/wiki/Environmental_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental sustainability">environmental sustainability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas">Gas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking" title="Environmental impact of fracking">Environmental impact of fracking</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a> is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel, producing less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than either coal or oil,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and far fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels. However, in absolute terms, it does contribute substantially to global carbon emissions, and this contribution is projected to grow. According to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">IPCC Fourth Assessment Report</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2004 natural gas produced about 5,300 Mt/yr of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, while coal and oil produced 10,600 and 10,200 respectively (Figure 4.4); but by 2030, according to an updated version of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios#B2" title="Special Report on Emissions Scenarios">SRES B2</a> emissions scenario, natural gas would be the source of 11,000 Mt/yr, with coal and oil now 8,400 and 17,200 respectively. (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" title="List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions">Total global emissions</a> for 2004 were estimated at over 27,200 Mt.) </p><p>In addition, natural gas itself is a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide when released into the atmosphere but is released in smaller amounts. The environmental impacts of Natural gas also vary substantially on their extraction processes, much natural gas is a byproduct of heavily polluting petroleum extraction and newer techniques for <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> have made natural gas reserves that were previously unaccusable available, but with <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing">many more negative environmental and health impacts that traditional natural gas extraction</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electricity_generation">Electricity generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Electricity generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">Environmental impact of electricity generation</a></div> <p>The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">generated</a> at <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plants</a> that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. Each such system has advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns. </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reservoirs">Reservoirs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reservoirs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Environmental impact of reservoirs</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wachusett-dam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/220px-Wachusett-dam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/330px-Wachusett-dam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/440px-Wachusett-dam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The Wachusett Dam in <a href="/wiki/Clinton,_Massachusetts" title="Clinton, Massachusetts">Clinton, Massachusetts</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">environmental impact of reservoirs</a> comes under ever-increasing scrutiny as the global demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases. </p> <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a> can be used to supply <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, generate <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">hydroelectric power</a>, increase the water supply for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, provide recreational opportunities, and <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>. In 1960 the construction of <a href="/wiki/Llyn_Celyn" title="Llyn Celyn">Llyn Celyn</a> and the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Capel_Celyn" title="Capel Celyn">Capel Celyn</a> provoked political uproar which continues to this day. More recently, the construction of <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> and other similar projects throughout <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> have generated considerable environmental and political debate. Currently, 48 percent of rivers and their <a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">hydro-ecological</a> systems are affected by reservoirs and dams.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nuclear_power">Nuclear power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nuclear power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">Environmental impact of nuclear power</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg/220px-Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg/330px-Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg/440px-Nuclear_power_environmenal_collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>Nuclear power activities involving the environment; mining, enrichment, generation and geological disposal.</figcaption></figure> <p>The environmental impact of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> results from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">nuclear fuel cycle</a>, operation, and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accidents">nuclear accidents</a>. </p><p>The routine health risks and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas emission">greenhouse gas emissions</a> from nuclear fission power are significantly smaller than those associated with coal, oil and gas. However, there is a "catastrophic risk" potential if containment fails,<sup id="cite_ref-ipfm2010_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipfm2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by over-heated fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment. The most long-lived radioactive wastes, including spent nuclear fuel, must be contained and isolated from humans and the environment for hundreds of thousands of years. The public is sensitive to these risks and there has been considerable <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">public opposition to nuclear power</a>. Despite this potential for disaster, normal fossil fuel related pollution is still considerably more harmful than any previous nuclear disaster. </p><p>The 1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>, along with high construction costs, ended the rapid growth of global nuclear power capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-ipfm2010_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipfm2010-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further disastrous release of radioactive materials followed the 2011 Japanese tsunami which damaged the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant">Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant</a>, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns</a> classified as a <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">Level 7</a> event. The large-scale release of radioactivity resulted in people being evacuated from a 20 km exclusion zone set up around the power plant, similar to the 30 km radius <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a> still in effect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mitigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_conservation">Energy conservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Energy conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></div> <p>Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation can be achieved through increased <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficient energy use</a>, in conjunction with decreased <a href="/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy resources and consumption">energy consumption</a> and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources. </p><p>Energy conservation can result in increased <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">financial capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> quality, <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personal_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal security">personal security</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">human comfort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals and organizations that are direct <a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumers</a> of energy choose to conserve energy to reduce energy costs and promote <a href="/wiki/Economic_security" title="Economic security">economic security</a>. Industrial and commercial users can increase energy use efficiency to maximize <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</a>. </p><p>The increase of global energy use can also be slowed by tackling <a href="/wiki/Human_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population growth">human population growth</a>, by using non-coercive measures such as better provision of <a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a> services and by empowering (educating) women in developing countries. </p><p>An EU survey conducted on climate and energy consumption in 2022 found that 63% of people in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> want energy costs to be dependent on use, with the greatest consumers paying more. This is compared to 83% in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, 63% in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> and 57% in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:822_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:822-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_policy">Energy policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Energy policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a></div> <p>Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address issues of <a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">energy development</a> including <a href="/wiki/Energy_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy production">energy production</a>, distribution and <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a>. The attributes of energy policy may include <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for <a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">energy conservation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxation</a> and other public policy techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_accounting" title="Energy accounting">Energy accounting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Energy_%26_Environment" title="Energy & Environment">Energy & Environment</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">Energy economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow (ecology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_industry" title="Energy industry">Energy industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation" title="Environmental impact of aviation">Environmental impact of aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">Environmental impact of electricity generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing">Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_energy_articles" title="Index of energy articles">Index of energy articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_energy_storage_projects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of energy storage projects">List of energy storage projects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">List of environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-carbon power">Low-carbon power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Venus_Project" title="The Venus Project">The Venus Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermoeconomics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-BP-Review-2012-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BP-Review-2012_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BP: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110820223933/http://www.bp.com/sectionbodycopy.do?categoryId%3D7500%26contentId%3D7068481">Workbook of historical data (xlsx)</a>, London, 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" 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/></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 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