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href="#Roman_Republic:_c._500_–_27_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic:_c._500_–_27_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_period:_27_BC_–_AD_476" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_period:_27_BC_–_AD_476"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Imperial period: 27 BC – AD 476</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Imperial_period:_27_BC_–_AD_476-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Imperial period: 27 BC – AD 476 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Imperial_period:_27_BC_–_AD_476-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iconography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Iconography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value_and_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_and_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Value and composition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Value_and_composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Value and composition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Value_and_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Debasement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debasement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Debasement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debasement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equivalences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equivalences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Equivalences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equivalences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman currency</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عملة رومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عملة رومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_valuta" title="Rimska valuta – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimska valuta" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneda_romana" title="Moneda romana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Moneda romana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_valuta" title="Romersk valuta – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romersk valuta" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mische_W%C3%A4hrung" title="Römische Währung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römische Währung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Rooma_rahas%C3%BCsteem" title="Vana-Rooma rahasüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Rooma rahasüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Ρωμαϊκά νομίσματα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκά νομίσματα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneda_en_la_Antigua_Roma" title="Moneda en la Antigua Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Moneda en la Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="پول رومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پول رومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnaie_romaine" title="Monnaie romaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Monnaie romaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moeda_da_Antiga_Roma" title="Moeda da Antiga Roma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Moeda da Antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%97%B0%E8%B2%A8%E5%B9%A3" title="古羅馬嗰貨幣 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="古羅馬嗰貨幣" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%98_%ED%99%94%ED%8F%90" title="고대 로마의 화폐 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 로마의 화폐" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mata_uang_Romawi" title="Mata uang Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mata uang Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneta_del_Roma_ancian" title="Moneta del Roma ancian – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Moneta del Roma ancian" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetazione_romana" title="Monetazione romana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Monetazione romana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ძველი რომის მონეტები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი რომის მონეტები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pecunia_Romana" title="Pecunia Romana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pecunia Romana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Romos_pinigai" title="Senovės Romos pinigai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Romos pinigai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_munteenheid" title="Romeinse munteenheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinse munteenheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E3%81%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%B2%A8" title="古代ローマの通貨 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代ローマの通貨" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_monetarny_w_cesarstwie_rzymskim" title="System monetarny w cesarstwie rzymskim – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System monetarny w cesarstwie rzymskim" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moeda_da_Roma_Antiga" title="Moeda da Roma Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Moeda da Roma Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moned%C4%83_roman%C4%83" title="Monedă romană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Monedă romană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Монетная система Древнего Рима – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Монетная система Древнего Рима" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Roman_coins" title="Category:Roman coins – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Category:Roman coins" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Римска валута – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римска валута" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_valuta" title="Rimska valuta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimska valuta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_valuta" title="Romersk valuta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romersk valuta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Монетна система Стародавнього Риму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Монетна система Стародавнього Риму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA" title="רוימישע מטבעות – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="רוימישע מטבעות" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q952064#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Currency of ancient Rome</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg/220px-Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg/330px-Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg/440px-Marcus_Aurelius_Denarius2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>. Legend: IMP. M. ANTONINVS AVG. TR. P. XXV.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Roman currency</b> for most of <a href="/wiki/Roman_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman history">Roman history</a> consisted of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orichalcum#Numismatics" title="Orichalcum">orichalcum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From its introduction during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, in the third century BC, through <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial</a> times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, and composition. A feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. This trend continued with <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine currency">Byzantine currency</a>. </p><p>Due to the economic power and longevity of the Roman state, Roman currency was widely used throughout western Eurasia and northern Africa from classical times into the Middle Ages. It served as a model for the currencies of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Muslim states and dynasties">Muslim caliphates</a> and the European states during the Middle Ages and the Modern Era. Roman currency names survive today in many countries via the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_monetary_system" title="Carolingian monetary system">Carolingian monetary system</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Dinar" title="Dinar">dinar</a> (from the <i><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a></i> coin), the British <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pound</a> (a translation of the Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Libra_(weight)" class="mw-redirect" title="Libra (weight)">libra</a></i>, a unit of weight), the <a href="/wiki/Peso" title="Peso">peso</a> (also a translation of <i>libra</i>), and the words for the general concept of <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">money</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Iberian Romance languages</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <i><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">dinero</i></span></i> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> <i><span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">dinheiro</i></span></i>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authority_to_mint_coins">Authority to mint coins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Authority to mint coins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">History of coins in Italy</a></div> <p>The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word "mint" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC near the temple of <a href="/wiki/Juno_Moneta" class="mw-redirect" title="Juno Moneta">Juno Moneta</a>. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors and usurpers who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the usurper <a href="/wiki/Quietus" title="Quietus">Quietus</a>, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued thirteen coins bearing his image from three mints.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they did not know about <a href="/wiki/Coining_(mint)" title="Coining (mint)">striking</a>, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Republic:_c._500_–_27_BC"><span id="Roman_Republic:_c._500_.E2.80.93_27_BC"></span>Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman Republic: c. 500 – 27 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Roman Republican currency</a></div> <p>Roman adoption of metallic <a href="/wiki/Commodity_money" title="Commodity money">commodity money</a> was a late development in <a href="/wiki/History_of_money" title="History of money">monetary history</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">Bullion</a> bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC; and Greeks in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> had pioneered the use of coinage (which they employed in addition to other more primitive, monetary <a href="/wiki/Mediums_of_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediums of exchange">mediums of exchange</a>) as early as the 7th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalf201233_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalf201233-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aes_Signatum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aes_Signatum.jpg/170px-Aes_Signatum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aes_Signatum.jpg/255px-Aes_Signatum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aes_Signatum.jpg/340px-Aes_Signatum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1926" data-file-height="3551" /></a><figcaption>Bronze <i><a href="/wiki/Aes_signatum" title="Aes signatum">aes signatum</a></i> produced by the Roman Republic after 450 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Coinage proper was only introduced by the republican government <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span>. The greatest city of the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> region in southern Italy, and several other Italian cities, already had a long tradition of using coinage by this time and produced them in large quantities during the 4th century BC to pay for their wars against the inland Italian groups encroaching on their territory. For these reasons, the Romans would have certainly known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. Eventually, the economic conditions of the Second Punic War forced the Romans to fully adopt a coinage system.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean. It combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Aes_signatum" title="Aes signatum">aes signatum</a></i></span></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for <i>signed bronze</i>). It measured about 16 by 9 centimetres (6.3 by 3.5 in) and weighed around 1.5 to 1.6 kilograms (3.3 to 3.5 lb), being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal currency bars had been produced in Italy and northern <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Etruscan areas</a>, these had been made of <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Aes_grave" title="Aes grave">aes grave</a></i></span></i>, an unrefined metal with a high iron content.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with the <i>aes signatum</i>, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze and silver coins that emulated the styles of those produced in Greek cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Burnett_4-5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burnett_4-5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in <a href="/wiki/Naples#Greek" title="Naples">Greek Naples</a>, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Greek designs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burnett_16_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burnett_16-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a "solid conservatism", usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods and goddesses.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperial_period:_27_BC_–_AD_476"><span id="Imperial_period:_27_BC_.E2.80.93_AD_476"></span>Imperial period: 27 BC – AD 476</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Imperial period: 27 BC – AD 476"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iconography">Iconography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Iconography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Coin_Denominations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Roman_Coin_Denominations.png/400px-Roman_Coin_Denominations.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Roman_Coin_Denominations.png/600px-Roman_Coin_Denominations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Roman_Coin_Denominations.png/800px-Roman_Coin_Denominations.png 2x" data-file-width="8105" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>The most common denominations used during Early Roman times, their relative sizes, and relative values</figcaption></figure> <p>A significant advancement in coin imagery occurred when <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> issued coins bearing his own portrait. While previous moneyers had issued coins featuring portraits of their ancestors, Caesar's coinage marked the third instance in Roman history where a living individual was depicted. This innovative approach to coin design further amplified the use of propaganda and personal representation in currency during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although living Romans had appeared on coinage before,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the words of Clare Rowan (2019) "The appearance of Caesar's portrait on Roman denarii in 44 BC is often seen as a revolutionary moment in Roman history..."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The appearance of Julius Caesar implemented a new standard, and the tradition continued following <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Caesar's assassination</a>, although the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperors</a> from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the Empire the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear on the coins until the middle of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>' reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins. </p><p>The main focus of the imagery during the Empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either <a href="/wiki/Venus_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Venus (goddess)">Venus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a>, attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>. In AD 192, he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid in succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the Empire. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England,_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg/300px-Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg/450px-Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg/600px-Coins_of_the_Roman_Replic_and_Empire_-_from_Cassell%27s_History_of_England%2C_Vol._I_-_anonymous_author_and_artists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Coins of the Roman Republic and Empire from Cassell's <i>History of England</i>, Vol. I</figcaption></figure> <p>Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to be viewed as embodying the attributes of the individual portrayed. <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> wrote that following the death of <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> the Senate demonetized his coinage and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sestertius</a> carry? Trajan's? Give it to me. Nero's? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the Imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone. </p><p>It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a>; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians. </p><p>Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value_and_composition">Value and composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Value and composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="value"></span><span class="anchor" id="composition"></span> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Numismatics" title="Category:Numismatics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color: lavender"><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">the study of currency</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg/120px-AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg/180px-AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg/240px-AIGA_Currency_Exchange_-_Euro.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="416" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_numismatics" title="Glossary of numismatics">Glossary</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">Currency</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">Coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">Banknotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfeit_money" title="Counterfeit money">Forgery</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_currencies" title="List of currencies">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">ISO</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_circulating_currencies" title="List of circulating currencies">Circulating currencies</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Currencies_of_Africa" title="Category:Currencies of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Currencies_of_Asia" title="Category:Currencies of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Currencies_of_Europe" title="Category:Currencies of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Currencies_of_North_America" 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mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/History_of_money" title="History of money">History of money</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_currencies" title="List of historical currencies">Historical currencies</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite_currency" title="Aksumite currency">Aksumite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid currency">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Philippine_money" title="History of Philippine money">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Greek</a></li> <li><a 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/></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Numismatics" title="Portal:Numismatics">Numismatics portal</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/16px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/24px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Numismatics" title="Template:Numismatics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Numismatics" title="Template talk:Numismatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Numismatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Numismatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had (at least in the early centuries) significant intrinsic value. However, while the gold and silver issues contained precious metals, the value of a coin could be slightly higher than its precious metal content, so they were not, strictly speaking, equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a>. Also, over the course of time the purity and weight of the silver coins were reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-IA_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IA-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the value of the <i><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a></i> range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">pound sterling</a> at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 pound sterling by its end (comparing bread, wine, and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coinage system that existed in Egypt until the time of Diocletian's monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a>. Although the value of these tetradrachms can be reckoned as being equivalent to that of the <i>denarius</i>, their precious metal content was always much lower. Elsewhere also, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> till the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debasement">Debasement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Debasement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg/580px-Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg" decoding="async" width="580" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg/870px-Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg/1160px-Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="294" /></a><figcaption>The rapid decline in silver purity of the <i><a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, the heavily debased <i><a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a></i> (double <i>denarius</i>) was replaced with a variety of new denominations,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule. </p><p>The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a character that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">genius</a>) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor. </p><p>These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured <a href="/wiki/Christogram" title="Christogram">Christograms</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Chi_Rho" title="Chi Rho">Chi Rho</a> monogram for Jesus Christ's name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured almost indistinguishable idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness. </p><p>Although the <i>denarius</i> remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction a few years before 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably, decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement became such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals and inadequacies in state finances. When introduced, the <i>denarius</i> contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">grams</a>, but from the time of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> onwards the tendency was nearly always for its purity to be decreased. </p><p>The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the <i>denarii</i> that were struck by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> to pay his army during his battles against <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a>. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal <i>denarius</i>, were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome. </p><p>The <i>denarius</i> continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>. This was followed by the introduction of a double <i>denarius</i> piece, differentiated from the <i>denarius</i> by the <a href="/wiki/Radiate_crown" title="Radiate crown">radiate crown</a> worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the <i><a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">antoninianus</a></i> by numismatists after the emperor <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, who introduced the coin in early 215. Although nominally valued at two <i>denarii</i>, the <i>antoninianus</i> never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the <i>denarius</i>. The profit of minting a coin valued at two <i>denarii</i>, but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of <i>antoniniani</i> minted increased, the number of <i>denarii</i> minted decreased, until the <i>denarius</i> ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the <i>antonianus</i> fell to only 2%, losing almost any appearance of being silver. During this time the <i><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">aureus</a></i> remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base (lower gold content and higher base metal content) before Diocletian's reform. </p><p>The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of Aurelian in 274. Some researchers think that the number 21 on the coins from those years (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek) means a standard for the antonianus set at twenty parts copper to one part silver.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the Tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an <i>aureus</i> struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Argenteus" title="Argenteus">argenteus</a></i>, and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. </p><p>Diocletian issued an <a href="/wiki/Edict_on_Maximum_Prices" title="Edict on Maximum Prices">Edict on Maximum Prices</a> in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of <i>denarii</i>, although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze <i>follis</i> was valued at <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">12<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market. </p><p>The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained continuous debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">trade with India</a> (which drained silver from the Mediterranean world) and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 <i>sestertii</i> a year under Augustus to 2,000 <i>sestertii</i> a year under <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, while the price of grain more than tripled, indicating a fall in real wages and moderate inflation during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equivalences">Equivalences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Equivalences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Relative_values"></span> The first rows show the values of each boldface coin in the first column in relation to the coins in the following columns: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Early Republic values<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (after 211 BC) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">Sestertius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dupondius" title="Dupondius">Dupondius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/As_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="As (coin)">As</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">Semis</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Quincunx_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quincunx (coin)">Quincunx</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Triens" title="Triens">Triens</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">Quadrans</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uncia_(coin)" title="Uncia (coin)">Uncia</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Denarius </th> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> <td>5</td> <td>10</td> <td>20</td> <td>24</td> <td>30</td> <td>40</td> <td>120 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sestertius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>5</td> <td>6</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>10</td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dupondius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">4</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">4<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">4</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>6</td> <td>8</td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <th>As </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">10</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Semis </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">20</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>2</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quincunx </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Triens </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">30</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">15</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">4</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quadrans </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">40</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">10</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Uncia </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">120</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">30</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Augustan values (27 BC – AD 301) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a></th> <th>Quinarius Aureus</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Quinarius" title="Quinarius">Quinarius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">Sestertius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dupondius" title="Dupondius">Dupondius</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/As_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="As (coin)">As</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">Semis</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">Quadrans</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Aureus </th> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>25</td> <td>50</td> <td>100</td> <td>200</td> <td>400</td> <td>800</td> <td>1600 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quinarius Aureus </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">12<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>25</td> <td>50</td> <td>100</td> <td>200</td> <td>400</td> <td>800 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Denarius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td>8</td> <td>16</td> <td>32</td> <td>64 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quinarius Argenteus </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">50</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td>8</td> <td>16</td> <td>32 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sestertius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">100</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">50</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td>8</td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dupondius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">200</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">100</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>As </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">400</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">200</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Semis </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">800</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">400</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">32</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Quadrans </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">1600</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">800</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">64</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">32</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Edict_on_Maximum_Prices" title="Edict on Maximum Prices">Diocletian values</a> (301–305) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Argenteus" title="Argenteus">Argenteus</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nummus" title="Nummus">Nummus</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Post-reform_radiate" title="Post-reform radiate">Radiate</a></th> <th>Laureate</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Aureus </th> <td>1</td> <td>25</td> <td>40</td> <td>200</td> <td>500</td> <td>1000 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Argenteus </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> <td>20</td> <td>50</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nummus </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">40</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>5</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">12<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Radiate </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">200</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">20</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Laureate </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">500</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">50</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Denarius </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">1000</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">100</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">25</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">5</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Late Empire coin values (337–476) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Miliarense" title="Miliarense">Miliarense</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Siliqua" title="Siliqua">Siliqua</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nummus" title="Nummus">Nummus</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Solidus </th> <td>1</td> <td>12</td> <td>24</td> <td>180 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Miliarense </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Siliqua </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></td> <td>1</td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">7<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nummus </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">180</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">15</span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">15</span></span></td> <td>1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/32px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/48px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bills_and_coins.svg/64px-Bills_and_coins.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="465" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Money" title="Portal:Money">Money portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png/28px-United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png/42px-United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png/56px-United_States_penny%2C_obverse%2C_2002.png 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="901" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Numismatics" title="Portal:Numismatics">Numismatics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Byzantine coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">History of coins in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_currencies" title="List of historical currencies">List of historical currencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Roman finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_provincial_currency" title="Roman provincial currency">Roman provincial currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rougga_Treasure" title="Rougga Treasure">Rougga Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_from_Maximinus_Thrax_to_Aemilianus" title="Coinage from Maximinus Thrax to Aemilianus">Coinage from Maximinus Thrax to Aemilianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banker%27s_mark" title="Banker's mark">Banker's mark</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blanchardgold.com/guide/historical/">"Blanchard and Company, Inc. - The Twelve Caesars"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blanchard+and+Company%2C+Inc.+-+The+Twelve+Caesars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blanchardgold.com%2Fguide%2Fhistorical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkowitz2018" class="citation web cs1">Markowitz, Mike (1 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coinweek.com/imperial-wannabes-the-ancient-coinage-of-roman-usurpers/">"Imperial Wannabes: The Ancient Coinage of Roman Usurpers"</a>. <i>CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CoinWeek%3A+Rare+Coin%2C+Currency%2C+and+Bullion+News+for+Collectors&rft.atitle=Imperial+Wannabes%3A+The+Ancient+Coinage+of+Roman+Usurpers&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft.aulast=Markowitz&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoinweek.com%2Fimperial-wannabes-the-ancient-coinage-of-roman-usurpers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wildwinds Coins</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalf201233-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalf201233_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetcalf2012">Metcalf 2012</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.P.Elliot p.68 <a href="//doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0596-2_46" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0596-2 46">doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-0596-2_46</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Bur87">Burnett 1987</a>. p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burnett_4-5-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burnett_4-5_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Bur87">Burnett 1987</a>. pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burnett_16-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burnett_16_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Bur87">Burnett 1987</a>. p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ree70">Reece 1970</a>. p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEiland2023" class="citation book cs1">Eiland, Murray (30 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.30861/9781407360713"><i>Picturing Roman Belief Systems: The iconography of coins in the Republic and Empire</i></a>. British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30861%2F9781407360713">10.30861/9781407360713</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-6071-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-6071-3"><bdi>978-1-4073-6071-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Picturing+Roman+Belief+Systems%3A+The+iconography+of+coins+in+the+Republic+and+Empire&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=British+Archaeological+Reports+%28Oxford%29+Ltd&rft.date=2023-04-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30861%2F9781407360713&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-6071-3&rft.aulast=Eiland&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.30861%2F9781407360713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Notably the portrait of <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus" title="Titus Quinctius Flamininus">Titus Quinctius Flamininus</a> in the east in the second century BC (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1954-1009-1">British Museum link</a>), and Sulla's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://donaldscarinci.com/sulla-silver-denarius/">portrayal as triumphator</a> in 82 BC.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowan2019" class="citation book cs1">Rowan, Clare (2019). <i>From Caesar to Augustus (c. 49 BC-AD 14) : using coins as sources</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107037489" title="Special:BookSources/9781107037489"><bdi>9781107037489</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Caesar+to+Augustus+%28c.+49+BC-AD+14%29+%3A+using+coins+as+sources&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781107037489&rft.aulast=Rowan&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrentinella2003" class="citation web cs1">Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo/hd_ropo.htm">"Roman Portrait Sculpture: Republican through Constantinian"</a>. <i>Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.atitle=Roman+Portrait+Sculpture%3A+Republican+through+Constantinian&rft.date=2003-10&rft.aulast=Trentinella&rft.aufirst=Rosemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fropo%2Fhd_ropo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrentinella2003" class="citation web cs1">Trentinella, Rosemarie (October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm">"Roman Portrait Sculpture: The Stylistic Cycle"</a>. <i>www.metmuseum.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Roman+Portrait+Sculpture%3A+The+Stylistic+Cycle&rft.date=2003-10&rft.aulast=Trentinella&rft.aufirst=Rosemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fropo2%2Fhd_ropo2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forumancientcoins.com/dougsmith/probus.html">"Probus"</a>. <i>www.forumancientcoins.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.forumancientcoins.com&rft.atitle=Probus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forumancientcoins.com%2Fdougsmith%2Fprobus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IA-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IA_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodPontingButcher2023" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, JR; Ponting, M; Butcher, K (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue61/10/">"Mints not Mines: a macroscale investigation of Roman silver coinage"</a>. <i>Internet Archaeology</i> (61). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.61.10">10.11141/ia.61.10</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Mints+not+Mines%3A+a+macroscale+investigation+of+Roman+silver+coinage&rft.issue=61&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11141%2Fia.61.10&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Ponting%2C+M&rft.au=Butcher%2C+K&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fintarch.ac.uk%2Fjournal%2Fissue61%2F10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130210071801/http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html">"Buying Power of Ancient Coins"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html">the original</a> on 10 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Buying+Power+of+Ancient+Coins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdougsmith.ancients.info%2Fworth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland1955" class="citation journal cs1">Sutherland, C. H. V. (November 1955). "Diocletian's Reform of the Coinage: a Chronological Note". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>45</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">116–</span>118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298751">10.2307/298751</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/298751">298751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Diocletian%27s+Reform+of+the+Coinage%3A+a+Chronological+Note&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.date=1955-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F298751&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F298751%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=C.+H.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the different theories regarding the XXI see Schwenter, Johannes (2023). "Aurelians Münzreform - das Kürzel XXI" [Aurelian's coin reform - the abbreviation XXI]. <i>Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte</i> <b>73</b>, pp. 195-204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientcoins.biz/pages/economy/">"Roman Economy – Prices & Cost in Ancient Rome"</a>. 13 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070113183811/http://www.ancientcoins.biz/pages/economy/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roman+Economy+%E2%80%93+Prices+%26+Cost+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.date=2007-01-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientcoins.biz%2Fpages%2Feconomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">W.G. Sayles</span>, <i>Ancient Coin Collecting III: The Roman World-Politics and Propaganda</i>, Iola, 1997, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">William Boyne</span>, <i>A Manual of Roman Coins: from the earliest period to the extinction of the empire</i>, W. H. Johnston, 1865, p. 7. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqdPAAAAYAAJ">online</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Bur87" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Burnett" title="Andrew Burnett">Burnett, Andrew</a> (1987). <i>Coinage in the Roman World</i>. London: Seaby. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900652-84-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-900652-84-4"><bdi>978-0-900652-84-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coinage+in+the+Roman+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Seaby&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-900652-84-4&rft.aulast=Burnett&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cohen_(numismatist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Cohen (numismatist)">Cohen, Henry</a>, <i>Description historiques des monnaies frappées sous l'Empire romain</i>, Paris, 1882, 8 vols. There exists <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualcohen.com">online version of this Cohen's catalogue</a></li> <li>Greene, Kevin. <i>Archaeology of the Roman Economy</i>. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Howgego" title="Christopher Howgego">Howgego, Christopher</a>. <i>Ancient History from Coins</i>. London: Routledge, 1995.</li> <li>Jones, A. H. M. <i>The Roman Economy: Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History</i>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974.</li> <li>Melville Jones, John R., 'A Dictionary of Ancient Roman Coins', London, Spink 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalf2012" class="citation book cs1">Metcalf, William E. (2012). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195305746" title="Special:BookSources/9780195305746"><bdi>9780195305746</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Greek+and+Roman+Coinage&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780195305746&rft.aulast=Metcalf&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Modena Altieri, Ascanio. <i>Vis et Mos. A compendium of symbologies and allegorical personifications in the imperial coinage from Augustus to Diocletian</i>. Florence, Porto Seguro Editore, 2022. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788855469968" title="Special:BookSources/9788855469968">9788855469968</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ree70" class="citation book cs1">Reece, Richard (1970). <i>Roman Coins</i>. London: Ernest Benn Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-510-06151-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-510-06151-7"><bdi>978-0-510-06151-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Coins&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ernest+Benn+Limited&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-510-06151-7&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+currency" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Salmon, E. Togo. <i>Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire</i>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1999.</li> <li>Suarez, Rasiel. <i>The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins</i>. Dirty Old Books, 2005.</li> <li>Sutherland, C. H. V. <i>Roman Coins</i>. New York: G. P. (Also published by Barrie and Jenkins in London in 1974 with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-214-66808-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-214-66808-8">0-214-66808-8</a>)</li> <li>Van Meter, David. <i>The Handbook of Roman Imperial Coins</i>. Laurion Press, 1990.</li> <li>Vecchi, Italo. <i>Italian Cast Coinage. A descriptive catalogue of the cast coinage of Rome and Italy.</i> London Ancient Coins, London 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9575784-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9575784-0-1">978-0-9575784-0-1</a></li> <li>Weiser, Wolfram (2023). <i>Die Geldwährung des Römischen Reiches. Untersuchungen zu den Münzsystemen der mittleren und späten Kaiserzeit</i> [The monetary currency of the Roman Empire. Studies on the coinage systems of the middle and late imperial period]. Antiquitas, series 1, volume 79. Bonn: Habelt, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7749-4391-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7749-4391-9">978-3-7749-4391-9</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_currency&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forumancientcoins.com/gallery/index.php?cat=11162">A Collection of Flavian coins</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/library/currency-debasement-and-social-collapse">Currency Debasement and Social Collapse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5284/1035238">Analysis of Roman Silver coins, Augustus to the reform of Trajan (27 BC – AD 100)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://myplace.frontier.com/~brads98/coins.html">An Introduction to the History and Collecting of Ancient Coins</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coinage_of_Ancient_Rome284" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_coinage" title="Template:Roman coinage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_coinage" title="Template talk:Roman coinage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_coinage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman coinage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coinage_of_Ancient_Rome284" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coinage</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Bronze</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Aes_rude" title="Aes rude">Aes rude</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Aes_signatum" title="Aes signatum">Aes signatum</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Gold</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a></dd> <dt>Silver</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">Sestertius</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victoriatus" title="Victoriatus">Victoriatus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Quadrigatus" title="Quadrigatus">Quadrigatus</a></dd> <dt>Bronze and copper</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dupondius" title="Dupondius">Dupondius</a> (2 asses)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">As</a> (1)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dodrans" title="Dodrans">Dodrans</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bes_(coin)" title="Bes (coin)">Bes</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">Semis</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Quincunx_(Roman_coin)" title="Quincunx (Roman coin)">Quincunx</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Triens" title="Triens">Triens</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">Quadrans</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sextans_(coin)" title="Sextans (coin)">Sextans</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Uncia_(coin)" title="Uncia (coin)">Uncia</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">12</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Semuncia" title="Semuncia">Semuncia</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">24</span></span>)</dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Gold</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dacicus" title="Dacicus">Dacicus</a></dd> <dt>Silver</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoninianus" title="Antoninianus">Antoninianus</a> (32 asses)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> (16)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Quinarius" title="Quinarius">Quinarius</a> (8)</dd> <dt>Copper</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Double_sestertius" title="Double sestertius">Double sestertius</a> (8)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">Sestertius</a> (<span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>; later 4)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dupondius" title="Dupondius">Dupondius</a> (2)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/As_(Roman_coin)" title="As (Roman coin)">As</a> (1)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Semis" title="Semis">Semis</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Quadrans" title="Quadrans">Quadrans</a> (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>)</dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Edict_on_Maximum_Prices" title="Edict on Maximum Prices">Diocletian era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Gold</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a></dd> <dt>Silver</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Argenteus" title="Argenteus">Argenteus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nummus" title="Nummus">Nummus</a></dd> <dt>Copper</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Post-reform_radiate" title="Post-reform radiate">Radiate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laureate_(coin)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laureate (coin) (page does not exist)">Laureate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Gold</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tremissis" title="Tremissis">Tremissis</a></dd> <dt>Silver</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Miliarense" title="Miliarense">Miliarense</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Siliqua" title="Siliqua">Siliqua</a></dd> <dt>Copper and bronze</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Follis" title="Follis">Follis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nummus" title="Nummus">Nummus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_bronzes" title="Constantinian bronzes">Constantinian bronzes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centenionalis" title="Centenionalis">Centenionalis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_the_Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" title="Coinage of the Social War (91–88 BC)">Coinage of the Social War</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Coinage_from_Maximinus_Thrax_to_Aemilianus" title="Coinage from Maximinus Thrax to Aemilianus">Coinage from Maximinus Thrax to Aemilianus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_Valerian_and_Gallienus" title="Coinage of Valerian and Gallienus">Coinage of Valerian and Gallienus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Denarius_of_L._Censorinus" title="Denarius of L. Censorinus">Denarius of L. Censorinus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ides_of_March_coin" title="Ides of March coin">Ides of March coinage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fleet_coinage_(Mark_Antony)" title="Fleet coinage (Mark Antony)">Fleet coinage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Legionary_denarii_(Mark_Antony)" title="Legionary denarii (Mark Antony)">Antony's Legionary denarii</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Procuratorial_coinage_of_Roman_Judaea" title="Procuratorial coinage of Roman Judaea">Roman Judaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tribute_penny" title="Tribute penny">Tribute penny</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judaea_Capta_coinage" title="Judaea Capta coinage">Judaea Capta coinage</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome Portal</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Numismatics" title="Portal:Numismatics">Numismatics Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Historic_currency_and_coinage_of_Italy485" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historic_Italian_currency_and_coinage" title="Template:Historic Italian currency and coinage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historic_Italian_currency_and_coinage" title="Template talk:Historic Italian currency and coinage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historic_Italian_currency_and_coinage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historic Italian currency and coinage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_Historic_currency_and_coinage_of_Italy485" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span> Historic currency and coinage of Italy</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">History of coins in Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dritto,_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png/120px-Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png/180px-Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png/240px-Dritto%2C_Zecchino_Francesco_Morosini_1688-1694.png 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="864" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_Cales" title="Coinage of Cales">Coinage of Cales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_Capua" title="Coinage of Capua">Coinage of Capua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_Suessa" title="Coinage of Suessa">Coinage of Suessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_the_Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" title="Coinage of the Social War (91–88 BC)">Coinage of the Social War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_coinage_of_Italy_and_Sicily" title="Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily">Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_coins" title="Etruscan coins">Etruscan coins</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agontano" title="Agontano">Agontano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustalis" title="Augustalis">Augustalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiocco" title="Baiocco">Baiocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolognino" title="Bolognino">Bolognino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavallo_(coin)" title="Cavallo (coin)">Cavallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_the_Republic_of_Siena" title="Coinage of the Republic of Siena">Coinage of the Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_the_Republic_of_Venice" title="Coinage of the Republic of Venice">Coinage of the Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazia" title="Crazia">Crazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducaton" title="Ducaton">Ducaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florin" title="Florin">Florin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_lira" title="Genoese lira">Genoese lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genovino" title="Genovino">Genovino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gigliato" title="Gigliato">Gigliato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_(coin)" title="Giulio (coin)">Giulio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_scudo" title="Italian scudo">Italian scudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_coinage" title="Lombard coinage">Lombard coinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_Adelchis_of_Benevento" title="Coinage of Adelchis of Benevento">Adelchis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_coinage_of_Benevento" title="Lombard coinage of Benevento">Benevento</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierreale" title="Pierreale">Pierreale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_(coin)" title="Paolo (coin)">Paolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrino" title="Quattrino">Quattrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequin_(coin)" title="Sequin (coin)">Sequin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldo" title="Soldo">Soldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar%C3%AC" title="Tarì">Tarì</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornesel" title="Tornesel">Tornesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grosso" title="Venetian grosso">Venetian grosso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_lira" title="Venetian lira">Venetian lira</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cagliarese" title="Cagliarese">Cagliarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardo-Venetian_florin" title="Lombardo-Venetian florin">Lombardo-Venetian florin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardo-Venetian_lira" title="Lombardo-Venetian lira">Lombardo-Venetian lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luccan_lira" title="Luccan lira">Luccan lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milanese_scudo" title="Milanese scudo">Milanese scudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_lira" title="Neapolitan lira">Neapolitan lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_piastra" title="Neapolitan piastra">Neapolitan piastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncia" title="Oncia">Oncia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_lira" title="Papal lira">Papal lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parman_lira" title="Parman lira">Parman lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_scudo" title="Piedmontese scudo">Piedmontese scudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_scudo" title="Roman scudo">Roman scudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_lira" title="Sardinian lira">Sardinian lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_scudo" title="Sardinian scudo">Sardinian scudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_piastra" title="Sicilian piastra">Sicilian piastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_florin" title="Tuscan florin">Tuscan florin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_lira" title="Tuscan lira">Tuscan lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Sicilies_ducat" title="Two Sicilies ducat">Two Sicilies ducat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_lira" title="Italian lira">Italian lira</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_Italian_lira" title="Coins of the Italian lira">coins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM-Lira" title="AM-Lira">AM-Lira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_euro_coins" title="Italian euro coins">Italian euro coins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_coins_of_Italy" title="Commemorative coins of Italy">commemorative</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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