History of flight - Aviation Pioneers, Aircraft Design, Flight Records

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In the United States, huge numbers of war-surplus engines and training aircraft, as well as larger planes such as the DH-4, offered a cheap and easy way to enter the flying business. Although barnstormers and acrobatic fliers all too often tarnished the image of aviation by performing foolhardy stunts in worn-out military castoffs, the phenomenon of utility aviation attracted increasing numbers of users. 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class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="210191"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight">history of flight</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/technology/history-of-flight">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref260577"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight#ref260577">The invention of the airplane</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260578"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Construction-of-the-sustaining-wings-the-problem-of-lift">Construction of the sustaining wings: the problem of lift</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260579"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-generation-and-application-of-power-the-problem-of-propulsion">The generation and application of power: the problem of propulsion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260580"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-generation-and-application-of-power-the-problem-of-propulsion#ref260580">Balancing and steering the machine: the problem of control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260581"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Other-aviation-pioneers">Other aviation pioneers</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref275078"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Other-aviation-pioneers#ref275078">List of select pioneer aircraft</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref260582"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Other-aviation-pioneers#ref260582">Pistons in the air</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260583"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Other-aviation-pioneers#ref260583">The headliners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260584"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-first-airlines">The first airlines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260585"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/From-airmail-to-airlines-in-the-United-States">From airmail to airlines in the United States</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260586"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-aeronautical-infrastructure">The aeronautical infrastructure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260587"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-aeronautical-infrastructure#ref260587">Wartime legacies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260588"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-aeronautical-infrastructure#ref260588">Postwar airlines</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260589"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/General-aviation">General aviation</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref260590"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-age">The jet age</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-age#ref260591">Origins</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260592"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-age#ref260592">First experiments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260593"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-age#ref260593">World War II</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260594"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-enters-the-civilian-world">The jet enters the civilian world</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260595"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-enters-the-civilian-world#ref260595">Technical advantages and challenges</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260596"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/The-jet-enters-the-civilian-world#ref260596">The airlines reequip</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260597" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Progress-in-engines-and-airframes">Progress in engines and airframes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260598"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Progress-in-engines-and-airframes#ref260598">Airliners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref260599"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Progress-in-engines-and-airframes#ref260599">Business aircraft</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260600"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Avionics-passenger-support-and-safety">Avionics, passenger support, and safety</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref260601"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/history-of-flight/Avionics-passenger-support-and-safety#ref260601">Turbine-powered helicopters</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/history-of-flight">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-050-142CC589/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/90538" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/96240-004-A9CAD60A/flying-machine-Leonardo-da-Vinci-plans-ornithopter.jpg" alt="Leonardo da Vinci's flying machine" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/166928-050-56FE97A6/Wright-brothers-flying-machine-controls-Huffman-Prairie-October-4-1905.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/16325" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/166928-004-EA9D64C6/Wright-brothers-flying-machine-controls-Huffman-Prairie-October-4-1905.jpg" alt="Wright flyer, 1905" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/99712-050-61C19763/George-Cayley-glider-English-notion-aircraft-flight-1853.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99636" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/99712-004-F6E5F2CC/George-Cayley-glider-English-notion-aircraft-flight-1853.jpg" alt="George Cayley's glider, 1853" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/99051-050-CB87FFA1/Otto-Lilienthal-German-one-gliders-1895.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99638" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/99051-004-5578BCAA/Otto-Lilienthal-German-one-gliders-1895.jpg" alt="Lilienthal glider" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/18933-050-64C4C0A7/Wilbur-Wright-banking-turn-right-glider-North-October-24-1902.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/16324" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/18933-004-E1DEA5E4/Wilbur-Wright-banking-turn-right-glider-North-October-24-1902.jpg" alt="Wright glider" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/05/99705-004-232D7A6A/launch-aerodrome-houseboat-Samuel-Pierpont-Langley-Potomac-Oct-7-1903.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99639" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/05/99705-004-232D7A6A/launch-aerodrome-houseboat-Samuel-Pierpont-Langley-Potomac-Oct-7-1903.jpg" alt="Langley aerodrome of 1903" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/4738-050-C1D653C7/Orville-Wright-history-airplane-flight-Kill-Devil-December-17-1903.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/3789" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/4738-004-F9A19A6F/Orville-Wright-history-airplane-flight-Kill-Devil-December-17-1903.jpg" alt="first flight by Orville Wright, December 17, 1903" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/99714-004-F947FADB/Percy-Sinclair-Pilcher-Hawk-English-wings-1896.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99640" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/99714-004-F947FADB/Percy-Sinclair-Pilcher-Hawk-English-wings-1896.jpg" alt="Pilcher Hawk" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/99723-050-264626E9/Alberto-Santos-Dumont-flights-Brazilian-Europe-airplane-1906.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99632" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/99723-004-489FF64E/Alberto-Santos-Dumont-flights-Brazilian-Europe-airplane-1906.jpg" alt="Santos-Dumont and his No. 14-bis" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/76155-050-C76325AA/Louis-Bleriot-monoplane-Type-XI-English-Channel-July-25-1909.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/94576" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/76155-004-A426D5A7/Louis-Bleriot-monoplane-Type-XI-English-Channel-July-25-1909.jpg" alt="Louis Blériot and Type XI monoplane" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/historyofflight.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">NASA - History of Flight</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.aiaa.org/about/History-and-Heritage/History-of-Flight-Around-the-World" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics - History of Flight Around the World</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.spartan.edu/news/history-of-aviation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Spartan College - History of Aviation</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://ethos.lps.library.cmu.edu/article/id/45/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Carnegie Mellon University - Encyclopedia of the History of Science - Flight</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Tom-D-Crouch/4335" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Tom D. Crouch</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Curator Emeritus, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian, Washington, D.C. Author of <em>The Bishop's Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright </em>and many others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Tom D. Crouch</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Roger-E-Bilstein/5978" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Roger E. Bilstein</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of History, University of Houston-Clear Lake. Author of <i>The Enterprise of Flight</i> and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Roger E. Bilstein</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-10-30T00:00:00CDT" >Oct 30, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-flight/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/technology/aviation" topicid="45694">aviation</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://www.aiaa.org/about/History-and-Heritage/History-of-Flight-Around-the-World" target="_blank">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics - History of Flight Around the World</a> (Oct. 30, 2024)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/history-of-flight"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref260589">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War I</a>, a number of adventurous pilots began using airplanes for “utility aviation”—commercial photography, surveying, law enforcement, agricultural purposes such as seeding and crop dusting, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="myriad" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myriad" data-type="MW">myriad</a> other activities. In the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>, huge numbers of war-surplus engines and training aircraft, as well as larger planes such as the DH-4, offered a cheap and easy way to enter the flying business. Although barnstormers and acrobatic fliers all too often tarnished the image of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/aviation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">aviation</a> by performing foolhardy stunts in worn-out military castoffs, the phenomenon of utility aviation attracted increasing numbers of users. By the late 1920s, as the supply of war surplus aircraft and engines dried up, new companies began to offer improved engines and planes, including aircraft with enclosed cabins that could seat two to five people, bringing an end to open cockpits, helmets, goggles, and considerable engine noise.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="99653" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/99722-050-1F51D1EE/Cessna-Aircraft-Company-Airmasters-planes-use-stability-1941.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/210191/99653"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/99722-050-1F51D1EE/Cessna-Aircraft-Company-Airmasters-planes-use-stability-1941.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/99722-050-1F51D1EE/Cessna-Aircraft-Company-Airmasters-planes-use-stability-1941.jpg?w=300" alt="Cessna Airmaster" data-width="1600" data-height="879" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/22/99722-050-1F51D1EE/Cessna-Aircraft-Company-Airmasters-planes-use-stability-1941.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/99653">Cessna Airmaster</a><span>The Cessna Aircraft Company produced some 180 Airmasters between 1934 and 1941. The planes were especially popular for use in aerial photography because of their great stability in flight.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Throughout the 1930s, despite the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Great Depression</a>, improvements continued, and the practice of using personal aircraft to conduct business became a recognized aspect of modern commerce, especially as American industry continued its pattern of geographic <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diversity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity" data-type="MW">diversity</a> and scattered divisions. In order to save time and expensive personnel costs, business aviation provided the means to deliver key people to locations where airlines did not fly and road or rail travel was indirect and time-consuming. Among the most popular private aircraft models were the two-seat <span id="ref943626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Piper-Cub" class="md-crosslink ">Piper Cub</a>, powered by a 65-horsepower engine that enabled a cruising speed of about 85 miles (140 km) per hour; the four-seat Cessna <span id="ref943628"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/Airmaster" class="md-crosslink ">Airmaster</a>, powered by a 145–165-horsepower engine that enabled a cruising speed of about 160 miles (260 km) per hour; and the seven to nine passenger <span id="ref943629"></span>Beechcraft Model 18, powered by two 450-horsepower engines that enabled a cruising speed of about 220 miles (350 km) per hour. <span id="ref943740"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cessna-Aircraft-Company" class="md-crosslink ">Cessna</a> and <span id="ref943742"></span>Beechcraft still used radial-piston engines, but <span id="ref943744"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Piper-Aircraft-Corporation" class="md-crosslink ">Piper</a> relied on a horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine that allowed engineers to design a more <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="streamlined" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/streamlined" data-type="EB">streamlined</a> engine nacelle. This type of engine became the preferred style for modern light-plane designs.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="50979" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/27137-050-59859073/Sikorsky-R-4-world-armed-forces-British-World-1942.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/210191/50979"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/27137-050-59859073/Sikorsky-R-4-world-armed-forces-British-World-1942.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/27137-050-59859073/Sikorsky-R-4-world-armed-forces-British-World-1942.jpg?w=300" alt="Sikorsky R-4" data-width="1600" data-height="1294" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/37/27137-050-59859073/Sikorsky-R-4-world-armed-forces-British-World-1942.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/50979">Sikorsky R-4</a><span>Sikorsky R-4, the world's first production helicopter, which served U.S. and British armed forces in World War II. An experimental version of the aircraft first flew in 1942.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Other developments included <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Igor-Sikorsky" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Igor Sikorsky</a>’s work on practical piston-engine <span id="ref943632"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/helicopter" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">helicopters</a>. Technological precedents in the 1930s included the autogiro, which used an unpowered rotor for lift and a piston engine with propeller for forward flight, but they could not match the helicopter’s ability for vertical flight and hovering. Postwar efforts to fly helicopters as short-haul passenger transports foundered, although they became invaluable in specialized missions (medevac, police patrol, traffic monitoring) and in sundry utility roles. However, compared with fixed-wing aircraft, their numbers remained small.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="237552" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/196734-050-B7C6624F/Beechcraft-Baron-airplane-landing-aircraft-travel.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/210191/237552"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/196734-050-B7C6624F/Beechcraft-Baron-airplane-landing-aircraft-travel.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/196734-050-B7C6624F/Beechcraft-Baron-airplane-landing-aircraft-travel.jpg?w=300" alt="Beechcraft Baron" data-width="1200" data-height="751" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/196734-050-B7C6624F/Beechcraft-Baron-airplane-landing-aircraft-travel.jpg" data-href="/media/1/210191/237552">Beechcraft Baron</a><span>A Beechcraft Baron airplane coming in for a landing. The aircraft is used mainly for private and corporate travel.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">After <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a>, the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="accelerating" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/accelerating" data-type="EB">accelerating</a> demand for personal and utility aircraft gave rise to the term <em>general aviation</em> to describe all flying that did not fall into the category of military or scheduled air transport. Manufacturers such as Piper, Cessna, and Beechcraft represented an expanding “light plane industry,” although the general aviation sector included a host of modified aircraft that ranged from war surplus twin-engine Douglas A-26 bombers (rebuilt with luxury passenger cabins as fast, corporate transports) to four-engine DC-4 transports (reequipped with big internal fuselage tanks to dump retardants on forest fires). For the light plane builders, engine manufacturers such as Lycoming, Continental, and others perfected efficient horizontally opposed piston engines that produced from 65 to more than 200 horsepower; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mass-production" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mass production</a> made them dominant in international applications; several appeared as turbo-supercharged designs delivering more than 300 horsepower.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Various engines powered a bewildering variety of postwar light planes, although Piper, Cessna, and Beechcraft led the market. Through the 1950s, Piper and Cessna marketed high-wing monoplanes with two to four seats, suitable for short-range personal business flying. Beechcraft introduced the stylish all-metal V-tailed <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Bonanza" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Bonanza" data-type="MW">Bonanza</a>, with retractable landing gear, higher speed, and a roomy four-place cabin. Manufacturers installed a new generation of compact lightweight radio communication and navigational equipment (eventually dubbed avionics) that improved options to fly during bad weather. Eventually, all three manufacturers produced twin-engine aircraft, aimed at business travel, that could carry four to six people in more comfort at faster speeds. These designs eventually progressed into “cabin-class” corporate transports with supercharged engines, flown by a pilot and copilot, luxury accommodations for four to eight passengers in a pressurized cabin, a lavatory, and a door with a built-in stairway.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Although aircraft produced in the United States dominated the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="worldwide" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/worldwide" data-type="EB">worldwide</a> general aviation fleet, designs from other countries also won a significant market and became essential cogs in the economies of numerous global regions. Canada, with a long history of aircraft used in wilderness flying, produced a rugged example known as the <span id="ref943638"></span>Beaver, built by De Havilland’s Canadian firm. With a big <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/radial-engine" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">radial engine</a> of 450 horsepower (or more), the high-wing Beaver could carry six to seven people (often more), or about 1,700 pounds (770 kg) of payload (usually more). The Beaver’s moderate size allowed pilots to maneuver the plane in and out of primitive abbreviated airstrips. Fitted with either floats or skis, depending on the locale and season, Beavers could reach virtually any point in Canada’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="wilderness" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/wilderness" data-type="EB">wilderness</a> of forests, lakes, and Arctic terrain. De Havilland built 1,692 of these remarkably adaptable aircraft, and they served in 63 countries, ranging from tropical climes to polar regions.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a> produced an aircraft of similar versatility, the Antonov <span id="ref943639"></span>AN-2. With its 1,000-horsepower radial engine, the AN-2 possessed a capacious barrel-like fuselage that could accommodate a dozen or so passengers or 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) of cargo. Introduced in 1947, it featured a biplane configuration, and its large wing area gave it excellent flying characteristics for low-level agricultural applications—its principal intended function. But the AN-2’s ability to operate from the isolated and rugged airstrips that dotted the Soviet Union made it a classic all-purpose airplane. In many remote areas such as Siberia, the AN-2 flew Aeroflot’s colours as a local and short-haul passenger transport as well as cargo hauler and air ambulance. With more than 5,000 produced in Ukraine by the late 1950s, followed by approximately 11,900 in Poland during the 1960s, the AN-2 not only served throughout the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-bloc" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Soviet bloc</a> but also appeared in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Within the Soviet bloc, Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia built a variety of other general aviation types, including agricultural models.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In Great Britain, <span id="ref943640"></span>Beagle Aircraft Ltd. enjoyed some success in the 1960s. The distinctive name represented an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="acronym" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/acronym" data-type="MW">acronym</a> derived from British Executive and General Aviation Limited. Although several dozen airplanes entered service, they could not compete with their well-equipped counterparts from American manufacturers, whose products were backed by efficient international dealer networks. Other companies that produced planes for corporate use and small “feeder” airlines fared better. The twin-engine De Havilland (later, Hawker Siddeley) <span id="ref943725"></span>Dove arrived in 1945 as a low-wing design with retractable gear and a capacity for 11 passengers. It remained in production through the 1960s, with 554 Doves built, including 200 for military operators. The second aircraft was the Britten-Norman <span id="ref943727"></span>Islander, with headquarters located on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Isle-of-Wight" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Isle of Wight</a>. Designed as an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="up-to-date" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/up-to-date" data-type="EB">up-to-date</a> replacement for obsolete types such as the Dove, the twin-engine Islander debuted in the mid-1960s. Along with modern avionics, it featured a high wing and fixed gear, and its metal construction followed simple, easily fabricated lines with seats for nine passengers, keeping its cost to about one-third that of the Dove and similar planes. The Islander sold well, although its production sites tended to hopscotch around the world, including fabrication sites in Romania as well as the Philippines. Further modifications to the original design involved a remarkable stretch of the fuselage to accommodate the pilot and one passenger on the flight deck and 16 passengers in the main cabin and a redesigned wing and tail assembly. With its highly distinctive third piston engine mounted atop the vertical tail rudder, it became the Tri-Islander. Still flying in the 21st century, the various Islanders served effectively in many thinly populated areas having geographical constraints, such as the Caribbean, and carried thousands of passengers there and elsewhere around the world.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The French were also busy producing light planes to compete with American products. As in Britain, dozens of types came and went during the postwar decades. Among those with staying power, factory-built aircraft designed for sale in kit form enjoyed lively sales, although many of them remained partially completed and moldering away in basements, garages, and barns. In 1966 an extensive realignment of French manufacturers led to the formation of Société de Construction d’Avions de Tourisme et d’Affaires, or <span id="ref943737"></span>Socata. The new company continued to build the proven Rallye, a trim two-passenger monoplane, but achieved notable success with its own range of larger, more powerful single-engine business planes with retractable gear. By the 1990s, the performance and reliability of the Socata Tobago and Trinidad series had made them serious competitors in the North American market.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Through the 1960s, piston-engine airliners still played a major role in air travel, and their <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ubiquitous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ubiquitous" data-type="MW">ubiquitous</a> counterparts in general aviation enlivened the aeronautical scene. In 1969 commercial airlines counted about 2,500 transports; 122,500 aircraft represented the general aviation fleet. The subsequent impact of gas-turbine engines transformed both categories. Older piston-engine airliners often soldiered on as firefighting tankers, while many others shuttled passengers and cargo from remote airfields to various destinations. <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Myriads" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Myriads" data-type="MW">Myriads</a> of piston-powered light planes continue to populate the airways everywhere. The grand epoch of piston-engine aircraft may have waned, but their story continues.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Roger-E-Bilstein/5978">Roger E. Bilstein</a></span> </section> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":8,"pagesTotal":12,"pageId":210191,"pageLength":1546,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":8,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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History of flight - Aviation Pioneers, Aircraft Design, Flight Records | Britannica