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href="#Assignment_of_speech_sounds_to_phonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Assignment_of_speech_sounds_to_phonemes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Assignment_of_speech_sounds_to_phonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minimal_pairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minimal_pairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Minimal pairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minimal_pairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suprasegmental_phonemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suprasegmental_phonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Suprasegmental phonemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suprasegmental_phonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution_of_allophones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution_of_allophones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Distribution of allophones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution_of_allophones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background_and_related_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_and_related_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Background and related ideas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_and_related_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restrictions_on_occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restrictions_on_occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Restrictions on occurrence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restrictions_on_occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biuniqueness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biuniqueness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Biuniqueness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biuniqueness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutralization_and_archiphonemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutralization_and_archiphonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Neutralization and archiphonemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutralization_and_archiphonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphophonemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphophonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Morphophonemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphophonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbers_of_phonemes_in_different_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbers_of_phonemes_in_different_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Numbers of phonemes in different languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbers_of_phonemes_in_different_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_non-uniqueness_of_phonemic_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_non-uniqueness_of_phonemic_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_non-uniqueness_of_phonemic_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Correspondence between letters and phonemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_sign_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_sign_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>In sign languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_sign_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In sign languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_sign_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chereme" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chereme"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Chereme</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chereme-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Phoneme</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 118 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-118" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">118 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneem" title="Foneem – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Foneem" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonem" title="Phonem – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Phonem" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="وحدة صوتية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وحدة صوتية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipu" title="Taipu – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Taipu" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE" title="স্বনিম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্বনিম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im-s%C3%B2%CD%98" title="Im-sò͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Im-sò͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фанема – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фанема" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фанэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фанэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonem" title="Phonem – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Phonem" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8D" title="སྒྲ་ཚན། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྒྲ་ཚན།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Абяалбари – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Абяалбари" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9m" title="Foném – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Foném" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffonem" title="Ffonem – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffonem" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonem" title="Phonem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Phonem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneem" title="Foneem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Foneem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Φώνημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φώνημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonemo" title="Fonemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fonemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="واج – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واج" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Phoneme" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phon%C3%A8me" title="Phonème – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phonème" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3in%C3%A9im" title="Fóinéim – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fóinéim" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myn-heean" title="Myn-heean – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Myn-heean" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%8C%EC%86%8C" title="음소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="음소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9" title="Հնչույթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հնչույթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE" title="स्वनिम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्वनिम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonemo" title="Fonemo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fonemo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponema" title="Ponema – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ponema" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonema" title="Phonema – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Phonema" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%C3%A6" title="Фонемæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Фонемæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hlj%C3%B3%C3%B0an" title="Hljóðan – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hljóðan" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%9E%D7%94" title="פונמה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פונמה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ფონემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფონემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonimu" title="Fonimu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fonimu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A8m" title="Fonèm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fonèm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vac" title="Vac – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Vac" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonema" title="Phonema – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Phonema" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C4%93ma" title="Fonēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fonēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneem" title="Foneem – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Foneem" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funema" title="Funema – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Funema" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9ma" title="Fonéma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fonéma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasimpeo" title="Hasimpeo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hasimpeo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="സ്വനിമം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്വനിമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneem" title="Foneem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Foneem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A0" title="音素 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="音素" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneem" title="Foneem – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Foneem" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneme" title="Foneme – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Foneme" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A8ma" title="Fonèma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fonèma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AE" title="ਧੁਨੀਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਧੁਨੀਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA" title="صوت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صوت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%DA%96%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%87_%DA%85%D9%BE%D9%87" title="غږيزه څپه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غږيزه څپه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneem" title="Phoneem – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Phoneem" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Phoneme" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonem" title="Phonem – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Phonem" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funemi" title="Funemi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Funemi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Phoneme" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%88" title="صوتيو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="صوتيو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9ma" title="Fonéma – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fonéma" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%A1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фѡнима – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Фѡнима" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85" title="فۆنیم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فۆنیم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foneemi" title="Foneemi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Foneemi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonem" title="Fonem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fonem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponema" title="Ponema – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ponema" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ஒலியன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒலியன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87" title="หน่วยเสียง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หน่วยเสียง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesbirim" title="Sesbirim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sesbirim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Фонема – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фонема" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%81" title="صوتیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صوتیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82m_v%E1%BB%8B" title="Âm vị – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Âm vị" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foninme" title="Foninme – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Foninme" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonema" title="Fonema – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fonema" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D" title="音位 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="音位" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%9D" title="פאנעם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאנעם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A0" title="音素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="音素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuonema" title="Fuonema – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Fuonema" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D" title="音位 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="音位" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonem" title="Phonem – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Phonem" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8E" title="ⴰⴼⵓⵏⵉⵎ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⴼⵓⵏⵉⵎ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8183#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Phoneme" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Basic unit of phonology</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the speech unit. For the JavaME library, see <a href="/wiki/PhoneME" title="PhoneME">phoneME</a>. For the collection of phenotypes, see <a href="/wiki/Phenome" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenome">phenome</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Phoneme" title="Special:EditPage/Phoneme">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Phoneme%22">"Phoneme"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Phoneme%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Phoneme%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Phoneme%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Phoneme%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Phoneme%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>A <b>phoneme</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is any set of similar <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">speech sounds</a> that is perceptually regarded by the speakers of a language as a single basic sound—a smallest possible <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> unit—that helps distinguish one <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">word</a> from another.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All languages contains phonemes (or the spatial-gestural equivalent in <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>), and all spoken languages include both <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> phonemes. Phonemes are primarily studied under the branch of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_and_notation">Examples and notation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Examples and notation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English words <i>cell</i> and <i>set</i> have the exact same sequence of sounds, except for being different in their final consonant sounds: thus, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɛl/</span> versus <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɛt/</span> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA), a writing system that can be used to represent phonemes. Since <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> alone distinguish certain words from others, they are each examples of phonemes of the English language. Specifically they are consonant phonemes, along with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> is a vowel phoneme. The spelling of English does not strictly conform to its phonemes, so that the words <i>knot</i>, <i>nut</i>, and <i>gnat</i>, regardless of spelling, all share the consonant phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, differing only by their internal vowel phonemes: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɒ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span>, respectively. Similarly, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʊʃt/</span> is the notation for a sequence of four phonemes, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, that together constitute the word <i>pushed</i>. </p><p>Sounds that are perceived as phonemes vary by languages and dialects, so that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>]</span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/29\/Alveolar_nasal.ogg\/Alveolar_nasal.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Alveolar nasal.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/29/Alveolar_nasal.ogg/Alveolar_nasal.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Alveolar_nasal.ogg" title="File:Alveolar nasal.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>]</span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/3\/39\/Velar_nasal.ogg\/Velar_nasal.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Velar nasal.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/39/Velar_nasal.ogg/Velar_nasal.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Velar_nasal.ogg" title="File:Velar nasal.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> are separate phonemes in English since they distinguish words like <i>sin</i> from <i>sing</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɪn/</span> versus <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɪŋ/</span>), yet they comprise a single phoneme in some other languages, such as Spanish, in which <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pan]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[paŋ]</span> for instance are merely interpreted by Spanish speakers as regional or dialect-specific ways of pronouncing the same word (<i>pan</i>: the Spanish word for "bread"). Such spoken variations of a single phoneme are known by linguists as <i><a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a></i>. Linguists use <a href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">slashes</a> in the IPA to transcribe phonemes but <a href="/wiki/Square_brackets" class="mw-redirect" title="Square brackets">square brackets</a> to transcribe more precise pronunciation details, including allophones; they describe this basic distinction as <i>phonemic</i> versus <i>phonetic</i>. Thus, the pronunciation patterns of <i>tap</i> versus <i>tab</i>, or <i>pat</i> versus <i>bat</i>, can be represented phonemically and are written between slashes (including <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span>, etc.), while nuances of exactly how a speaker pronounces <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> are phonetic and written between brackets, like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> for the <i>p</i> in <i>spit</i> versus <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰ]</span> for the <i>p</i> in <i>pit</i>, which in English is an <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> allophone of /p/ (i.e., pronounced with an extra burst of air). </p><p>There are many views as to exactly what phonemes are and how a given language should be analyzed in phonemic terms. Generally, a phoneme is regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a> of a set (or <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_class" title="Equivalence class">equivalence class</a>) of spoken sound variations that are nevertheless perceived as a single basic unit of sound by the ordinary native speakers of a given language. While phonemes are considered an abstract <a href="/wiki/Underlying_representation" title="Underlying representation">underlying representation</a> for sound segments within words, the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> realizations of those phonemes—each phoneme with its various allophones—constitute the surface form that is actually uttered and heard. Allophones each have technically different articulations inside particular words or particular <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_environment" title="Phonetic environment">environments within words</a>, yet these differences do not create any <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">meaningful</a> distinctions. Alternatively, at least one of those articulations could be feasibly used in all such words with these words still being recognized as such by users of the language. An example in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> is that the sound spelled with the symbol <i>t</i> is usually <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulated</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span> (or a similar glottalized sound) in the word <i>cat</i>, an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">alveolar flap</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> in <i>dating</i>, an <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">alveolar plosive</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> in <i>stick</i>, and an <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> alveolar plosive <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰ]</span> in <i>tie</i>; however, American speakers perceive or "hear" all of these sounds (usually with no conscious effort) as merely being allophones of a single phoneme: the one traditionally represented in the IPA as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>. </p><p>For computer-typing purposes, <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_ASCII_encodings_of_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet">systems</a> such as <a href="/wiki/X-SAMPA" title="X-SAMPA">X-SAMPA</a> exist to represent IPA symbols using only <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> characters. However, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. For languages whose writing systems employ the <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic principle">phonemic principle</a>, ordinary letters may be used to denote phonemes, although this approach is often imperfect, as pronunciations naturally shift in a language over time, rendering previous spelling systems outdated or no longer closely representative of the sounds of the language (see <a href="#Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes">§ Correspondence between letters and phonemes</a> below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assignment_of_speech_sounds_to_phonemes">Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg/250px-Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg/375px-Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg/500px-Phoneme-allophone-determination-chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="905" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>A simplified procedure for determining whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes</figcaption></figure> <p>A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, which occurs in words such as <i><b>c</b>at</i>, <i><b>k</b>it</i>, <i>s<b>c</b>at</i>, <i>s<b>k</b>it</i>. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects, the "c/k" sounds in these words are not identical: in <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/85\/En-us-kit.ogg\/En-us-kit.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<i>kit<\/i>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-kit.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/En-us-kit.ogg/En-us-kit.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><i>kit</i></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-kit.ogg" title="File:En-us-kit.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[kʰɪt]</a></span>, the sound is aspirated, but in <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/9\/9b\/En-us-skill.ogg\/En-us-skill.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"<i>skill<\/i>"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-skill.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/En-us-skill.ogg/En-us-skill.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"><i>skill</i></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-skill.ogg" title="File:En-us-skill.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[skɪl]</a></span>, it is unaspirated. The words, therefore, contain different <i>speech sounds</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phones</a></i>, transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> for the aspirated form and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> for the unaspirated one. These different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme, because if a speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using the aspirated form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> in <i>skill</i> might sound odd, but the word would still be recognized. By contrast, some other sounds would cause a change in meaning if substituted: for example, substitution of the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> would produce the different word <i>s<b>t</b>ill</i>, and that sound must therefore be considered to represent a different phoneme (the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>). </p><p>The above shows that in English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> are <a href="/wiki/Allophones" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophones">allophones</a> of a single phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>. In some languages, however, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> are perceived by native speakers as significantly different sounds, and substituting one for the other can change the meaning of a word. In those languages, therefore, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> is the first sound of <i lang="is"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%A1tur#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:kátur">kátur</a></i>, meaning "cheerful", but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> is the first sound of <i lang="is"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/g%C3%A1tur#Icelandic" class="extiw" title="wikt:gátur">gátur</a></i>, meaning "riddles". Icelandic, therefore, has two separate phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʰ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minimal_pairs">Minimal pairs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Minimal pairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A pair of words like <span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">kátur</i></span> and <span title="Icelandic-language text"><i lang="is">gátur</i></span> (above) that differ only in one phone is called a <i><a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pair</a></i> for the two alternative phones in question (in this case, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span>). The existence of minimal pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme. </p><p>To take another example, the minimal pair <i><b>t</b>ip</i> and <i><b>d</b>ip</i> illustrates that in English, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> belong to separate phonemes, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>; since the words have different meanings, English-speakers must be conscious of the distinction between the two sounds. </p><p>Signed languages, such as <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL), also have minimal pairs, differing only in (exactly) one of the signs' parameters: handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and <a href="/wiki/Nonmanual_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonmanual signal">nonmanual signal</a> or marker. A minimal pair may exist in the signed language if the basic sign stays the same, but one of the parameters changes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="without-mps"></span>However, the absence of minimal pairs for a given pair of phones does not always mean that they belong to the same phoneme: they may be so dissimilar phonetically that it is unlikely for speakers to perceive them as the same sound. For example, English has no minimal pair for the sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> (as in <i><b>h</b>at</i>) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> (as in <i>ba<b>ng</b></i>), and the fact that they can be shown to be in <a href="/wiki/Complementary_distribution" title="Complementary distribution">complementary distribution</a> could be used to argue for their being allophones of the same phoneme. However, they are so dissimilar phonetically that they are considered separate phonemes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198244_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198244-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A case like this shows that sometimes it is the systemic distinctions and not the lexical context which are decisive in establishing phonemes. This implies that the phoneme should be defined as the smallest phonological unit which is contrastive at a lexical level or distinctive at a systemic level.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phonologists have sometimes had recourse to "near minimal pairs" to show that speakers of the language perceive two sounds as significantly different even if no exact minimal pair exists in the lexicon. It is challenging to find a minimal pair to distinguish English <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span></span>/</a></span></span> from <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span></span>/</a></span></span>, yet it seems uncontroversial to claim that the two consonants are distinct phonemes. The two words 'pressure' <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span> and 'pleasure' <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span> can serve as a near minimal pair.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198248_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198248-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason why this is still acceptable proof of phonemehood is that there is nothing about the additional difference (/r/ vs. /l/) that can be expected to somehow condition a voicing difference for a single underlying postalveolar fricative. One can, however, find true minimal pairs for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ if less common words are considered. For example, '<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a>' and 'confusion' are a valid minimal pair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suprasegmental_phonemes">Suprasegmental phonemes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Suprasegmental phonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Besides <a href="/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)" title="Segment (linguistics)">segmental</a> phonemes such as vowels and consonants, there are also <a href="/wiki/Suprasegmental" class="mw-redirect" title="Suprasegmental">suprasegmental</a> features of pronunciation (such as <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, syllable boundaries and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Juncture" title="Juncture">juncture</a>, nasalization and <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>), which, in many languages, change the meaning of words and so are phonemic. </p><p><i>Phonemic stress</i> is encountered in languages such as English. For example, there are two words spelled <i>invite</i>, one is a verb and is stressed on the second syllable, the other is a noun and stressed on the first syllable (without changing any of the individual sounds). The position of the stress distinguishes the words and so a full phonemic specification would include indication of the position of the stress: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪnˈvaɪt/</span> for the verb, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɪnvaɪt/</span> for the noun. In other languages, such as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, word stress cannot have this function (its position is generally predictable) and so it is not phonemic (and therefore not usually indicated in dictionaries). </p><p><i>Phonemic tones</i> are found in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> in which a given syllable can have five different tonal pronunciations: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:First_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-First_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Second_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Third_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Third_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:56px;max-width:56px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:63px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourth_tone_(Mandarin).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/54px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/81px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg/108px-Fourth_tone_%28Mandarin%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The syllable <span title="Mandarin Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="cmn-Latn">ma</i></span> with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese<div style="width:100%; height:10px"></div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="6" data-mwtitle="FourMandarinTones.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/FourMandarinTones.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/FourMandarinTones.ogg/FourMandarinTones.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div></div></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Minimal set for phonemic tone in Mandarin Chinese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tone_number" title="Tone number">Tone number</a> </th> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Hanzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanzi">Hanzi</a> </th> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">媽</span></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">麻</span></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">馬</span></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">罵</span></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">嗎</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">Pinyin</a> </th> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">mā</i></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">má</i></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">mǎ</i></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">mà</i></span></td> <td><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn-pinyin">ma</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[má]</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[mǎ]</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[mà]</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[mâ]</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ma]</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Gloss </th> <td>mother</td> <td>hemp</td> <td>horse</td> <td>scold</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_particles" title="Chinese particles">question particle</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The tone "phonemes" in such languages are sometimes called <i>tonemes</i>. Languages such as English do not have phonemic tone, but they use <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a> for functions such as emphasis and attitude. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_of_allophones">Distribution of allophones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Distribution of allophones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a phoneme has more than one <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a>, the one actually heard at a given occurrence of that phoneme may be dependent on the phonetic environment (surrounding sounds). Allophones that normally cannot appear in the same environment are said to be in <a href="/wiki/Complementary_distribution" title="Complementary distribution">complementary distribution</a>. In other cases, the choice of allophone may be dependent on the individual speaker or other unpredictable factors. Such allophones are said to be in <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a>, but allophones are still selected in a specific phonetic context, not the other way around. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_related_ideas">Background and related ideas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Background and related ideas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>phonème</i> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">φώνημα</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">phōnēma</i></span>, "sound made, utterance, thing spoken, speech, language"<sup id="cite_ref-Liddell_&_Scott_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddell_&_Scott-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was reportedly first used by <a href="/wiki/A._Dufriche-Desgenettes" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Dufriche-Desgenettes">A. Dufriche-Desgenettes</a> in 1873, but it referred only to a speech sound. The term <i>phoneme</i> as an <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a> was developed by the Polish linguist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baudouin_de_Courtenay" title="Jan Baudouin de Courtenay">Jan Baudouin de Courtenay</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Kruszewski" title="Mikołaj Kruszewski">Mikołaj Kruszewski</a> during 1875–1895.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1957_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1957-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term used by these two was <i>fonema</i>, the basic unit of what they called <i>psychophonetics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Daniel Jones</a> became the first linguist in the western world to use the term <i>phoneme</i> in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the Sechuana Language".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of the phoneme was then elaborated in the works of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Trubetzkoy" title="Nikolai Trubetzkoy">Nikolai Trubetzkoy</a> and others of the <a href="/wiki/Prague_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague School">Prague School</a> (during the years 1926–1935), and in those of <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>. Some structuralists (though not Sapir) rejected the idea of a cognitive or psycholinguistic function for the phoneme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwaddell1935_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwaddell1935-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1951_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1951-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, it was used and redefined in <a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">generative linguistics</a>, most famously by <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Morris Halle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and remains central to many accounts of the development of modern <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. As a theoretical concept or model, though, it has been supplemented and even replaced by others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClarkYallop1995chpt._11_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkYallop1995chpt._11-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some linguists (such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Morris Halle</a>) proposed that phonemes may be further decomposable into <a href="/wiki/Distinctive_feature" title="Distinctive feature">features</a>, such features being the true minimal constituents of language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJakobsonHalle1968_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobsonHalle1968-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Features overlap each other in time, as do <a href="/wiki/Suprasegmental" class="mw-redirect" title="Suprasegmental">suprasegmental</a> phonemes in oral language and many phonemes in sign languages. Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">acoustic</a> terms,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJakobsonFantHalle1952_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobsonFantHalle1952-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly <a href="/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics" title="Articulatory phonetics">articulatory</a> basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Ladefoged</a>'s system<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006268–276_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006268–276-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'. </p><p>In the description of some languages, the term <a href="/wiki/Chroneme" title="Chroneme">chroneme</a> has been used to indicate contrastive length or <i>duration</i> of phonemes. In languages in which <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a> are phonemic, the tone phonemes may be called <a href="/wiki/Toneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Toneme">tonemes</a>. Though not all scholars working on such languages use these terms, they are by no means obsolete. </p><p>By analogy with the phoneme, linguists have proposed other sorts of underlying objects, giving them names with the suffix <i>-eme</i>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">grapheme</a></i>. These are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Emic_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Emic unit">emic units</a>. The latter term was first used by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pike" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Pike">Kenneth Pike</a>, who also generalized the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Emic_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Emic unit">emic and etic</a> description (from <i>phonemic</i> and <i>phonetic</i> respectively) to applications outside linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPike1967_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPike1967-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restrictions_on_occurrence">Restrictions on occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Restrictions on occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a></div> <p>Languages do not generally allow words or <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> to be built of any arbitrary sequences of phonemes. There are <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactic</a> restrictions on which sequences of phonemes are possible and in which environments certain phonemes can occur. Phonemes that are significantly limited by such restrictions may be called <i>restricted phonemes</i>. </p><p>In English, examples of such restrictions include the following: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span>, as in <i>si<b>ng</b></i>, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning (in many other languages, such as <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Setswana</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> can appear word-initially).</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> occurs only at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end (a few languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Language">Romanian</a>, allow <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> syllable-finally).</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic and non-rhotic accents">non-rhotic dialects</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɹ/</span> can occur immediately only before a vowel, never before a consonant.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> occur only before a vowel, never at the end of a syllable (except in interpretations in which a word like <i>boy</i> is analyzed as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bɔj/</span>).</li></ul> <p>Some phonotactic restrictions can alternatively be analyzed as cases of neutralization. See <a href="#Neutralization_and_archiphonemes">Neutralization and archiphonemes</a> below, particularly the example of the occurrence of the three English nasals before stops. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biuniqueness">Biuniqueness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biuniqueness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Biuniqueness</b> is a requirement of classic <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuralism (linguistics)">structuralist</a> phonemics. It means that a given <a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">phone</a>, wherever it occurs, must unambiguously be assigned to one and only one phoneme. In other words, the mapping between phones and phonemes is required to be many-to-one rather than <a href="/wiki/Many-to-many" title="Many-to-many">many-to-many</a>. The notion of biuniqueness was controversial among some pre-<a href="/wiki/Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">generative</a> linguists and was prominently challenged by <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Morris Halle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> in the late 1950s and early 1960s. </p><p>An example of the problems arising from the biuniqueness requirement is provided by the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a>. This may cause either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> (in the appropriate environments) to be realized with the phone <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span> (an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">alveolar flap</a>). For example, the same flap sound may be heard in the words <i>hi<b>tt</b>ing</i> and <i>bi<b>dd</b>ing</i>, although it is intended to realize the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> in the first word and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in the second. This appears to contradict biuniqueness. </p><p>For further discussion of such cases, see the next section. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutralization_and_archiphonemes"><span class="anchor" id="Neutralization"></span>Neutralization and archiphonemes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neutralization and archiphonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Phoneme" title="Special:EditPage/Phoneme">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Phoneme%22">"Phoneme"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Phoneme%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Phoneme%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Phoneme%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Phoneme%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Phoneme%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be <b>neutralized</b>. In these positions it may become less clear which phoneme a given phone represents. <b>Absolute neutralization</b> is a phenomenon in which a segment of the <a href="/wiki/Underlying_representation" title="Underlying representation">underlying representation</a> is not realized in any of its <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> representations (surface forms). The term was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kiparsky" title="Paul Kiparsky">Paul Kiparsky</a> (1968), and contrasts with <b>contextual neutralization</b> where some phonemes are not contrastive in certain environments.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some phonologists prefer not to specify a unique phoneme in such cases, since to do so would mean providing redundant or even arbitrary information – instead they use the technique of <a href="/wiki/Underspecification" title="Underspecification">underspecification</a>. An <b>archiphoneme</b> is an object sometimes used to represent an underspecified phoneme. </p><p>An example of neutralization is provided by the Russian vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>. These phonemes are contrasting in <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stressed</a> syllables, but in unstressed syllables the contrast is lost, since both are <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">reduced</a> to the same sound, usually <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> (for details, see <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction_in_Russian" title="Vowel reduction in Russian">vowel reduction in Russian</a>). In order to assign such an instance of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> to one of the phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span>, it is necessary to consider <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> factors (such as which of the vowels occurs in other forms of the words, or which <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> pattern is followed). In some cases even this may not provide an unambiguous answer. A description using the approach of underspecification would not attempt to assign <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span> to a specific phoneme in some or all of these cases, although it might be assigned to an archiphoneme, written something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//A//</span>, which reflects the two neutralized phonemes in this position, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{a|o}</span>, reflecting its unmerged values.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A somewhat different example is found in English, with the three <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a> phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m,<span class="wrap"> </span>n,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ/</span>. In word-final position these all contrast, as shown by the minimal triplet <i>sum</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʌm/</span>, <i>sun</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʌn/</span>, <i>sung</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sʌŋ/</span>. However, before a <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop</a> such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> (provided there is no <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundary between them), only one of the nasals is possible in any given position: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ŋ/</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, as in <i>limp, lint, link</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lɪmp/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lɪnt/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/lɪŋk/</span>). The nasals are therefore not contrastive in these environments, and according to some theorists this makes it inappropriate to assign the nasal phones heard here to any one of the phonemes (even though, in this case, the phonetic evidence is unambiguous). Instead they may analyze these phonemes as belonging to a single archiphoneme, written something like <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//N//</span>, and state the <a href="/wiki/Underlying_representation" title="Underlying representation">underlying representations</a> of <i>limp, lint, link</i> to be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//lɪNp//,<span class="wrap"> </span>//lɪNt//,<span class="wrap"> </span>//lɪNk//</span>. </p><p>This latter type of analysis is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Trubetzkoy" title="Nikolai Trubetzkoy">Nikolai Trubetzkoy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Prague_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague school">Prague school</a>. Archiphonemes are often notated with a capital letter within double virgules or pipes, as with the examples <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//A//</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//N//</span> given above. Other ways the second of these has been notated include <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|m-n-ŋ|</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">{m,<span class="wrap"> </span>n,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ}</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//n*//</span>. </p><p>Another example from English, but this time involving complete phonetic convergence as in the Russian example, is the flapping of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in some American English (described above under <a href="#Biuniqueness">Biuniqueness</a>). Here the words <i>betting</i> and <i>bedding</i> might both be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈbɛɾɪŋ]</span>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a> theory of linguistics, if a speaker applies such flapping consistently, morphological evidence (the pronunciation of the related forms <i>bet</i> and <i>bed</i>, for example) would reveal which phoneme the flap represents, once it is known which morpheme is being used.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other theorists would prefer not to make such a determination, and simply assign the flap in both cases to a single archiphoneme, written (for example) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//D//</span>. </p><p>Further mergers in English are <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosives</a> after <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span>, where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p,<span class="wrap"> </span>t,<span class="wrap"> </span>k/</span> conflate with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b,<span class="wrap"> </span>d,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɡ/</span>, as suggested by the alternative spellings <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sketti" class="extiw" title="wikt:sketti">sketti</a></i> and <i>sghetti</i>. That is, there is no particular reason to transcribe <i>spin</i> as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈspɪn/</span> rather than as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈsbɪn/</span>, other than its historical development, and it might be less ambiguously transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//ˈsBɪn//</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphophonemes">Morphophonemes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Morphophonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morphophonology" title="Morphophonology">Morphophonology</a></div> <p>A <b>morphophoneme</b> is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from which <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> are built up. A morphophoneme within a morpheme can be expressed in different ways in different <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph">allomorphs</a> of that morpheme (according to <a href="/wiki/Morphophonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonological">morphophonological</a> rules). For example, the English plural morpheme <i>-s</i> appearing in words such as <i>cats</i> and <i>dogs</i> can be considered to be a single morphophoneme, which might be transcribed (for example) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">//z//</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">|z|</span>, and which is realized phonemically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> after most <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless consonants</a> (as in <i>cat<b>s</b></i>) and as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> in other cases (as in <i>dog<b>s</b></i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numbers_of_phonemes_in_different_languages">Numbers of phonemes in different languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Numbers of phonemes in different languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All known languages use only a small subset of the many possible <a href="/wiki/Speech_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech sound">sounds</a> that the human <a href="/wiki/Speech_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech organs">speech organs</a> can produce, and, because of <a href="/wiki/Allophony" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophony">allophony</a>, the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds. Different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems (although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis). The total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 9–11 in <a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã</a> and 11 in <a href="/wiki/Rotokas_language" title="Rotokas language">Rotokas</a> to as many as 141 in <a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_languages" title="ǃKung languages">ǃXũ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2010173_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2010173-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Everett_1986_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everett_1986-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Everett_2008_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everett_2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of phonemically distinct <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> can be as low as two, as in <a href="/wiki/Ubykh_language" title="Ubykh language">Ubykh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arrernte_language" title="Arrernte language">Arrernte</a>. At the other extreme, the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> language <a href="/wiki/Ngwe_language" title="Ngwe language">Ngwe</a> has 14 vowel qualities, 12 of which may occur long or short, making 26 oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, making a total of 38 vowels; while <a href="/wiki/!X%C3%B3%C3%B5_language" class="mw-redirect" title="!Xóõ language">!Xóõ</a> achieves 31 pure vowels, not counting its additional variation by vowel length, by varying the <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a>. As regards <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> phonemes, <a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a> and the Papuan language <a href="/wiki/Tauade_language" title="Tauade language">Tauade</a> each have just seven, and <a href="/wiki/Rotokas_language" title="Rotokas language">Rotokas</a> has only six. <a href="/wiki/!X%C3%B3%C3%B5_language" class="mw-redirect" title="!Xóõ language">!Xóõ</a>, on the other hand, has somewhere around 77, and <a href="/wiki/Ubykh_phonology" title="Ubykh phonology">Ubykh</a> 81. The <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> uses a rather large set of 13 to 21 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs, although its 22 to 26 <a href="/wiki/English_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="English consonants">consonants</a> are close to average. Across all languages, the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22, while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some languages, such as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, have no phonemic <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> and several of the <a href="/wiki/Kam%E2%80%93Sui_languages" title="Kam–Sui languages">Kam–Sui languages</a> have six to nine tones (depending on how they are counted), and the Kam-Sui <a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Dong language</a> has nine to 15 tones by the same measure. One of the <a href="/wiki/Kru_languages" title="Kru languages">Kru languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wob%C3%A9_language" title="Wobé language">Wobé</a>, has been claimed to have 14,<sup id="cite_ref-Bearth&Link_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bearth&Link-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Most_common"></span> The most common vowel system consists of the five vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/e/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/a/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/o/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/u/</span>. The most common consonants are <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/t/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/k/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/m/,<span class="wrap"> </span>/n/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relatively few languages lack any of these consonants, although it does happen: for example, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> lacks <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">standard Hawaiian</a> lacks <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span>, <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_language" title="Mohawk language">Mohawk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_language" title="Tlingit language">Tlingit</a> lack <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span>, <a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hupa</a> lacks both <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> and a simple <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, colloquial <a href="/wiki/Samoan_language" title="Samoan language">Samoan</a> lacks <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, while <a href="/wiki/Rotokas_language" title="Rotokas language">Rotokas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quileute_language" title="Quileute language">Quileute</a> lack <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_non-uniqueness_of_phonemic_solutions">The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the development of phoneme theory in the mid-20th century, phonologists were concerned not only with the procedures and principles involved in producing a phonemic analysis of the sounds of a given language, but also with the reality or uniqueness of the phonemic solution. These were central concerns of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. Some writers took the position expressed by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pike" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Pike">Kenneth Pike</a>: "There is only one accurate phonemic analysis for a given set of data",<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others believed that different analyses, equally valid, could be made for the same data. <a href="/wiki/Yuen_Ren_Chao" title="Yuen Ren Chao">Yuen Ren Chao</a> (1934), in his article "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stated "given the sounds of a language, there are usually more than one possible way of reducing them to a set of phonemes, and these different systems or solutions are not simply correct or incorrect, but may be regarded only as being good or bad for various purposes". The linguist <a href="/wiki/Fred_Householder" title="Fred Householder">F. W. Householder</a> referred to this argument within linguistics as "God's Truth" (i.e. the stance that a given language has an intrinsic structure to be discovered) vs. "hocus-pocus" (i.e. the stance that any proposed, coherent structure is as good as any other).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different analyses of the English vowel system may be used to illustrate this. The article <a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English phonology</a> states that "English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes" and that "there are 20 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 20–21 in Australian English". Although these figures are often quoted as fact, they actually reflect just one of many possible analyses, and later in the English Phonology article an alternative analysis is suggested in which some diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span>. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in <a href="/wiki/George_L._Trager" title="George L. Trager">Trager</a> and Smith (1951), where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> (plus <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> for rhotic accents), each comprising two phonemes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transcription for the vowel normally transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aɪ/</span> would instead be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aj/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aʊ/</span> would be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aw/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> would be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ah/</span>, or /ar/ in a rhotic accent if there is an <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span> in the spelling. It is also possible to treat English long vowels and diphthongs as combinations of two vowel phonemes, with long vowels treated as a sequence of two short vowels, so that 'palm' would be represented as /paam/. English can thus be said to have around seven vowel phonemes, or even six if schwa were treated as an allophone of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> or of other short vowels. </p><p>In the same period there was disagreement about the correct basis for a phonemic analysis. The <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structuralist</a> position was that the analysis should be made purely on the basis of the sound elements and their distribution, with no reference to extraneous factors such as grammar, morphology or the intuitions of the native speaker; this position is strongly associated with <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zellig_Harris" title="Zellig Harris">Zellig Harris</a> claimed that it is possible to discover the phonemes of a language purely by examining the distribution of phonetic segments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris19515_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris19515-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Referring to <a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(psychology)" title="Mentalism (psychology)">mentalistic</a> definitions of the phoneme, <a href="/wiki/William_Freeman_Twaddell" title="William Freeman Twaddell">Twaddell</a> (1935) stated "Such a definition is invalid because (1) we have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible 'mind', and (2) we can secure no advantage from such guesses. The linguistic processes of the 'mind' as such are quite simply unobservable; and introspection about linguistic processes is notoriously a fire in a wooden stove."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwaddell1935_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwaddell1935-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach was opposed to that of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a>, who gave an important role to native speakers' intuitions about where a particular sound or group of sounds fitted into a pattern. Using English <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span> as an example, Sapir argued that, despite the superficial appearance that this sound belongs to a group of three nasal consonant phonemes (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), native speakers feel that the velar nasal is really the sequence [ŋɡ]/.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory of <a href="/wiki/Generative_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative phonology">generative phonology</a> which emerged in the 1960s explicitly rejected the structuralist approach to phonology and favoured the mentalistic or cognitive view of Sapir.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChomskyHalle1968-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These topics are discussed further in <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Controversial_issues" title="English phonology">English phonology#Controversial issues</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Correspondence_between_letters_and_phonemes">Correspondence between letters and phonemes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Correspondence between letters and phonemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">Phonemic orthography</a></div> <p>Phonemes are considered to be the basis for <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> writing systems. In such systems the written symbols (<a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a>) represent, in principle, the phonemes of the language being written. This is most obviously the case when the alphabet was invented with a particular language in mind; for example, the Latin alphabet was devised for Classical Latin, and therefore the Latin of that period enjoyed a near one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in most cases, though the devisers of the alphabet chose not to represent the phonemic effect of vowel length. However, because changes in the spoken language are often not accompanied by changes in the established <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> (as well as other reasons, including <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> differences, the effects of <a href="/wiki/Morphophonology" title="Morphophonology">morphophonology</a> on orthography, and the use of foreign spellings for some <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>), the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in a given language may be highly distorted; this is the case with English, for example. </p><p>The correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a <a href="/wiki/One-to-one_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="One-to-one correspondence">one-to-one correspondence</a>. A phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters (<a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">trigraph</a>, <abbr title="et cetera">etc.</abbr>), like <span class="nowrap">⟨sh⟩</span> in English or <span class="nowrap">⟨sch⟩</span> in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> (both representing the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>). Also a single letter may represent two phonemes, as in English <span class="nowrap">⟨x⟩</span> representing <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/gz/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ks/</span>. There may also exist spelling/pronunciation rules (such as those for the pronunciation of <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>) that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes, although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa, provided the rules are consistent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_sign_languages">In sign languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In sign languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features. <a href="/wiki/William_Stokoe" title="William Stokoe">Stokoe</a> was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a>. He identified the bundles <i><a href="/wiki/Location_(sign_language)" title="Location (sign language)">tab</a></i> (elements of location, from Latin <i>tabula</i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Handshape" title="Handshape">dez</a></i> (the handshape, from <i>designator</i>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Movement_(sign_language)" title="Movement (sign language)">sig</a></i> (the motion, from <i>signation</i>). Some researchers also discern <i><a href="/wiki/Orientation_(sign_language)" title="Orientation (sign language)">ori</a></i> (orientation), facial <a href="/wiki/Expression_(sign_language)" title="Expression (sign language)">expression</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mouthing" title="Mouthing">mouthing</a>. Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.spreadthesign.com/video/mp4/13/455635.mp4">father</a></i> and <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.spreadthesign.com/video/mp4/13/48601.mp4">mother</a></i> differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe's terminology and notation system</a> are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages; <a href="/wiki/William_Stokoe" title="William Stokoe">William Stokoe</a>'s research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Sign_language#Non-manual_elements" title="Sign language">non-manual features</a> are not included in Stokoe's classification. More sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Diane_Brentari" title="Diane Brentari">Brentari</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Sandler" title="Wendy Sandler">Sandler</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Van der Kooij.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chereme">Chereme<span class="anchor" id="Cherology"></span><span class="anchor" id="Chereme"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Chereme"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Cherology</b> and <b>chereme</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">χείρ</span> "hand") are synonyms of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and phoneme previously used in the study of <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>. A <i>chereme</i>, as the basic unit of signed communication, is functionally and psychologically equivalent to the phonemes of oral languages, and has been replaced by that term in the academic literature. <i>Cherology</i>, as the study of <i>cheremes</i> in language, is thus equivalent to phonology. The terms are not in use anymore. Instead, the terms <i>phonology</i> and <i>phoneme</i> (or <i>distinctive feature</i>) are used to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms were coined in 1960 by <a href="/wiki/William_Stokoe" title="William Stokoe">William Stokoe</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Gallaudet_University" title="Gallaudet University">Gallaudet University</a> to describe sign languages as true and full languages. Once a controversial idea, the position is now universally accepted in linguistics. Stokoe's terminology, however, has been largely abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_principle" title="Alphabetic principle">Alphabetic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">Alternation (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_distribution" title="Complementary distribution">Complementary distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">Diaphoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphone" title="Diphone">Diphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">Free variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">Minimal pair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphophonology" title="Morphophonology">Morphophonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_(phonetics)" title="Phone (phonetics)">Phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">Phonemic orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_change" title="Phonological change">Phonological change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Toneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triphone" title="Triphone">Triphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viseme" title="Viseme">Viseme</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is allophonic variation of this tone. It may be realized in different ways, depending on context.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Depending on the ability of the typesetter, this may be written vertically, an o over an a with a horizontal line (like a fraction) without the braces.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phoneme">"phoneme"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=phoneme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fphoneme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandspeak" class="citation web cs1">Handspeak. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.handspeak.com/learn/index.php?id=109">"Minimal pairs in sign language phonology"</a>. <i>handspeak.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170214003747/http://www.handspeak.com/learn/index.php?id=109">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=handspeak.com&rft.atitle=Minimal+pairs+in+sign+language+phonology&rft.au=Handspeak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.handspeak.com%2Flearn%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198244-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198244_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells 1982</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani" title="Fausto Cercignani">Fausto Cercignani</a>, <i>Some notes on phonemes and allophones in synchronic and diachronic descriptions</i>, in “Linguistik online”, 129/5, 2024, pp. 39–51, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/11228/14154">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198248-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198248_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells 1982</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liddell_&_Scott-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Liddell_&_Scott_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940). <i>A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie.</i> Oxford: Clarendon Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1957-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1957_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1957">Jones 1957</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, D. 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Mouton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Issues+in+Linguistic+Theory&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaytonLucas2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Valli" title="Clayton Valli">Clayton, Valli</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ceil_Lucas" title="Ceil Lucas">Lucas, Ceil</a> (2000). <i>Linguistics of American Sign Language : an introduction</i> (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Gallaudet_University_Press" title="Gallaudet University Press">Gallaudet University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563680977" title="Special:BookSources/9781563680977"><bdi>9781563680977</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57352333">57352333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics+of+American+Sign+Language+%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Gallaudet+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57352333&rft.isbn=9781563680977&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Valli&rft.au=Lucas%2C+Ceil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brentari, Diane (1998). <i>A prosodic model of sign language phonology</i>. MIT Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandler, Wendy (1989). <i>Phonological representation of the sign: linearity and nonlinearity in American Sign Language</i>. Foris.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kooij, Els van der (2002). <i>Phonological categories in Sign Language of the Netherlands. The role of phonetic implementation and iconicity</i>. PhD dissertation, Leiden University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bross, Fabian. 2015. "Chereme", in In: Hall, T. A. Pompino-Marschall, B. (ed.): Dictionaries of Linguistics and Communication Science (Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, WSK). Volume: Phonetics and Phonology. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokoe1960" class="citation web cs1">Stokoe, William C. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211123193225/http://saveourdeafschools.org/stokoe_1960.pdf">"Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://saveourdeafschools.org/stokoe_1960.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 November 2021 – via Save Our Deaf Schools.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sign+Language+Structure%3A+An+Outline+of+the+Visual+Communication+Systems+of+the+American+Deaf&rft.series=Studies+in+linguistics%3A+Occasional+papers+%28No.+8%29&rft.pub=Dept.+of+Anthropology+and+Linguistics%2C+University+of+Buffalo&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Stokoe&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsaveourdeafschools.org%2Fstokoe_1960.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seegmiller, 2006. "Stokoe, William (1919–2000)", in <i>Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics</i>, 2nd ed.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoneme&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomskyHalle1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a>; <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Halle, Morris</a> (1968), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sound_Pattern_of_English" title="The Sound Pattern of English">The Sound Pattern of English</a></i>, Harper and Row, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/317361">317361</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sound+Pattern+of+English&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F317361&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft.au=Halle%2C+Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkYallop1995" class="citation cs2">Clark, J.; Yallop, C. (1995), <i>An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology</i> (2nd ed.), Blackwell, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19452-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19452-1"><bdi>978-0-631-19452-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Phonetics+and+Phonology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19452-1&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Yallop%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1997" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (1997), <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language</i> (2nd ed.), Cambridge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55967-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55967-6"><bdi>978-0-521-55967-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55967-6&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2010" class="citation cs2">Crystal, David (2010), <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language</i> (3rd ed.), Cambridge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73650-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73650-3"><bdi>978-0-521-73650-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-73650-3&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimson2008" class="citation cs2">Gimson, A.C. (2008), Cruttenden, A. (ed.), <i>The Pronunciation of English</i> (7th ed.), Hodder, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-95877-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-95877-3"><bdi>978-0-340-95877-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pronunciation+of+English&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Hodder&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-340-95877-3&rft.aulast=Gimson&rft.aufirst=A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1951" class="citation cs2">Harris, Z. (1951), <i>Methods in Structural Linguistics</i>, Chicago University Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2232282">2232282</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+in+Structural+Linguistics&rft.pub=Chicago+University+Press&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2232282&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobsonFantHalle1952" class="citation cs2">Jakobson, R.; Fant, G.; Halle, M. (1952), <i>Preliminaries to Speech Analysis</i>, MIT, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6492928">6492928</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preliminaries+to+Speech+Analysis&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6492928&rft.aulast=Jakobson&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Fant%2C+G.&rft.au=Halle%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobsonHalle1968" class="citation cs2">Jakobson, R.; Halle, M. (1968), <i>Phonology in Relation to Phonetics, in Malmberg, B. (ed) Manual of Phonetics</i>, North-Holland, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13223685">13223685</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonology+in+Relation+to+Phonetics%2C+in+Malmberg%2C+B.+%28ed%29+Manual+of+Phonetics&rft.pub=North-Holland&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13223685&rft.aulast=Jakobson&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Halle%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1957" class="citation cs2">Jones, Daniel (1957), "The History and Meaning of the Term 'Phoneme'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>", <i>Le Maître Phonétique</i>, <b>35</b> (72), Le Maître Phonétique, supplement (reprinted in E. Fudge (ed) Phonology, Penguin): 1–20, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44705495">44705495</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4550377">4550377</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Ma%C3%AEtre+Phon%C3%A9tique&rft.atitle=The+History+and+Meaning+of+the+Term+%27Phoneme%27&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=72&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4550377&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44705495%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged2006" class="citation cs2">Ladefoged, P. (2006), <i>A Course in Phonetics</i> (5th ed.), Thomson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4282-3126-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4282-3126-9"><bdi>978-1-4282-3126-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Phonetics&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Thomson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4282-3126-9&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1967" class="citation cs2">Pike, K.L. (1967), <i>Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior</i>, Mouton, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/308042">308042</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+in+Relation+to+a+Unified+Theory+of+Human+Behavior&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F308042&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=K.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwadesh1934" class="citation cs2">Swadesh, M. (1934), "The Phonemic Principle", <i>Language</i>, <b>10</b> (2): 117–129, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409603">10.2307/409603</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409603">409603</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+Phonemic+Principle&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-129&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409603&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409603%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Swadesh&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwaddell1935" class="citation journal cs1">Twaddell, W.F. (March 1935). "On Defining the Phoneme". <i>Language</i>. <b>11</b> (1). Linguistic Society of America: 5–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F522070">10.2307/522070</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/522070">522070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=On+Defining+the+Phoneme&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5-62&rft.date=1935-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F522070&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F522070%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Twaddell&rft.aufirst=W.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoneme" class="Z3988"></span> (reprinted in Joos, M. Readings in Linguistics, 1957)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation cs2">Wells, J.C. 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