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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_microbiana" title="Ecologia microbiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ecologia microbiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolog%C3%ADa_microbiana" title="Ecología microbiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecología microbiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="بوم‌شناسی میکروبی – Persian" lang="fa" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of the relationship of microorganisms with their environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Environmental microbiology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Microbiology" title="Environmental Microbiology">Environmental Microbiology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg/290px-Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg/435px-Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg/580px-Great-plate-count-anomaly.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The great plate count anomaly. Counts of cells obtained via cultivation are orders of magnitude lower than those directly observed under the microscope. This is because microbiologists are able to cultivate only a minority of naturally occurring microbes using current laboratory techniques, depending on the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-hugenholz2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hugenholz2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Microbial ecology</b> (or <b>environmental microbiology</b>) is the <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>: their relationship with one another and with their environment. It concerns the three major <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> of life—<a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>—as well as <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BartonNorthup2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartonNorthup2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This relationship is often mediated by secondary metabolites produced my microorganism. These secondary metabolites are known as specialized metabolites and are mostly volatile or non volatile compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These metabolites include terpenoids, sulfur compounds, indole compound and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of microorganisms and their interactions with the environment was pioneered by some scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Winogradsky" title="Sergei Winogradsky">Sergei Winogradsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_Hiltner" title="Lorenz Hiltner">Lorenz Hiltner</a> and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microorganisms are ubiquitous, and play various roles that impact the entire <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> and any environment they found themselves both positively and negatively. Microbial life plays a primary role in regulating biogeochemical systems in virtually all of our planet's environments, including some of the most <a href="/wiki/Extremophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremophiles">extreme</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">frozen environments</a> and acidic lakes, to <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a> at the bottom of the deepest oceans, and some of the most familiar, such as the human <a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">small intestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bowler_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bowler-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-konopka_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-konopka-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microorganism (soil microbes) are involved in <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycle</a> ( example <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_cycle" title="Sulfur cycle">sulphur cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a> etc ) in the soil which helps in fixing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur in the soil ( environment).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence of the quantitative magnitude of microbial life (calculated as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7030500000000000000♠"></span>5.0<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>30</sup></span> cells; eight orders of magnitude greater than the number of stars in the observable universe<sup id="cite_ref-whitman_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitman-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wolfram_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolfram-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), microbes, by virtue of their <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> alone, constitute a significant <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReddyDeLaune2004_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReddyDeLaune2004-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The immensity of microorganisms' production is such that, even in the complete absence of eukaryotic life, these processes would likely continue unchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-Lupp_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lupp-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microbial interactions with their environment has industrial application such as <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microorganism also form several <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic relationship">symbiotic relationship</a> with other <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> in their environment<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where one or both of the partner involve benefit or one partner benefits while the other partner is harmed. Some symbiotic relationship include <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a> etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-annualreviews.org_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annualreviews.org-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain substance in the environment can kill microorganism, thus preventing them from interacting with their environment. These substances are called <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> substances. These include <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">antifungal</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis_Pasteur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg/220px-Louis_Pasteur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg/330px-Louis_Pasteur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Louis_Pasteur.jpg/440px-Louis_Pasteur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>While microbes have been studied since the seventeenth century, this research was primarily on physiological perspective rather than an ecological one.<sup id="cite_ref-konopka2009_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-konopka2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> and his disciples were interested in the problem of microbial distribution both on land and in the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis Pasteur was the scientist who invented the pasteurization process. <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Enrichment_culture" title="Enrichment culture">enrichment culture</a>, a fundamental method of studying <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a> from the environment. He is often incorrectly credited with framing the <a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">microbial biogeographic</a> idea that "everything is everywhere, but, the environment selects", which was stated by <a href="/wiki/Lourens_Baas_Becking" title="Lourens Baas Becking">Lourens Baas Becking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-deWit2006_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deWit2006-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Winogradsky" title="Sergei Winogradsky">Sergei Winogradsky</a> was one of the first researchers to attempt to understand <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> outside of the medical context—making him among the first students of microbial ecology and environmental microbiology—discovering <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>, and developing the <a href="/wiki/Winogradsky_column" title="Winogradsky column">Winogradsky column</a> in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-brock_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brock-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 644">: 644 </span></sup> </p><p>Beijerinck and Windogradsky, however, were focused on the physiology of microorganisms, not the microbial <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> or their ecological interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-konopka2009_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-konopka2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern microbial ecology was launched by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hungate" title="Robert Hungate">Robert Hungate</a> and coworkers, who investigated the <a href="/wiki/Rumen" title="Rumen">rumen</a> ecosystem. The study of the rumen required Hungate to develop techniques for culturing anaerobic microbes, and he also pioneered a quantitative approach to the study of microbes and their ecological activities that differentiated the relative contributions of species and <a href="/wiki/Catabolic_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Catabolic pathway">catabolic pathways</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-konopka2009_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-konopka2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Progress in microbial ecology has been tied to the development of new technologies. The measurement of biogeochemical process rates in nature was driven by the availability of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">radioisotopes</a> beginning in the 1950s.  For example, <sup>14</sup>CO<sub>2</sub> allowed analysis of rates of photosynthesis in the ocean (ref). Another significant breakthrough came in the 1980s, when microelectrodes sensitive to chemical species like O2 were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These electrodes have a spatial resolution of 50–100 μm, and have allowed analysis of spatial and temporal biogeochemical dynamics in microbial mats and sediments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although measuring biogeochemical process rates could analyse what processes were occurring, they were incomplete because they provided no information on which specific microbes were responsible. It was long known that 'classical' cultivation techniques recovered fewer than 1% of the microbes from a natural habitat. However, beginning in the 1990s, a set of cultivation-independent techniques have evolved to determine the relative abundance of microbes in a habitat. <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a> first demonstrated that the sequence of the <a href="/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S ribosomal RNA</a> molecule could be used to analyse phylogenetic relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Norman_R._Pace" title="Norman R. Pace">Norm Pace</a> took this seminal idea and applied it to analysfe 'who's there' in natural environments. The procedure involves (a) isolation of nucleic acids directly from a natural environment, (b) PCR amplification of small subunit rRNA gene sequences, (c) sequencing the amplicons, and (d) comparison of those sequences to a database of sequences from pure cultures and environmental DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has provided tremendous insights into the diversity present within microbial habitats. However, it does not resolve how to link specific microbes to their biogeochemical role. <a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a>, the sequencing of total DNA recovered from an environment, can provide insights into biogeochemical potential,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas <a href="/wiki/Metatranscriptomics" title="Metatranscriptomics">metatranscriptomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaproteomics" title="Metaproteomics">metaproteomics</a> can measure actual expression of genetic potential but remains more technically difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roles">Roles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Microorganisms are the backbone of all <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, but even more so in areas where photosynthesis cannot take places due to lack of light. In such zones, <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemosynthetic">chemosynthetic</a> microbes provide energy, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> to the other organisms. Chemosynthetic microorganisms gain energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds such as hydrogen, nitrite, ammonia, elemental sulfur and iron(II). These organisms can be found in both aerobic and anaerobic environment.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemosynthetic microorganisms are primary producer in extreme environment such as high temperature geothermal environments.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chemotrophic organisms can also function in anoxic environments by using other <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptors</a> for their respiration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other microbes are <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a>, with the ability to recycle <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> from other organisms' waste products. These microbes play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-FenchelBlackburn2012_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FenchelBlackburn2012-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle" title="Phosphorus cycle">phosphorus cycle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sulphur_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur cycle">sulphur cycle</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> all depend on microorganisms in one way or another. Each cycle works together to regulate the microorganisms in certain processes.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen gas">nitrogen gas</a> which makes up 78% of the Earth's atmosphere is unavailable to most organisms, until it is converted to a biologically available form by the microbial process of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through these biogeochemical cycles, microorganisms are able to make nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium available in the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differing from the nitrogen and carbon cycles, stable gaseous species are not created in the phosphorus cycle in the environment. Microorganisms play a role in solubilizing phosphate, improving soil health, and plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Again, microbial interaction are involved in bioremediation. Bioremediation is a technology that is employed to remove heavy metal contaminants from soil<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and wastewater <sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using microorganisms. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi removes organic and inorganic pollutants by oxidizing or reducing them.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Example of microorganisms that play role in bioremediation of heavy metals include Pseudomonas<i>,</i> Bacillus<i>,</i> Arthrobacter<i>,</i> Corynebacterium<i>,</i> Methosinus<i>,</i> Rhodococcus<i>, Stereum hirsutum,</i> Methanogens<i>, Aspergilus niger, Pleurotus ostreatus, Rhizopus arrhizus,</i> Azotobacter<i>,</i> Alcaligenes<i>, Phormidium valderium,</i> and <i>Ganoderma applantus</i> <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Symbiosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symbiosis is a close, long term relationship between organisms of different species. Symbiosis can be <a href="/wiki/Ectosymbiosis" title="Ectosymbiosis">ectosymbiosis</a> (one organism lives on the surface of other organism ) or endosymbiosis (one organism lives inside other organism).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symbiotic relationship can also exist between microorganism that live closely together in a given environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symbiotic relationship is found at every level within the ecosystem and has contributed in shaping life.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microorganism produce, change, and utilize nutrient and natural products in numerous ways and this enable them  to be ubiquitous.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> relationships (either <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">positive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">negative</a>) with other microorganisms or larger organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants and animals happen to be the habitat of microorganism that are involved in mutualistic relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While such relationships are vital for the development of the microbes, these microbes can provide protection to their host against unfavorable changes in the environment or against predators. They do this by producing bioactive compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although physically small, symbiotic relationships amongst microbes are significant in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> processes and their evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The types of symbiotic relationship that microbes participate in include mutualism, commensalism, <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:33_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and amensalism<sup id="cite_ref-Microbial_interactions2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microbial_interactions2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which affect the ecosystem in many ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mutualism">Mutualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mutualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mutualism is a close relationship between two different species in which each has a positive affect on the other . In mutualism, one partner provides service to the other partner and also receives service from the other partner as well.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutualism in microbial ecology is a relationship between microbial species and other species (example humans) that allows for both sides to benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microorganisms form mutualistic relationship with other microorganism, plants or animals. One example of microbe-microbe interaction would be <a href="/wiki/Syntrophy" title="Syntrophy">syntrophy</a>, also known as cross-feeding,<sup id="cite_ref-Microbial_interactions2_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Microbial_interactions2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which <i>Methanobacterium omelianskii</i> is a classical example.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This consortium is formed by an ethanol fermenting organism and a <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogen</a>. The ethanol-fermenting organism provides the archaeal partner with the H<sub>2</sub>, which this methanogen needs in order to grow and produce methane.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syntrophy has been hypothesized to play a significant role in energy and nutrient-limited environments, such as deep subsurface, where it can help the microbial community with diverse functional properties to survive, grow and produce maximum amount of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_oxidation_of_methane" title="Anaerobic oxidation of methane">Anaerobic oxidation of methane</a> (AOM) is carried out by mutualistic consortium of a <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing microorganisms">sulfate-reducing bacterium</a> and an anaerobic <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_oxidation_of_methane" title="Anaerobic oxidation of methane">methane-oxidizing archaeon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reaction used by the bacterial partner for the production of H<sub>2</sub> is <a href="/wiki/Endergonic_reaction" title="Endergonic reaction">endergonic</a> (and so thermodynamically unfavored) however, when coupled to the reaction used by archaeal partner, the overall reaction becomes <a href="/wiki/Exergonic_process" title="Exergonic process">exergonic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the two organisms are in a mutualistic relationship which allows them to grow and thrive in an environment, deadly for either species alone. <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichen</a> is an example of a symbiotic organism.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microorganisms also engage in mutualistic relationship with plants and a typical example of such relationship is arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) relationship, a symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This relationship begins when chemical signals are exchange between the plant and the fungi leading to the metabolic stimulation of the fungus.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fungus then attacks the epidermis of the plant’s root and penetrates its highly branched hyphae into the cortical cells of the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this relationship, the fungi gives the plant phosphate and nitrogen obtained from the soil with the plant in return providing the fungi with carbohydrate and lipids obtained from photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, microorganisms are involve in mutualistic relationship with mammals such as humans. As the host provides shelter and nutrient to the microorganisms, the microorganisms also provide benefits such as helping in the growth of the gastrointestinal tract of the host and protecting host from other detrimental microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commensalism">Commensalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Commensalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commensalism is very common in microbial world, literally meaning "eating from the same table".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a relationship between two species where one species benefits with no harm or benefit for the other species.<sup id="cite_ref-annualreviews.org_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annualreviews.org-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metabolic products of one microbial population are used by another microbial population without either gain or harm for the first population. There are many "pairs "of microbial species that perform either oxidation or reduction reaction to the same chemical equation. For example, methanogens produce methane by reducing CO<sub>2</sub> to CH<sub>4</sub>, while <a href="/wiki/Methanotroph" title="Methanotroph">methanotrophs</a> oxidise methane back to CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amensalism">Amensalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Amensalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amensalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amensalism">Amensalism</a> (also commonly known as antagonism) is a type of symbiotic relationship where one species/organism is harmed while the other remains unaffected.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of such a relationship that takes place in microbial ecology is between the microbial species <i><a href="/wiki/Lactobacillus_casei" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactobacillus casei">Lactobacillus casei</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_taetrolens" title="Pseudomonas taetrolens">Pseudomonas taetrolens</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When co-existing in an environment, <i>Pseudomonas taetrolens</i> shows inhibited growth and decreased production of lactobionic acid (its main product) most likely due to the byproducts created by <i>Lactobacillus casei</i> during its production of lactic acid.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <i>Lactobacillus casei</i> shows no difference in its behaviour.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microbial_resource_management">Microbial resource management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Microbial resource management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a> may be used alongside microbial ecology to address a number of environmental and <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> challenges. For example, molecular techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Community_Fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Community Fingerprinting">community fingerprinting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">metagenomics</a> can be used to track changes in microbial communities over time or assess their <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Managing the carbon cycle to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequester carbon dioxide</a> and prevent excess <a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">methanogenesis</a> is important in mitigating <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, and the prospects of <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> are being expanded by the development of <a href="/wiki/Microbial_fuel_cell" title="Microbial fuel cell">microbial fuel cells</a>. Microbial resource management advocates a more progressive attitude towards <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>, whereby <a href="/wiki/Biological_control_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control agent">biological control agents</a> are favoured over attempts at eradication. Fluxes in <a href="/wiki/Microbial_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial communities">microbial communities</a> has to be better characterized for this field's potential to be realised.<sup id="cite_ref-verstraete_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-verstraete-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, there are also clinical implications, as marine microbial symbioses are a valuable source of existing and novel antimicrobial agents, and thus offer another line of inquiry in the evolutionary arms race of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>, a pressing concern for researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ott_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ott-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_built_environment_and_human_interaction">In built environment and human interaction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In built environment and human interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_microbiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Human microbiota">Human microbiota</a></div> <p>Microbes exist in all areas, including homes, offices, commercial centers, and hospitals. In 2016, the journal <i>Microbiome</i> published a collection of various works studying the microbial ecology of the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2006 study of pathogenic bacteria in hospitals found that their ability to survive varied by the type, with some surviving for only a few days while others survived for months.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lifespan of microbes in the home varies similarly. Generally bacteria and viruses require a wet environment with a humidity of over 10 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> can survive for a few hours to a day.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria which form spores can survive longer, with <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i> surviving potentially for weeks or, in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a></i>, years.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the home, pets can be carriers of bacteria; for example, reptiles are commonly carriers of salmonella.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>S. aureus</i> is particularly common, and asymptomatically colonizes about 30% of the human population;<sup id="cite_ref-Tong2015_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tong2015-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attempts to <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_(medicine)" title="Decolonization (medicine)">decolonize</a> carriers have met with limited success<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and generally involve <a href="/wiki/Mupirocin" title="Mupirocin">mupirocin</a> nasally and <a href="/wiki/Chlorhexidine" title="Chlorhexidine">chlorhexidine</a> washing, potentially along with vancomycin and cotrimoxazole to address intestinal and urinary tract infections.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antimicrobials">Antimicrobials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Antimicrobials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Antimicrobials are substances that are capable of killing microorganism. Antimicrobial can be antibacterial or antibiotic, antifungal or antiviral substance and most of these substance are natural products or may have been obtain from natural products.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural products are therefore vital in the discovery of pharmaceutical agents.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the naturally obtained antibiotics are produced by organism under the phylum Actinobacteria. The genus Streptomyces are responsible for most of the antibiotic substances produced by Actinobacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These natural products with antimicrobial properties belong to the <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">terpenoids</a>, spirotetronate, tetracenedione, <a href="/wiki/Lactam" title="Lactam">lactam</a>, and other groups of compounds. Examples include napyradiomycin, nomimicin, formicamycin, and isoikarugamycin,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some metals, particularly <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> also have antimicrobial properties. Using <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_copper-alloy_touch_surfaces" title="Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces">antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces</a> is a technique that has begun to be used in the 21st century to prevent the transmission of bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Silver_nanoparticle" title="Silver nanoparticle">Silver nanoparticles</a> have also begun to be incorporated into building surfaces and fabrics, although concerns have been raised about the potential side-effects of the tiny particles on human health.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the antimicrobial properties certain metals possess, products such as medical devices are made using those metals.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to the high level of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> among microbial communities,<sup id="cite_ref-mcdaniel_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcdaniel-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> microbial ecology is also of importance to studies of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-smets_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smets-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microbial ecology contributes to the evolution in many different parts of the world. For example, different microbial species evolved <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a> dynamics and functions, allowing a better understanding of human health.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Microbial_Ecology" title="International Society for Microbial Ecology">International Society for Microbial Ecology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_ISME_Journal" title="The ISME Journal">The ISME Journal</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Microbial_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+ecology+and+evolution+of+microbial+CRISPR-Cas+adaptive+immune+systems&rft.volume=374&rft.issue=1772&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6452260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85501449%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2019.0101&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26643687%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30905294&rft.aulast=Westra&rft.aufirst=Edze+R.&rft.au=van+Houte%2C+Stineke&rft.au=Gandon%2C+Sylvain&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6452260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMicrobial+ecology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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ecology">Branches of ecology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_ecology" title="Quantitative ecology">Quantitative ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_scale" title="Spatial scale">Spatial scale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microecology" title="Microecology">Microecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" 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title="Thermal ecology">Thermal ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">History of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Glossary of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ecology" title="Applied ecology">Applied ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microorganisms" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Microorganisms" title="Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Microorganisms" title="Template talk:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Microorganisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microorganisms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Streptococcus pyogenes"><img alt="Streptococcus pyogenes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/140px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/210px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg/280px-Streptococcus_pyogenes_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="2040" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_population_biology" title="Microbial population biology">Microbial population biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Motion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_motility" title="Bacterial motility">Bacterial motility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-and-tumble_motion" title="Run-and-tumble motion">run-and-tumble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twitching_motility" title="Twitching motility">twitching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">gliding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist_locomotion" title="Protist locomotion">Protist locomotion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboid_movement" title="Amoeboid movement">amoeboids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria_collective_motion" title="Bacteria collective motion">Bacteria collective motion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_the_Winner_hypothesis" title="Kill the Winner hypothesis">Kill the Winner hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_consortium" title="Microbial consortium">Microbial consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">Microbial cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">viral shunt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_synergy" title="Microbial synergy">Microbial synergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbiota" title="Microbiota">microbiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holobiont" title="Holobiont">holobiont</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_microbe_interactions_in_Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Host microbe interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans">Host microbe interactions in <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_microbiome" title="Plant microbiome">Plant microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_microbiome" title="Root microbiome">Root microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrass microbiome">Seagrass microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermosphere" title="Spermosphere">Spermosphere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_microorganism" title="Antarctic microorganism">Antarctic microorganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_microbiome" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral microbiome">Coral microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microbial_symbiosis" title="Marine microbial symbiosis">Marine microbial symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oxidation_of_sulfur" title="Microbial oxidation of sulfur">Microbial oxidation of sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycosphere" title="Phycosphere">Phycosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Census_of_Marine_Microbes" title="International Census of Marine Microbes">International Census of Marine Microbes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Human related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_interactions_with_microbes" title="Human interactions with microbes">Microbes in human culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiomes_of_the_built_environment" title="Microbiomes of the built environment">Microbiomes of the built environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_oil" title="Microbial oil">Microbial oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbial symbiosis and immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria" title="Nylon-eating bacteria">Nylon-eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthma-related_microbes" title="Asthma-related microbes">asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbiosis" title="Dysbiosis">dysbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_microbiota_transplant" title="Fecal microbiota transplant">fecal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_microbiota" title="Gut microbiota">gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_microbiology" title="Oral microbiology">mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">vagina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora_in_pregnancy" title="Vaginal flora in pregnancy">in pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_microbiome" title="Placental microbiome">placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_microbiome" title="Uterine microbiome">uterus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_production" title="Protein production">Protein production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_microbial_consortia" title="Synthetic microbial consortia">Synthetic microbial consortia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark-field_microscopy" title="Dark-field microscopy">Dark-field microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impedance_microbiology" title="Impedance microbiology">Impedance microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cytology" title="Microbial cytology">Microbial cytology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_DNA_barcoding" title="Microbial DNA barcoding">Microbial DNA barcoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">Staining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_dark_matter" title="Microbial dark matter">Microbial dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microswimmer" title="Microswimmer">Microswimmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biohybrid_microswimmer" title="Biohybrid microswimmer">biohybrid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lines_on_the_Antiquity_of_Microbes" title="Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes">Lines on the Antiquity of Microbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbially_induced_sedimentary_structure" title="Microbially induced sedimentary structure">Microbially induced sedimentary structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_factors_affecting_microbial_life" title="Physical factors affecting microbial life">Physical factors affecting microbial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderophore" title="Siderophore">Siderophore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Microorganisms" title="Category:Microorganisms">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of 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