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id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice" class="mw-body-content"></div> <div class="mw-indicators mw-body-content"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Vichy France</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav"></div> <a class="mw-jump-link" href="#mw-head">Jump to navigation</a> <a class="mw-jump-link" href="#p-search">Jump to search</a> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Vichy (disambiguation)">Vichy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><span style="font-size: small;"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Vichy_France&params=46_10_N_3_24_E_type:country_source:kolossus-ptwiki"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">46°10′N</span> <span class="longitude">3°24′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">46.167°N 3.400°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">46.167; 3.400</span></span></span></a></span></span></span> </p> <table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width:22em;font-size:88%;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="adr" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;padding:0.25em 0.33em 0.33em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:1.25em;"><div style="display:inline" class="fn org country-name">French State</div><br/><div style="padding-top:0.25em; font-weight:normal;"><i>État Français</i></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center">1940–1944<sup id="cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;text-align:center;padding:0.5em 0;"><div style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; width:58%; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_France_(1794%E2%80%931815,_1830%E2%80%931958).svg" class="image" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a></div> <div style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg" class="image" title="Emblem of France"><img alt="{{{coat_alt}}}" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg/85px-Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="106" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg/128px-Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg/170px-Le_cartouche_de_l%27%C3%89tat_Fran%C3%A7ais.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="575"/></a></div> <div style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_emblem_of_France" title="National emblem of France"> Emblem</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><div style="line-height:1.2em;"><b>Motto: </b>"<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travail,_Famille,_Patrie" class="mw-redirect" title="Travail, Famille, Patrie">Travail, Famille, Patrie</a>"<br/><small>"Work, Family, Fatherland"</small></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="anthem" style="text-align:center"><div style="line-height:1.2em;"><b>Anthem: </b><i lang="fr" title="French language text">"<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a>"</i> <small>(official)</small><br/><center><div class="mediaContainer" style="width:220px"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" style="width:220px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="156.36897959184" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="La_Marseillaise_(1907).oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/64/La_Marseillaise_%281907%29.oga/La_Marseillaise_%281907%29.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-title="MP3" data-shorttitle="MP3" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" data-bandwidth="164832"/><source src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/La_Marseillaise_%281907%29.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-title="Original Ogg file (241 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="0" data-height="0" data-bandwidth="241052"/></audio></div></center><br/>"<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chal,_nous_voil%C3%A0_!" title="Maréchal, nous voilà !">Maréchal, nous voilà!</a>" <sup id="cite_ref-NDompnier_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NDompnier-2">[2]</a></sup><br/><i>Marshal, here we are!</i><span class="nowrap">  </span><small>(unofficial)</small></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_State_1942.svg" class="image" title="The French State in 1942: * French State * French State, German military occupation zone * French protectorates"><img alt="The French State in 1942: * French State * French State, German military occupation zone * French protectorates" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/250px-French_State_1942.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/375px-French_State_1942.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/French_State_1942.svg/500px-French_State_1942.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="456"/></a><div style="position:relative;top:0.3em;">The French State in 1942: <div class="plainlist" style="padding-left: 0.6em; text-align: left;"> <ul><li><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #336733; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> French State</div></li> <li><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #77c977; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> French State, German military occupation zone</div></li> <li><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #48a448; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> French protectorates</div></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" class="image" title="The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allied powers. Legend."><img alt="The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allies. Click on map for colour legend" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/250px-Vichy_france_map.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="110" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/375px-Vichy_france_map.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Vichy_france_map.png/500px-Vichy_france_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625"/></a><div style="position:relative;top:0.3em;">The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> and the Allied powers. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vichy_france_map.png" title="File:Vichy france map.png">Legend.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Status</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">Client state</a> of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> <small>(1940–42)</small><br/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet government">Puppet government</a> of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> <small>(1942–44)</small><br/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government-in-exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government-in-exile">Government-in-exile</a> <small>(1944–45)</small></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Capital</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a> <small>(<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i>)</small><br/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a><sup>a</sup> <small>(<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row">Capital-in-exile</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen" title="Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Common languages</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Government</a></th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarian state</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_French_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief of the French State">Chief of State</a></th><td> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1940–1944 </div></th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France" title="Prime Minister of France">Prime Minister</a></th><td> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1940–1942 </div></th><td>Philippe Pétain</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1942–1944 </div></th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Legislature</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of France">National Assembly</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Historical era</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Compi%C3%A8gne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Compiègne">Second Compiègne</a> </div></th><td>22 June 1940</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Pétain</a> given <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">full powers</a> </div></th><td>10 July 1940</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation <i>Torch</i></a> </div></th><td>8 November 1942</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a></i> </div></th><td>11 November 1942</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of France">German retreat</a> </div></th><td>Summer 1944</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td>1944<sup id="cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1">[1]</a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Capture of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a> </div></th><td>22 April 1945</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Currency</th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">French franc</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-2:FR" title="ISO 3166-2:FR">FR</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> <table style="width:95%; background: transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; background: transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; background:transparent; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="thumbborder" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_France_%281794%E2%80%931815%2C_1830%E2%80%931958%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><div style="text-align:left;margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><ol style="list-style-type: lower-alpha; margin-left: 1em;"> <li value="1">Paris remained the formal capital of the French State, although the Vichy government never operated from there.</li><li value="2">Although the French Republic's institutions were officially maintained, the word "Republic" never occurred in any official document of the Vichy government.</li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="vertical-navbox vcard plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><div style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:65%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_France" title="Category:History of France"><b>a series</b></a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="vcard navbox-title" style="background: none; font-size: 145%;padding: 0.15em 0.1em;line-height: 1.2em;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History of <span class="fn org label">France</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding: 0.2em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg/50px-Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="61" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg/75px-Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg/100px-Insigne_modernum_Francum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="364"/></a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg/50px-Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="61" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg/75px-Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg/100px-Insigne_Francum_Napoleonis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="364"/></a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insigne_Francum.svg" class="image" title="National Emblem"><img alt="National Emblem" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Insigne_Francum.svg/50px-Insigne_Francum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="61" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Insigne_Francum.svg/75px-Insigne_Francum.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Insigne_Francum.svg/100px-Insigne_Francum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="364"/></a></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Palaeolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Palaeolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Mesolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Mesolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Neolithic" title="Prehistory of France">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Copper_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Bronze_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France#The_Iron_Age" title="Prehistory of France">Iron Age</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France#Ancient_history" title="History of France">Ancient</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greek colonies</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 600 BC – 49 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">   until 50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 50 BC – 486 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Early Middle Ages</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">Direct Capetians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 987–1328</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois_(direct)" title="House of Valois">Valois</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1328–1498</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <ul><li><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></li></ul> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans" title="House of Valois">Valois-Orléans kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1498–1515</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Valois#Valois-Orléans-Angoulême" title="House of Valois">Valois-Angoulême kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1515–1589</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon kings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1589–1792</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long 19th century</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–1799</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Kingdom of France</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1791–92</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1792–1804</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1804–1814</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration" title="Bourbon Restoration">Restoration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1814–1830</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–1848</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1848–1852</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1852–1870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;background: #eee"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_twentieth_century" title="France in the twentieth century">20th century</a></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1870–1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <div class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vichy France</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940–1944</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1944–1946</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1946–1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1958–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="image"><img alt="Flag of France.svg" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/16px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/24px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_France" title="Template:History of France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_France" title="Template talk:History of France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:History_of_France&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Vichy France</b> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Régime de Vichy</i>) is the common name of the <b>French State</b> (<i>État français</i>) headed by Marshal <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> during <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Evacuated from <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a> in the unoccupied "Free Zone" (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i>) in the southern part of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a> which included <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a>, it remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>. </p><p>From 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of all of France except for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>, the Germans and Italians militarily <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">occupied northern</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France" title="Italian occupation of France">south-eastern France</a>. While Paris remained the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> capital of France, the government chose to relocate to the town of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a>, 360 km (220 mi) to the south in the <i>zone libre</i>, which thus became the <i>de facto</i> capital of the French State. Following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_landings_in_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied landings in North Africa">Allied landings in French North Africa</a> in November 1942, southern France was also militarily occupied by Germany and Italy to protect the Mediterranean coastline. Petain's government remained in Vichy as the nominal government of France, albeit one that was obliged by circumstances to collaborate with Germany from November 1942 onwards. The government at Vichy remained there until late 1944, when it lost its de facto authority due to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied invasion</a> of France and the government was compelled to relocate to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave#Modern_times#Vichy_French_enclave_(1944–1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a> in Germany, where it continued to exist on paper until the end of hostilities in Europe. </p><p>After being appointed Premier by President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lebrun" title="Albert Lebrun">Albert Lebrun</a>, Marshal Pétain's cabinet agreed to end the war and signed an <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Armistice at Compiègne">Armistice with Germany</a> on 22 June 1940. On 10 July, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> was effectively dissolved as Pétain was granted <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Constitutional_Law_of_1940" title="French Constitutional Law of 1940">full powers</a> by the National Assembly. At Vichy, Pétain established an authoritarian government that reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, calling for "National Regeneration", with central planning a key feature. Labour unions came under tight government control. Conservative Catholics became prominent and clerical input in schools resumed. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitism</a>, and, after <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">June 1941</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Bolshevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bolshevism">anti-Bolshevism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-3">[3]</a></sup> </p><p>The French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective full sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_libre" title="Zone libre">zone libre</a></i> ("free zone"). It had limited and only civil authority in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">northern zones</a> under <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">military occupation</a>. The occupation was to be a provisional state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war, which at the time (1940) appeared imminent. The occupation also presented certain advantages, such as keeping the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> under French control, and avoiding full occupation of the country by Germany, thus maintaining a degree of French independence and neutrality. Despite heavy pressure, the French government at Vichy never joined the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> alliance, and even remained formally at war with Germany. </p><p>Germany kept <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">two million French soldiers prisoner</a>, carrying out <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">forced labour</a>. They were hostages to ensure that Vichy would reduce its military forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food, and supplies to Germany. French police were ordered to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">round up Jews</a> and other "undesirables" such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communists</a> and political refugees. Much of the French public initially supported the government, despite its undemocratic nature and its difficult position vis-à-vis the Germans, often seeing it as necessary to maintain a degree of French autonomy and territorial integrity. In November 1942, however, the <i>zone libre</i> was <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">also occupied by Axis forces</a>, leading to the disbandment of the remaining army and the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">sinking of France's remaining fleet</a> and ending any semblance of independence, with Germany now closely supervising all French officials. </p><p>Most of the overseas French colonies were originally under Vichy control, though a few rallied to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s Allied-oriented <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a>. Following the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942, Vichy progressively lost control of the colonies to Free France. Public opinion gradually turned against the French government and the occupying German forces over time, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, and living conditions in France became increasingly difficult. A <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">resistance movement</a>, working largely in concert with de Gaulle's movement outside the country, increased in strength over the course of the occupation. Following the Allied <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" title="Invasion of Normandy">invasion of Normandy</a> in June 1944 and the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of France">liberation of France</a> later that year, the Free French <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_government_of_the_French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Provisional government of the French Republic">Provisional government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF) was installed by the Allies as the new national government, led by de Gaulle. Under a "national unanimity" cabinet uniting the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_networks_and_movements_of_the_French_Resistance" title="List of networks and movements of the French Resistance">many factions</a> of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>, the GPRF re-established a provisional French Republic, thus apparently restoring continuity with the Third Republic. Most of the legal French government's leaders at Vichy fled or were subject to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trials</a> by the GPRF, and a number were quickly executed for "treason" in a series of purges (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a></i>). Thousands of collaborators were <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summarily executed</a> by local communists and the Resistance in so-called "savage purges" (<i>épuration sauvage</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The last of the French state exiles were captured in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave#Modern_times#Vichy_French_enclave_(1944–1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a> by de Gaulle's <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_1st_Armoured_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="French 1st Armoured Division">French 1st Armoured Division</a> in April 1945. Pétain, who had voluntarily made his way back to France via Switzerland, was also put on trial for treason by the new Provisional government, and received a death sentence, but this was commuted to life imprisonment by de Gaulle. Only four senior Vichy officials were tried for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, although many more had participated in the deportation of Jews for internment in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>, abuses of prisoners, and severe acts against members of the Resistance. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"/><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Terminology"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Terminology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Jurisdiction"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Jurisdiction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Legitimacy"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Legitimacy</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Ideology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Ideology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Fall_of_France_and_establishment_of_the_Vichy_government"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Conditions_of_armistice_and_10_July_1940_vote_of_full_powers"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Prisoners"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Prisoners</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Army_of_the_Armistice"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Army of the Armistice</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#German_custody"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">German custody</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Vichy_government"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Vichy government</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Foreign_relations"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Foreign relations</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#French_Indochina,_Japan_and_Franco-Thai_War"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">French Indochina, Japan and Franco-Thai War</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Colonial_struggle_with_Free_France"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Colonial struggle with Free France</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#India_and_Oceania"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">India and Oceania</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Americas"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Americas</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Equatorial_and_West_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Equatorial and West Africa</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#French_Somaliland"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">French Somaliland</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Syria_and_Madagascar"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Syria and Madagascar</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#French_North_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">French North Africa</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Collaboration_with_Germany"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Collaboration with Germany</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Racial_policies_and_collaboration"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Racial policies and collaboration</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Eugenics_policies"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Eugenics policies</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Statute_on_Jews"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Statute on Jews</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#July_1942_Vel'_d'Hiv_Roundup"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#August_1942_and_January_1943_raids"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">August 1942 and January 1943 raids</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Jewish_death_toll"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Jewish death toll</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Government_responsibility"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Government responsibility</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Military"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Military</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Collaborationnistes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext"><i>Collaborationnistes</i></span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Social_and_economic_history"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Social and economic history</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Economy"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Economy</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Forced_labour"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Forced labour</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Food_shortages"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Food shortages</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Women"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Women</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#German_invasion,_November_1942"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">German invasion, November 1942</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Decline_of_the_regime"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Decline of the regime</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Independence_of_the_SOL"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Independence of the SOL</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Sigmaringen_commission"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sigmaringen commission</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Provisional_government"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Provisional government</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Purges"><span class="tocnumber">10.4</span> <span class="toctext">Purges</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#1980s_trials"><span class="tocnumber">10.5</span> <span class="toctext">1980s trials</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Historiographical_debates_and_"Vichy_Syndrome""><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Historiographical debates and "Vichy Syndrome"</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#"Sword_and_shield"_argument"><span class="tocnumber">11.1</span> <span class="toctext">"Sword and shield" argument</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Purification"><span class="tocnumber">11.2</span> <span class="toctext">Purification</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Foreign_Jews"><span class="tocnumber">11.3</span> <span class="toctext">Foreign Jews</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="#Notable_figures"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Notable figures</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="#Non-Vichy_collaborationists"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Non-Vichy collaborationists</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-49"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#English"><span class="tocnumber">17.1</span> <span class="toctext">English</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><a href="#Historiography"><span class="tocnumber">17.2</span> <span class="toctext">Historiography</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-55"><a href="#French"><span class="tocnumber">17.3</span> <span class="toctext">French</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#German"><span class="tocnumber">17.4</span> <span class="toctext">German</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><a href="#Films"><span class="tocnumber">17.5</span> <span class="toctext">Films</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Events preceding World War II in Europe</a>, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes of World War II</a></div> <table class="box-Refimprove_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399"/></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br/><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vichy+France%22">"Vichy France"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vichy+France%22+site:news.google.com/newspapers&source=newspapers">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vichy+France%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vichy+France%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2013</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">battle of Verdun</a>. As the last <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France#history" title="Prime Minister of France">premier</a> of the Third Republic, being a reactionary by inclination, he blamed the Third Republic's democracy for France's sudden defeat by Germany. He set up a paternalistic, authoritarian regime that actively collaborated with Germany, Vichy's official neutrality notwithstanding. The Vichy government cooperated with <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">the Nazis' racial policies</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Terminology">Terminology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/220px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/330px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg/440px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="1894"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>France under German occupation (Nazis occupied the southern zone starting in November 1942—Operation <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>). The yellow zone was under <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Fascism" title="Italian Fascism">Italian</a> administration.</div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain,_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/220px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/330px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg/440px-Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain%2C_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Philippe_P%C3%A9tain,_Chief_of_State_of_Vichy_France.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Chief of State</a> of Vichy France <i>(Chef de l'État Français)</i></div></div></div> <p>After the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_National_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="French National Assembly">National Assembly</a> under the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a> voted to give full powers to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> on 10 July 1940, the name <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="République française">République Française</a></i> (French Republic) disappeared from all official documents. From that point on, the regime was referred to officially as the <i>État Français</i> (French State). Because of its unique situation in the history of France, its contested legitimacy,<sup id="cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1">[1]</a></sup> and the generic nature of its official name, the "French State" is most often represented in English by the synonyms "Vichy France", "Vichy regime", "government of Vichy", or in context, simply "Vichy". </p><p>The territory under the control of the Vichy government was the unoccupied, southern portion of France south of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_Demarcation_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Line of Demarcation (France)">Line of Demarcation</a>, as established by the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">Armistice of 22 June 1940</a>, and the overseas French territories, such as French North Africa, which was "an integral part of Vichy", and where all antisemitic Vichy's laws were also implemented. This was called the <i>Unbesetztes Gebiet</i> (Unoccupied zone) by the Germans, and known as the <i>Zone libre</i> (Free Zone) in France, or less formally as the "southern zone" (<i>zone du sud</i>) especially after <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Anton" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Anton">Operation Anton</a>, the invasion of the <i>Zone libre</i> by German forces in November 1942. Other <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_libre#Other_names" title="Zone libre">contemporary colloquial terms</a> for the <i>Zone libre</i> were based on abbreviation and wordplay, such as the "zone nono", for the non-occupied Zone.<sup id="cite_ref-Levieux_1999_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levieux_1999-4">[4]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In theory, the civil jurisdiction of the Vichy government extended over most of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a>, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">French protectorate in Morocco</a>, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French protectorate of Tunisia</a>, and the rest of the French colonial empire that accepted the authority of Vichy; only the disputed border territory of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> was placed under direct German administration.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Alsace-Lorraine was officially still part of France, as the <i>Reich</i> never annexed the region. The Reich government at the time was not interested in attempting to enforce piecemeal annexations in the West (although it later did annex Luxembourg) – it operated under the assumption that Germany's new western border would be determined in peace negotiations that would be attended by all of the Western Allies, thus producing a frontier that would be recognised by all of the major powers. Since Adolf Hitler's overall territorial ambitions were not limited to recovering Alsace-Lorraine, and since Britain was never brought to terms, these peace negotiations never took place. </p><p>The Nazis had some intention of annexing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_interdite#Zone_of_intended_German_settlement" title="Zone interdite">a large swath of northeastern France</a> and replacing that region's inhabitants with German settlers, and initially forbade French refugees from returning to this region. These restrictions, which were never thoroughly enforced, were basically abandoned following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invasion of the Soviet Union</a>, which had the effect of turning the Nazis' territorial ambitions almost exclusively to the East. German troops guarding the boundary line of the northeastern <i>Zone interdite</i> were withdrawn on the night of 17–18 December 1941 although the line remained in place on paper for the remainder of the occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-kroener160162_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kroener160162-6">[6]</a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, effectively Alsace-Lorraine was annexed: German law applied to the region, its inhabitants were conscripted into the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and pointedly the customs posts separating France from Germany were placed back where they had been between 1871–1918. Similarly, a sliver of French territory in the Alps was under direct Italian administration from June 1940 to September 1943. Throughout the rest of the country, civil servants were under the formal authority of French ministers in Vichy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, the head of French police nominated by Vichy, exercised his power in Paris through his second-in-command, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>, who coordinated raids with the Nazis. German laws, however, took precedence over French ones in the occupied territories, and the Germans often rode roughshod over the sensibilities of Vichy administrators. </p><p>On 11 November 1942, following the landing of the Allies in North Africa (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>), the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> launched <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Operation Anton</a>, occupying southern France and disbanding the strictly limited "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France#Army_of_the_Armistice" title="Vichy France">Armistice Army</a>" that Vichy had been allowed by the armistice. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Legitimacy">Legitimacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Legitimacy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Vichy's claim to be the legitimate French government was denied by Free France and by all subsequent French governments<sup id="cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1">[1]</a></sup> after the war. They maintain that Vichy was an illegal government run by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">traitors</a>, having come to power through an unconstitutional <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>. Pétain was constitutionally appointed the Premier by President Lebrun on 16 June 1940, and he was legally within his rights to sign the armistice with Germany; however, his decision to ask the National Assembly to dissolve itself while granting him dictatorial powers has been more controversial. Historians have particularly debated the circumstances of the vote by the National Assembly of the Third Republic, granting full powers to Pétain on 10 July 1940. The main arguments advanced against Vichy's right to incarnate the continuity of the French state were based on the pressure exerted by Pierre Laval, former Premier in the Third Republic, on the deputies in Vichy, and on the absence of 27 deputies and senators who had fled on the ship <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80"><i>Massilia</i></a>, and thus could not take part in the vote. The legitimacy of the Vichy government was recognised by the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and other nations, which extended <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France" title="Foreign relations of Vichy France">diplomatic recognition</a> to Petain's government. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ideology">Ideology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ideology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The Vichy regime sought an anti-modern <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolution">counter-revolution</a>. The traditionalist right in France, with strength in the aristocracy and among Catholics, had never accepted the republican traditions of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. It demanded a return to traditional lines of culture and religion and embraced <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>, while dismissing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The Communist element, strongest in labour unions, turned against Vichy in June 1941, when <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Germany invaded the Soviet Union</a>. Vichy was intensely anti-Communist and generally pro-German; American historian <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Stanley G. Payne</a> found that it was "distinctly <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rightist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rightist">rightist</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> but never <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Political scientist <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a> analysed the entire range of Vichy supporters, from reactionaries to moderate liberal modernizers, and concluded that genuine fascist elements had but minor roles in most sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg/220px-Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg/330px-Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg/440px-Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2143" data-file-height="3103"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imagerie_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_nationale.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Propaganda poster for the Vichy Regime's <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a></i> program, 1942</div></div></div> <p><br/> The Vichy government tried to assert its legitimacy by symbolically connecting itself with the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman">Gallo-Roman</a> period of France's history, and celebrated the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaulish</a> chieftain <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a> as the "founder" of the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-10">[10]</a></sup> It was asserted that just as the defeat of the Gauls in the 52 BC <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a> had been the moment in French history when a sense of common nationhood was born, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">defeat of 1940</a> would again unify the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-10">[10]</a></sup> The Vichy government's "Francisque" insignia featured two symbols from the Gallic period: the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baton_(symbol)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton (symbol)">baton</a> and the double-headed hatchet (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys" title="Labrys">labrys</a>) arranged so as to resemble the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a>, symbol of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">Italian Fascists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-karlsgodt-10">[10]</a></sup> </p><p>To advance his message, Marshal Pétain frequently spoke on <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Paris" title="Radio Paris">French radio</a>. In his radio speeches, Pétain always used the personal pronoun <i>je</i>, portrayed himself as a Christ-like figure sacrificing himself for France while also assuming a God-like tone of a semi-omniscient narrator who knew truths about the world that the rest of the French did not.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> To justify the Vichy ideology of the <i>Révolution nationale</i> ("national revolution"), Pétain needed a radical break with the Republic, and during his radio speeches the entire <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> era was always painted in the blackest of colours, a time of <i>la décadence</i> ("decadence") when the French people were alleged to have suffered moral degeneration and decline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200096–98_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200096–98-12">[12]</a></sup> </p><p>Summarising Pétain's speeches, the British historian Christopher Flood wrote that Pétain blamed <i>la décadence</i> on "political and economic liberalism, with its divisive, individualistic and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonistic">hedonistic</a> values—locked in sterile rivalry with its antithetical outgrowths, Socialism and Communism...".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099-13">[13]</a></sup> Pétain argued that rescuing the French people from <i>la décadence</i> required a period of authoritarian government which would restore national unity and the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">traditionalist</a> morality which Pétain claimed the French had forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099-13">[13]</a></sup> Despite his highly negative view of the Third Republic, Pétain argued that <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_profonde" title="France profonde">la France profonde</a></i> ("deep France", denoting profoundly French aspects of French culture) still existed, and that the French people needed to return to what Pétain insisted was their true identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly2000101_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly2000101-14">[14]</a></sup> Alongside this claim for a moral revolution was Pétain's call for France to turn inwards, to withdraw from the world, which Pétain always portrayed as a hostile and threatening place full of endless dangers for the French.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099-13">[13]</a></sup> </p><p>Joan of Arc replaced <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a> as the national symbol of France under Vichy as her status as one of France's best loved heroines gave her widespread appeal while at the same time the image of Joan as devoutly Catholic and patriotic fitted well with Vichy's traditionalist message.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994712-714_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994712-714-15">[15]</a></sup> Though Joan had always been a popular heroine, the way in which she replaced Marianne as a symbol of France was striking: Joan had an entire school textbook, <i>Miracle de Jeanne</i> by René Jeanneret, devoted to her, which was mandatory reading; and the anniversary of her death was made into an occasion for speeches in the schools emphasizing her as a martyr for France - this had no precedent in post-1789 French history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-16">[16]</a></sup> Vichy ideology broadly divided women into two categories, "the virgin and the whore," with Joan portrayed as the ideal virgin and Marianne as the archetypal whore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-17">[17]</a></sup> In contrast to the secular educational system under the Third Republic, Catholic teachings were reintroduced into the educational system, and the voices that Joan heard in her head that she believed were angels telling to her save France were presented in the school textbooks as indeed the voices of angels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717-18">[18]</a></sup> The <i>Miracle de Jeanne</i> declared "the Voices did speak!" (republican school texts had strongly implied Joan was just mentally ill).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717-18">[18]</a></sup> To accommodate a traditionalist message for school girls with the fact that Joan was a soldier, Vichy school books presented her as a "meek and frail" girl only able to achieve her feats on the battlefield due to divine intervention via the voices in her head, turning her into God's instrument of vengeance against England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724-19">[19]</a></sup> Since Joan's path was presumably not the one that God had chosen for most Frenchwomen, it was Joan before she started hearing voices in her head that Frenchwomen were to emulate, namely a girl who was portrayed as extremely submissive and docile towards men and authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724-19">[19]</a></sup> The fact that Joan had suffered and died for France was used to reinforce the message to students that France would have to suffer considerably to purge itself of <i>la décadence</i>, as the process of suffering had just begun in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-718_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-718-20">[20]</a></sup> One Vichy newspaper stated: "Joan of Arc reminds us how much we must sacrifice and suffer because, today like then, our country has slipped along the paths of divisiveness and selfishness. Enthusiasm and faith remain the necessary virtues from which will emerge our moral and social rebirth. French youth will hear sacred voices. If it were not to, the nation's last chance at salvation would be lost forever."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994718_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994718-21">[21]</a></sup> </p><p>That Joan was illiterate led her to be presented as a role model for French girls whom Vichy's ideologues insisted needed only the minimum of education with the Vichy "court writer" <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Benjamin" title="René Benjamin">René Benjamin</a> saying in a speech that women with higher education always turned into prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-22">[22]</a></sup> Another textbook for girls stated that Joan should be their model and then asked what was intended as a <i>num</i> question: "Can a true woman be a pure intellectual?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-22">[22]</a></sup> To underline this point, one Vichy school textbook insisted that Joan was to be their role model while at the same time concluding that they should not follow her example literally, saying: "Some of the most notable heroes in our history have been women. But nevertheless, girls should preferably exercise the virtues of patience, persistence and resignation. They are destined to tend to the running of the household...It is in love that our future mothers will find the strength to practise those virtues which best befit their sex and their condition.""<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994725_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994725-23">[23]</a></sup> In this regard, the Joan of Vichy was never depicted as fighting, and instead played the role of a surrogate mother to the men under her, with textbooks insisting she loved to cook, wash their clothing and make their beds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-725_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-725-24">[24]</a></sup> One speaker at the Vichy school for training the future elite at Uriage, Anne-Marie Hussenot, stated: "a woman should remember that, in the case of Joan of Arc, or other illustrious women throughout the exceptional mission that was confided to them, they first of all performed humbly and simply their woman's role".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994724_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994724-25">[25]</a></sup> The fact that the Red Army had women fighting in its ranks was presented in Vichy propaganda with horror as an example of women "annihilating" their sex by performing a masculine role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-17">[17]</a></sup> Finally, the fact that Joan had fought against England, depicted as an aggressive and greedy nation draining France out of its wealth, was presented as a part of a continuous struggle continuing to the present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719-26">[26]</a></sup> The cruelty of the English in torturing and executing Joan was played up in school books as showing the contrast between English evil vs. French good.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719-26">[26]</a></sup> </p><p>The key component of Vichy's ideology was <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglophobia" title="Anglophobia">Anglophobia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> In part, Vichy's virulent Anglophobia was due to its leaders' personal dislike of the British, as Marshal Pétain, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> and Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> were all Anglophobes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-70_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-70-28">[28]</a></sup> As early as February 1936, Pétain had told the Italian Ambassador to France that "England has always been France's most implacable enemy"; he went on to say that France had "two hereditary enemies", namely Germany and Britain, with the latter being easily the more dangerous of the two; and he wanted a Franco-German-Italian alliance that would partition the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, an event that Pétain claimed would solve all of the economic problems caused by the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-29">[29]</a></sup> Beyond that, in order to justify both the armistice with Germany and the <i>Révolution nationale</i>, Vichy needed to portray the French declaration of war on Germany as a hideous mistake, and the French society under the Third Republic as degenerate and rotten.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070-30">[30]</a></sup> The <i>Révolution nationale</i> together with Pétain's policy of <i>la France seule</i> ("France alone") were meant to "regenerate" France from <i>la décadence</i> that was said to have destroyed French society and brought about the defeat of 1940. Such a harsh critique of French society could only generate so much support, and as such Vichy blamed French problems on various "enemies" of France, the chief of which was Britain, the "eternal enemy" that had supposedly conspired via <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">Masonic lodges</a> first to weaken France and then to pressure France into declaring war on Germany in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070-30">[30]</a></sup> </p><p>No other nation was attacked as frequently and violently as Britain was in Vichy propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200071-76_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200071-76-31">[31]</a></sup> In Pétain's radio speeches, Britain was always portrayed as the "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a>", a nation that was the complete antithesis of everything good in France, the blood-soaked "perfidious <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion" title="Albion">Albion</a>" and the relentless "eternal enemy" of France whose ruthlessness knew no bounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097-32">[32]</a></sup> Joan of Arc who had fought against England was made into the symbol of France in part for that reason.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097-32">[32]</a></sup> The chief themes of Vichy Anglophobia were British "selfishness" in using and abandoning France after instigating wars, British "treachery" and British plans to take over <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-33">[33]</a></sup> The three examples that were used to illustrate these themes were the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a> in May 1940, the Royal Navy <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir" title="Attack on Mers-el-Kébir">attack at Mers-el-Kébir</a> on the French Mediterranean fleet that killed over 1,300 French sailors in July 1940, and the failed <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dakar" title="Battle of Dakar">Anglo-Free French attempt to seize Dakar</a> in September 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-73_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-73-34">[34]</a></sup> Typical of Vichy anti-British propaganda was the widely distributed pamphlet published in August 1940 and written by self-proclaimed "professional Anglophobe" <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_B%C3%A9raud" title="Henri Béraud">Henri Béraud</a> titled <i>Faut-il réduire l'Angleterre en esclavage?</i> ("Should England Be Reduced to Slavery?"); the question in the title was merely rhetorical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-35">[35]</a></sup> Additionally, Vichy mixed Anglophobia with racism and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> to portray the British as a racially degenerate "mixed race" working for Jewish capitalists, in contrast to the "racially pure" peoples on the continent of Europe who were building a "New Order".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-76_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-76-36">[36]</a></sup> In an interview conducted by Béraud with Admiral Darlan published in <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gringoire_(newspaper)" title="Gringoire (newspaper)">Gringoire</a></i> newspaper in 1941, Darlan was quoted as saying that if the "New Order" failed in Europe it would mean "...here in France, the return to power of the Jews and Freemasons subservient to Anglo-Saxon policy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200076_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200076-37">[37]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Fall_of_France_and_establishment_of_the_Vichy_government">Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fall of France and establishment of the Vichy government">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404,_Frankreich,_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404%2C_Frankreich%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="553"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0404,_Frankreich,_Franz%C3%B6sische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">French prisoners of war</a> are marched off under German guard, 1940</div></div></div> <p>France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Poland">German invasion of Poland</a> on 1 September. After the eight-month <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a>, the Germans launched their <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">offensive in the west</a> on 10 May 1940. Within days, it became clear that French military forces were overwhelmed and that military collapse was imminent.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> Government and military leaders, deeply shocked by the débâcle, debated how to proceed. Many officials, including Prime Minister <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Paul Reynaud</a>, wanted to move the government to French territories in North Africa, and continue the war with the French Navy and colonial resources. Others, particularly the Vice-Premier Philippe Pétain and the Commander-in-Chief, General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, insisted that the responsibility of the government was to remain in France and share the misfortune of its people. The latter view called for an immediate cessation of hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>121–126</span></sup> </p><p>While this debate continued, the government was forced to relocate several times, to avoid capture by advancing German forces, finally reaching Bordeaux. Communications were poor and thousands of civilian refugees clogged the roads. In these chaotic conditions, advocates of an armistice gained the upper hand. The Cabinet agreed on a proposal to seek armistice terms from Germany, with the understanding that, should Germany set forth dishonourable or excessively harsh terms, France would retain the option to continue to fight. General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Huntziger" title="Charles Huntziger">Charles Huntziger</a>, who headed the French armistice delegation, was told to break off negotiations if the Germans demanded the occupation of all metropolitan France, the French fleet, or any of the French overseas territories. The Germans did not.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217,_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217%2C_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="530"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217,_Henry_Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> meeting Hitler in October 1940</div></div></div> <p>Prime Minister <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Paul Reynaud</a> favoured continuing the war; however, he was soon outvoted by those who advocated an armistice. Facing an untenable situation, Reynaud resigned and, on his recommendation, President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Lebrun" title="Albert Lebrun">Albert Lebrun</a> appointed the 84-year-old Pétain as his replacement on 16 June 1940. The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_France_(Second_Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)">Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)</a> agreement was signed on 22 June 1940. A separate French agreement was reached with Italy, which had entered the war against France on 10 June, well after the outcome of the battle had been decided. </p><p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> had a number of reasons for agreeing to an armistice. He wanted to ensure that France did not continue to fight from North Africa, and he wanted to ensure that the French Navy was taken out of the war. In addition, leaving a French government in place would relieve Germany of the considerable burden of administering French territory, particularly as Hitler turned his attention toward Britain – which did not surrender and fought on against Germany. Finally, as Germany lacked a navy sufficient to occupy France's overseas territories, Hitler's only practical recourse to deny the British the use of those territories was to maintain France's status as a <i>de jure</i> independent and neutral nation while also sending a message to Britain that they were alone, with France appearing to switch sides and the United States remaining neutral. However, Nazi espionage against France after its defeat intensified greatly, particularly in southern France.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Conditions_of_armistice_and_10_July_1940_vote_of_full_powers">Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_France_(Second_Compi%C3%A8gne)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)">Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)</a></div> <p>The armistice divided France into occupied and unoccupied zones: northern and western France, including the entire Atlantic coast, was occupied by Germany, and the remaining two-fifths of the country was under the control of the French government with the capital at Vichy under Pétain. Ostensibly, the French government administered the entire territory. </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Prisoners">Prisoners</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Prisoners">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="French prisoners of war in World War II">French prisoners of war in World War II</a></div> <p>Germany took two million French soldiers as prisoners of war and sent them to camps in Germany. About one-third had been released on various terms by 1944. Of the remainder, the officers and NCOs (corporals and sergeants) were kept in camps but were exempt from forced labour. The privates were first sent to "Stalag" camps for processing and were then put out to work. About half of them worked in German agriculture, where food rations were adequate and controls were lenient. The others worked in factories or mines, where conditions were much harsher.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Army_of_the_Armistice">Army of the Armistice</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Army of the Armistice">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_French_Air_Force" title="Vichy French Air Force">Vichy French Air Force</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417,_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417%2C_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="795"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0417,_Franz%C3%B6sischer_Kriegsgefangener_mit_Wachtposten.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>French colonial prisoner in German captivity, 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2015)">not in citation given</span></a></i>]</sup></div></div></div> <p>The Germans occupied northern France directly. The French had to pay costs for the 300,000-strong German occupation army, amounting to 20 million <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsmark" title="Reichsmark">Reichsmarks</a> per day, paid at the artificial rate of twenty Francs to the Reichsmark. This was 50 times the actual costs of the occupation garrison. The French government also had responsibility for preventing French citizens from escaping into exile. </p><p>Article IV of the Armistice allowed for a small <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of France">French army</a>—the Army of the Armistice (<i>Armée de l'Armistice</i>)—stationed in the unoccupied zone, and for the military provision of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> overseas. The function of these forces was to keep internal order and to defend French territories from <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> assault. The French forces were to remain under the overall direction of the German armed forces. </p><p>The exact strength of the Vichy French Metropolitan Army was set at 3,768 officers, 15,072 non-commissioned officers, and 75,360 men. All members had to be volunteers. In addition to the army, the size of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a></i> was fixed at 60,000 men plus an anti-aircraft force of 10,000 men. Despite the influx of trained soldiers from the colonial forces (reduced in size in accordance with the Armistice) there was a shortage of volunteers. As a result, 30,000 men of the class of 1939 were retained to fill the quota. At the beginning of 1942 these conscripts were released, but there were still not enough men. This shortage remained until the dissolution, despite Vichy appeals to the Germans for a regular form of conscription. </p><p>The Vichy French Metropolitan Army was deprived of tanks and other armoured vehicles, and was desperately short of motorised transport, a particular problem for cavalry units. Surviving recruiting posters stress the opportunities for athletic activities, including horsemanship, reflecting both the general emphasis placed by the Vichy government on rural virtues and outdoor activities, and the realities of service in a small and technologically backward military force. Traditional features characteristic of the pre-1940 French Army, such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepi" title="Kepi">kepis</a> and heavy capotes (buttoned-back greatcoats) were replaced by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beret" title="Beret">berets</a> and simplified uniforms. </p><p>The Vichy authorities did not deploy the Army of the Armistice against resistance groups active in the south of France, reserving this role to the Vichy <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a></i> (militia), a paramilitary force created on 30 January 1943 by the Vichy government to combat the Resistance;<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup> so that members of the regular army could defect to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a> after the German occupation of southern France and the disbandment of the Army of the Armistice in November 1942. By contrast, the Milice continued to collaborate and its members were subject to reprisals after the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of France">Liberation</a>. </p><p>Vichy French colonial forces were reduced in accordance with the terms of the Armistice; still, in the Mediterranean area alone, Vichy had nearly 150,000 men under arms. There were about 55,000 in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French protectorate of Morocco">French Morocco</a>, 50,000 in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a>, and almost 40,000 in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Levant" title="Army of the Levant">Army of the Levant</a> (<i>Armée du Levant</i>), in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate of Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate of Syria">Syria</a>. Colonial forces were allowed to keep some armoured vehicles, though these were mostly "vintage" World War I tanks (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FT-17" class="mw-redirect" title="FT-17">Renault FT</a>). </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="German_custody">German custody</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: German custody">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The Armistice required France to turn over any German citizens within the country upon German demand. The French regarded this as a "dishonorable" term since it would require France to hand over persons who had entered France seeking refuge from Germany. Attempts to negotiate the point with Germany proved unsuccessful, and the French decided not to press the issue to the point of refusing the Armistice. </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Vichy_government">Vichy government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vichy government">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/220px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/330px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png/440px-Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="533"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_Laval_and_Carl_Oberg_in_Paris.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> with the head of German police units in France, SS-Gruppenführer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Oberg" title="Carl Oberg">Carl Oberg</a></div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laval-shot0038.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/220px-Laval-shot0038.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/330px-Laval-shot0038.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Laval-shot0038.png/440px-Laval-shot0038.png 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="425"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laval-shot0038.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Capra" title="Frank Capra">Frank Capra</a> documentary film <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide_and_Conquer_(newsreel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Divide and Conquer (newsreel)">Divide and Conquer</a></i> (1943)</div></div></div> <p>On 10 July 1940, the Parliament and the government gathered in the quiet <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa_town" title="Spa town">spa town</a> of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy" title="Vichy">Vichy</a>, their provisional capital in central France. (Lyon, France's second-largest city, would have been a more logical choice but <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_(France)" title="Mayor (France)">mayor</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Herriot" title="Édouard Herriot">Édouard Herriot</a> was too associated with the Third Republic. Marseilles had a reputation as the dangerous "Chicago" of France.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (January 2019)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Toulouse was too remote and had a left-wing reputation. Vichy was centrally located and had many hotels for ministers to use.)<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>142</span></sup> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABl_Alibert" title="Raphaël Alibert">Raphaël Alibert</a> began their campaign to convince the assembled Senators and Deputies to vote <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Full powers">full powers</a> to Pétain. They used every means available, promising ministerial posts to some while threatening and intimidating others. They were aided by the absence of popular, charismatic figures who might have opposed them, such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Mandel" title="Georges Mandel">Georges Mandel</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Daladier" title="Édouard Daladier">Édouard Daladier</a>, then aboard the ship <i>Massilia</i> on their way to North Africa and exile. On 10 July the National Assembly, comprising both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, voted by 569 votes to 80, with 20 voluntary <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">abstentions</a>, to grant full and extraordinary powers to Marshal Pétain. By the same vote, they also granted him the power to write a new constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-loi-1940_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loi-1940-45">[45]</a></sup> By Act No. 2 on the following day, Pétain defined his own powers, and abrogated any Third Republic laws that were in conflict with them.<sup id="cite_ref-loi2-1940-07-11_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loi2-1940-07-11-46">[46]</a></sup> (These acts<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> would later be annulled in August 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1">[1]</a></sup>) </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg/220px-1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="347" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg/330px-1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg/440px-1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2082" data-file-height="3285"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1942_Vichy_France_safe-conduct_passport_used_for_Algeria.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1942 Vichy France safe-conduct passport used for Algeria.</div></div></div> <p>Most legislators believed that democracy would continue, albeit with a new constitution. Although <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> said on 6 July that "parliamentary democracy has lost the war; it must disappear, ceding its place to an authoritarian, hierarchical, national and social regime", the majority trusted in Pétain. Léon Blum, who voted no, wrote three months later that Laval's "obvious objective was to cut all the roots that bound France to its republican and revolutionary past. His 'national revolution' was to be a counter-revolution eliminating all the progress and human rights won in the last one hundred and fifty years".<sup id="cite_ref-christofferson2006_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christofferson2006-47">[47]</a></sup> The minority of mostly <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Party_(France)" title="Radical Party (France)">Radicals</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International" title="French Section of the Workers' International">Socialists</a> who opposed Laval became known as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">the Vichy 80</a>. Deputies and senators who voted to grant full powers to Pétain were condemned on an individual basis after the liberation. </p><p>The majority of French historians and all post-war French governments contend that this vote by the National Assembly was illegal. Three main arguments are put forward: </p> <ul><li>Abrogation of legal procedure</li> <li>The impossibility for parliament to delegate its constitutional powers without controlling its use <i>a posteriori</i></li> <li>The 1884 constitutional amendment making it unconstitutional to put into question the "republican form" of the government</li></ul> <p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_T._Jackson" title="Julian T. Jackson">Julian T. Jackson</a> wrote, however, that "There seems little doubt, therefore, that at the beginning Vichy was both legal and legitimate." He stated that if legitimacy comes from popular support, Pétain's massive popularity in France until 1942 made his government legitimate; if legitimacy comes from diplomatic recognition, over 40 countries including the United States, Canada, and China recognised the Vichy government. According to Jackson, de Gaulle's Free French acknowledged the weakness of its case against Vichy's legality by citing multiple dates (16 June, 23 June and 10 July) for the start of Vichy's illegitimate rule, implying that at least for some period of time, Vichy was not yet illegitimate.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>134</span></sup> Countries recognised the Vichy government despite de Gaulle's attempts in London to dissuade them; only the German occupation of all of France in November 1942 ended diplomatic recognition. Partisans of Vichy point out that the grant of governmental powers was voted by the two chambers of the Third Republic (the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies), in conformity with the law. </p><p>The argument concerning the abrogation of legal procedure is based on the absence and non-voluntary abstention of 176 representatives of the people – the 27 on board the <i>Massilia</i>, and an additional 92 deputies and 57 senators, some of whom were in Vichy, but not present for the vote. In total, the parliament was composed of 846 members, 544 Deputies and 302 Senators. One Senator and 26 Deputies were on the <i>Massilia</i>. One Senator did not vote; 8 Senators and 12 Deputies voluntarily abstained; 57 Senators and 92 Deputies involuntarily abstained. Thus, out of a total of 544 Deputies, only 414 voted; and out of a total of 302 Senators, only 235 voted. Of these, 357 Deputies voted in favour of Pétain and 57 against, while 212 Senators voted for Pétain, and 23 against. Thus, Pétain was approved by 65% of all Deputies and 70% of all Senators. Although Pétain could claim legality for himself – particularly in comparison with the essentially self-appointed leadership of Charles de Gaulle – the dubious circumstances of the vote explain why a majority of French historians do not consider Vichy a complete continuity of the French state.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> </p><p>The text voted by the Congress stated: </p> <blockquote><p>The National Assembly gives full powers to the government of the Republic, under the authority and the signature of Marshal Pétain, to the effect of promulgating by one or several acts a new constitution of the French state. This constitution must guarantee the rights of labor, of family and of the fatherland. It will be ratified by the nation and applied by the assemblies which it has created.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG/220px-Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG/330px-Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="250"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moneta_FRANCIA_1943.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>1943 1 Franc coin. Front: "French State". Back: "Work Family Homeland".</div></div></div> <p>The Constitutional Acts of 11 and 12 July 1940<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> granted to Pétain all powers (legislative, judicial, administrative, executive – and diplomatic) and the title of "head of the French state" (<i>chef de l'État français</i>), as well as the right to nominate his successor. On 12 July Pétain designated Laval as Vice-President and his designated successor, and appointed <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> as representative to the German High Command in Paris. Pétain remained the head of the Vichy regime until 20 August 1944. The French national motto, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_Egalit%C3%A9,_Fraternit%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité">Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité</a></i> (Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood), was replaced by <i>Travail, Famille, Patrie</i> (Work, Family, Fatherland); it was noted at the time that TFP also stood for the criminal punishment of "<i>travaux forcés à perpetuité</i>" ("forced labor in perpetuity").<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> Reynaud was arrested in September 1940 by the Vichy government and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1941 before the opening of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riom_Trial" title="Riom Trial">Riom Trial</a>. </p><p>Pétain was reactionary by nature, his status as a hero of the Third Republic during World War I notwithstanding. Almost as soon as he was granted full powers, Pétain began blaming the Third Republic's democracy and endemic corruption for France's humiliating defeat by Germany. Accordingly, his government soon began taking on authoritarian characteristics. Democratic liberties and guarantees were immediately suspended.<sup id="cite_ref-christofferson2006_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christofferson2006-47">[47]</a></sup> The crime of "felony of opinion" (<i>délit d'opinion</i>) was re-established, effectively repealing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of expression">expression</a>; critics were frequently arrested. Elective bodies were replaced by nominated ones. The "municipalities" and the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="French departments">departmental commissions</a> were thus placed under the authority of the administration and of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefectures of France">prefects</a> (nominated by and dependent on the executive power). In January 1941 the National Council (<i>Conseil National</i>), composed of notables from the countryside and the provinces, was instituted under the same conditions. Despite the clear authoritarian cast of Pétain's government, he did not formally institute a one-party state, he maintained the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Tricolor</a> and other symbols of republican France, and unlike many far rightists, he was not an <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Dreyfusard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Dreyfusard">anti-Dreyfusard</a>. Pétain excluded fascists from office in his government, and by and large his cabinet comprised "February 6 men" (i.e. members of the "National Union government" formed after the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_February_1934_crisis" title="6 February 1934 crisis">6 February 1934 crisis</a> following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavisky_Affair" title="Stavisky Affair">Stavisky Affair</a>) or mainstream politicians whose career prospects had been blocked by the triumph of <i>Front populaire</i> in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Foreign relations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France" title="Foreign relations of Vichy France">Foreign relations of Vichy France</a></div> <p>Vichy France was recognised by most <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">neutral powers</a>, including the US and the USSR. During the war, Vichy France conducted military actions against armed incursions from Axis and Allied belligerents, an example of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed neutrality">armed neutrality</a>. The most important such action was the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon</a> on 27 November 1942, preventing its capture by the Axis. The United States granted Vichy full <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">diplomatic recognition</a>, sending Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a> to France as American ambassador. President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and Secretary of State <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> hoped to use American influence to encourage those elements in the Vichy government opposed to military collaboration with Germany. The Americans also hoped to encourage Vichy to resist German war demands, such as for air bases in French-mandated Syria or to move war supplies through French territories in North Africa. The essential American position was that France should take no action not explicitly required by the Armistice terms that could adversely affect Allied efforts in the war. </p><p>The US position towards Vichy France and de Gaulle was especially hesitant and inconsistent. President Roosevelt disliked Charles de Gaulle, whom he regarded as an "apprentice dictator".<sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-53">[53]</a></sup> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Daniel_Murphy" title="Robert Daniel Murphy">Robert Murphy</a>, Roosevelt's representative in North Africa, started preparing for a landing in North Africa in December 1940 (a year before the US entered the war). The US first tried to support General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, general delegate of Vichy for Africa until December 1941. This first choice having failed, they turned to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> shortly before the landing in North Africa on 8 November 1942. Finally, after <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>'s turn towards the Free Forces — Darlan had been president of the Council of Vichy from February 1941 to April 1942 — they played him against de Gaulle.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-53">[53]</a></sup> </p><p>US General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_W._Clark" title="Mark W. Clark">Mark W. Clark</a> of the combined Allied command made Admiral Darlan sign on 22 November 1942 a treaty putting "North Africa at the disposition of the Americans" and making France "a vassal country".<sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-53">[53]</a></sup> Washington then imagined, between 1941 and 1942, a protectorate status for France, which would be submitted after the Liberation to an <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Military_Government_of_Occupied_Territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories">Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories</a> (AMGOT) like Germany. After the assassination of Darlan on 24 December 1942, Washington turned again towards Henri Giraud, to whom had rallied <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Maurice Couve de Murville</a>, who had financial responsibilities in Vichy, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lemaigre-Dubreuil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lemaigre-Dubreuil (page does not exist)">Lemaigre-Dubreuil</a>, a former member of <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a></i> and entrepreneur, as well as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Pose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Pose (page does not exist)">Alfred Pose</a>, general director of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banque_nationale_pour_le_commerce_et_l%27industrie" title="Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie">Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie</a></i> (National Bank for Trade and Industry).<sup id="cite_ref-Lacroix_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacroix-53">[53]</a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy government until 30 June 1941. These were broken after Vichy expressed support for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Due to British requests and the sensitivities of its French Canadian population, Canada maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy regime until the beginning of November 1942 and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a> – the complete occupation of Vichy France by the Nazis.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon,_France.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/220px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/330px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg/440px-Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon%2C_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1178"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mers_el_Kebir_Memorial_at_Toulon,_France.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Memorial to the 1,297 French seamen who died during the British bombardment of their ships at Mers El Kebir.</div></div></div> <p>Britain feared that the French naval fleet could end up in German hands and be used against its own naval forces, which were so vital to maintaining North Atlantic shipping and communications. Under the armistice, France had been allowed to retain the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a>, the <i>Marine Nationale</i>, under strict conditions. Vichy pledged that the fleet would never fall into the hands of Germany, but refused to send the fleet beyond Germany's reach by sending it to Britain or to faraway territories of the French empire such as the West Indies. This did not satisfy Winston Churchill, who ordered French ships in British ports to be seized by the Royal Navy. Shortly after the Armistice (22 June 1940), Britain conducted the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_of_the_French_Fleet_at_Mers-el-Kebir" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir">destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir</a>, killing 1,297 French military personnel, and Vichy severed diplomatic relations with Britain. The French squadron at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, under Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Emile_Godfroy" class="mw-redirect" title="René-Emile Godfroy">René-Emile Godfroy</a>, was effectively interned until 1943 after an agreement was reached with Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Browne_Cunningham" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Browne Cunningham">Andrew Browne Cunningham</a>, commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup> After the Mers el Kebir incident, the United Kingdom recognised <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> as the legitimate government of France. </p><p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and other <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">neutral states</a> maintained diplomatic relations with the Vichy regime until the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of France">liberation of France</a> in 1944 when <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> resigned and was deported to Germany for the creation of a forced <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government-in-exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government-in-exile">government-in-exile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span id="French_Indochina.2C_Japan_and_Franco-Thai_War"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Indochina,_Japan_and_Franco-Thai_War">French Indochina, Japan and Franco-Thai War</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: French Indochina, Japan and Franco-Thai War">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_French_Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of French Indochina">Invasion of French Indochina</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-Thai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="French-Thai War">French-Thai War</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_coup_de_main_in_French_Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese coup de main in French Indochina">Japanese coup de main in French Indochina</a>, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina in World War II</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/220px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/330px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg/440px-Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2709" data-file-height="1932"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_troops_entering_Saigon_in_1941.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Japanese troops entering <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saigon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> in 1941</div></div></div> <p>In June 1940, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">Fall of France</a> made the French hold on Indochina tenuous. The isolated colonial administration was cut off from outside help and outside supplies. After negotiations with Japan, the French allowed the Japanese to set up military bases in Indochina.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> This seemingly subservient behaviour convinced Major-General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaek_Pibulsonggram" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaek Pibulsonggram">Plaek Pibulsonggram</a>, the Prime Minister of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Thailand">Kingdom of Thailand</a>, that Vichy France would not seriously resist a campaign by the Thai military to recover parts of Cambodia and Laos that had been taken from Thailand by France in the early 20th century. In October 1940, the military forces of Thailand attacked across the border with <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina">Indochina</a> and launched the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a>. Although the French won an important <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Koh_Chang" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Koh Chang">naval victory</a> over the Thais, Japan forced the French to accept Japanese mediation of a peace treaty that returned the disputed territory to Thai control. The French were left in place to administer the rump colony of Indochina until 9 March 1945, when the Japanese staged a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Indochina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Second French Indochina Campaign"><i>coup d'état</i> in French Indochina</a> and took control, establishing their own colony, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a>, as a double <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Colonial_struggle_with_Free_France">Colonial struggle with Free France</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Colonial struggle with Free France">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></div> <p>To counter the Vichy government, General Charles de Gaulle created the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a> (FFL) after his <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a> 1940 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/wireless">wireless</a> speech. Initially, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> was ambivalent about de Gaulle, and Churchill severed diplomatic ties with Vichy only when it became clear that the Vichy government would not join the Allies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="India_and_Oceania">India and Oceania</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: India and Oceania">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Until 1962, France possessed four small, non-contiguous but politically united colonies across India, the largest being <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry" title="Puducherry">Pondicherry</a> in Southeast India. Immediately after the fall of France, the Governor General of French India, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Alexis_%C3%89tienne_Bonvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin">Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin</a>, declared that the French colonies in India would continue to fight with the British allies. Free French forces from that area (and others) participated in the Western Desert campaign, although news of the death of French-Indian soldiers caused some disturbances in Pondicherry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The French possessions in Oceania joined the Free French side in 1940, or in one case in 1942. They then served as bases for the Allied effort in the Pacific and contributed troops to the Free French Forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Jouin1965_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jouin1965-58">[58]</a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_of_18_June" title="Appeal of 18 June">Appeal of 18 June</a>, debate arose among the population of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>. A <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesian_referendum,_1940" class="mw-redirect" title="French Polynesian referendum, 1940">referendum</a> was organised on 2 September 1940 in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahiti" title="Tahiti">Tahiti</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorea" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorea">Moorea</a>, with outlying islands reporting agreement in the following days. The vote was 5564 to 18 in favour of joining the Free French side.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, American forces identified French Polynesia as an ideal refuelling point between <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaii</a> and Australia and, with <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a>'s agreement, organised "Operation Bobcat" sending nine ships with 5000 American soldiers to build a naval refuelling base and airstrip and set up coastal defence guns on <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bora_Bora" title="Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> This first experience was valuable in later <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabee_(US_Navy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabee (US Navy)">Seabee</a> (phonetic pronunciation of the naval acronym, CB, or Construction Battalion) efforts in the Pacific, and the Bora Bora base <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabees_in_World_War_II#The_Pacific_theater" title="Seabees in World War II">supplied the Allied ships and planes</a> that fought the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">battle of the Coral Sea</a>. Troops from French Polynesia and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> formed a <i>Bataillon du Pacifique</i> in 1940; became part of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Free_French_Division" title="1st Free French Division">1st Free French Division</a> in 1942, distinguishing themselves during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bir_Hakeim" title="Battle of Bir Hakeim">Battle of Bir Hakeim</a> and subsequently combining with another unit to form the <i>Bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique</i>; fought in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a>, distinguishing themselves at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garigliano" title="Garigliano">Garigliano</a> during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Battle of Monte Cassino</a> and on to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Tuscany</a>; and participated in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provence_landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Provence landings">Provence landings</a> and onwards to the liberation of France.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, Henri Sautot promptly declared allegiance to the Free French, effective 19 September 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-Jouin1965_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jouin1965-58">[58]</a></sup> Due to its location on the edge of the Coral Sea and on the flank of Australia, New Caledonia became strategically critical in the effort to combat the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_expansion_(1941%E2%80%931942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese expansion (1941–1942)">Japanese advance in the Pacific in 1941–1942</a> and to protect the sea lanes between North America and Australia. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a" title="Nouméa">Nouméa</a> served as a headquarters of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> and Army in the South Pacific,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> and as a repair base for Allied vessels. New Caledonia contributed personnel both to the <i>Bataillon du Pacifique</i> and to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Naval_Forces" title="Free French Naval Forces">Free French Naval Forces</a> that saw action in the Pacific and Indian Ocean. </p><p>In the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> (now <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>), then a French-British <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">condominium</a>, Resident Commissioner Henri Sautot quickly led the French community to join the Free French side. The outcome was decided by a combination of patriotism and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_opportunism" title="Economic opportunism">economic opportunism</a> in the expectation that independence would result.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a> the local administrator and bishop sided with Vichy, but faced opposition from some of the population and clergy; their attempts at naming a local king in 1941 (to buffer the territory from their opponents) backfired as the newly elected king refused to declare allegiance to Pétain. The situation stagnated for a long while, due to the remoteness of the islands and because no overseas ship visited the islands for 17 months after January 1941. An <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviso" title="Aviso">aviso</a> sent from <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noum%C3%A9a" title="Nouméa">Nouméa</a> took over Wallis on behalf of the Free French on 27 May 1942, and Futuna on 29 May 1942. This allowed American forces to build an airbase and seaplane base on Wallis (Navy 207) that served the Allied Pacific operations.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Americas">Americas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Martinique#World_War_II" title="History of Martinique">History of Martinique § World War II</a>, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_French_Guiana#20th_century" title="History of French Guiana">History of French Guiana § 20th century</a></div> <table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31"/></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. <small>You can help by <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>.</small> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Free French seized control of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a> on 25 December 1941. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a>, as well as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> on the northern coast of South America, did not join the Free French until 1943–1944.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Equatorial_and_West_Africa">Equatorial and West Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Equatorial and West Africa">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>In Central Africa, three of the four colonies in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> went over to the Free French almost immediately: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">French Chad</a> on 26 August 1940, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a> on 29 August 1940, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a> on 30 August 1940. They were joined by the French <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandate</a> of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroun" class="mw-redirect" title="Cameroun">Cameroun</a> on 27 August 1940. One colony in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, had to be occupied by military force between 27 October and 12 November 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> </p><p>On 23 September 1940, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> and Free French forces under Charles de Gaulle launched <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Menace" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Menace">Operation Menace</a>, an attempt to seize the strategic, Vichy-held port of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a> in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (modern <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>). After attempts to encourage them to join the Allies were rebuffed by the defenders, a sharp fight erupted between Vichy and Allied forces. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(09)" title="HMS Resolution (09)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a> was heavily damaged by torpedoes, and Free French troops landing at a beach south of the port were driven off by heavy fire. Even worse from a strategic point of view, bombers of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_French_Air_Force" title="Vichy French Air Force">Vichy French Air Force</a> based in North Africa began bombing the British base at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a> in response to the attack on Dakar. Shaken by the resolute Vichy defence, and not wanting to further escalate the conflict, British and Free French forces withdrew on 25 September, bringing the battle to an end. </p><p>On 8 November 1940, Free French forces under the command of de Gaulle and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Koenig" title="Pierre Koenig">Pierre Koenig</a>, along with the assistance of the Royal Navy, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gabon" title="Battle of Gabon">invaded Vichy-held Gabon</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, which was the only territory of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> that was unwilling to join the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>, fell into allied hands on 12 November 1940, after the capital <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libreville" title="Libreville">Libreville</a> was bombed and captured. The final Vichy troops in Gabon surrendered without any military confrontation with the allies at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-Gentil" title="Port-Gentil">Port-Gentil</a>. The capture of Gabon by the Allies was crucial to ensure that the entire <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a> was out of Axis reach.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="French_Somaliland">French Somaliland</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: French Somaliland">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland in World War II</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_Somaliland_1922.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/220px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/330px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/440px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1081"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_Somaliland_1922.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Map of French Somaliland, 1922</div></div></div></div> <p>The governor of French Somaliland (now <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>), Brigadier-General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Legentilhomme" title="Paul Legentilhomme">Paul Legentilhomme</a>, had a garrison of seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry, three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of the camel corps and an assortment of aircraft. After visiting from <span class="nowrap">8–13 January</span> 1940, Wavell decided that Legentilhomme would command the military forces in both Somalilands should war with Italy come.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaugh199375–76_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199375–76-68">[68]</a></sup> In June, an Italian force was assembled to capture the port city of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti_(city)" title="Djibouti (city)">Djibouti</a>, the main military base.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195489_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195489-69">[69]</a></sup> After the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">fall of France</a> in June, the neutralisation of Vichy French colonies allowed the Italians to concentrate on the more lightly defended British Somaliland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMockler1984241_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMockler1984241-70">[70]</a></sup> On 23 July, Legentilhomme was ousted by the pro-Vichy naval officer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Nouailhetas" title="Pierre Nouailhetas">Pierre Nouailhetas</a> and left on 5 August for Aden, to join the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a>. In March 1941, the British enforcement of a strict contraband regime to prevent supplies being passed on to the Italians, lost its point after the conquest of the AOI. The British changed policy, with encouragement from the Free French, to "rally French Somaliland to the Allied cause without bloodshed". The Free French were to arrange a <i>voluntary ralliement</i> by propaganda (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Marie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Marie (page does not exist)">Operation Marie</a>) and the British were to blockade the colony.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004322–323_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004322–323-71">[71]</a></sup> </p><p>Wavell considered that if British pressure was applied, a rally would appear to have been coerced. Wavell preferred to let the propaganda continue and provided a small amount of supplies under strict control. When the policy had no effect, Wavell suggested negotiations with the Vichy governor Louis Nouailhetas, to use the port and railway. The suggestion was accepted by the British government but because of the concessions granted to the Vichy regime in Syria, proposals were made to invade the colony instead. In June, Nouailhetas was given an ultimatum, the blockade was tightened and the Italian garrison at Assab was defeated by an operation from Aden. For six months, Nouailhetas remained willing to grant concessions over the port and railway but would not tolerate Free French interference. In October, the blockade was reviewed, but the beginning of the war with Japan in December led to all but two blockade ships being withdrawn. On 2 January 1942, the Vichy government offered the use of the port and railway, subject to the lifting of the blockade but the British refused and ended the blockade unilaterally in March.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324-72">[72]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Syria_and_Madagascar">Syria and Madagascar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Syria and Madagascar">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The next flashpoint between Britain and Vichy France came when a revolt in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> was put down by British forces in June 1941. German Air Force (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a></i>) and Italian Air Force (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica" title="Regia Aeronautica">Regia Aeronautica</a></i>) aircraft, staging through the French possession of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, intervened in the fighting in small numbers. That highlighted Syria as a threat to British interests in the Middle East. Consequently, on 8 June, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces of the United Kingdom">British</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> forces invaded Syria and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. This was known as the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a> or Operation Exporter. The Syrian capital, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, was captured on 17 June and the five-week campaign ended with the fall of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> and the Convention of Acre (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Saint_Jean_d%27Acre" title="Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre">Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre</a></i>) on 14 July 1941. </p><p>The additional participation of Free French forces in the Syrian operation was controversial within Allied circles. It raised the prospect of Frenchmen shooting at Frenchmen, raising fears of a civil war. Additionally, it was believed that the Free French were widely reviled within Vichy military circles, and that Vichy forces in Syria were less likely to resist the British if they were not accompanied by elements of the Free French. Nevertheless, de Gaulle convinced Churchill to allow his forces to participate, although de Gaulle was forced to agree to a joint British and Free French proclamation promising that Syria and Lebanon would become fully independent at the end of the war. </p><p>From 5 May to 6 November 1942, British and Commonwealth forces conducted Operation Ironclad, known as the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a>: the seizure of the large, Vichy French-controlled island of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, which the British feared Japanese forces might use as a base to disrupt trade and communications in the Indian Ocean. The initial landing at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Diégo-Suarez</a> was relatively quick, though it took British forces a further six months to gain control of the entire island.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="French_North_Africa">French North Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: French North Africa">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">French Committee of National Liberation</a></div> <p>Operation Torch was the American and British invasion of French North Africa, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, Algeria, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, started on 8 November 1942, with landings in Morocco and Algeria. The long-term goal was to clear German and Italian forces from North Africa, enhance naval control of the Mediterranean, and prepare for an invasion of Italy in 1943. The Vichy forces initially resisted, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">killing 479 Allied forces and wounding 720</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">Vichy Admiral Darlan</a> initiated co-operation with the Allies. The Allies recognised Darlan's self-nomination as High Commissioner of France (head of civil government) for North and West Africa. He ordered Vichy forces there to cease resisting and co-operate with the Allies, and they did so. By the time the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisia Campaign">Tunisia Campaign</a> was fought, the French forces in North Africa had gone over to the Allied side, joining the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Degaulle-freefrench.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/220px-Degaulle-freefrench.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/330px-Degaulle-freefrench.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Degaulle-freefrench.png/440px-Degaulle-freefrench.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="576"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Degaulle-freefrench.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> and de Gaulle during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca_Conference_(1943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casablanca Conference (1943)">Casablanca Conference</a> in January 1943</div></div></div> <p>In North Africa, after the 8 November 1942 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Putsch">putsch</a> by the French resistance, most Vichy figures were arrested, including General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Juin" title="Alphonse Juin">Alphonse Juin</a>, chief commander in North Africa, and Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>. However, Darlan was released, and U.S. General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> finally accepted his self-nomination as High Commissioner of North Africa and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French West Africa</a> (<i>Afrique occidentale française</i>, AOF), a move that enraged de Gaulle, who refused to recognise Darlan's status. After Darlan signed an armistice with the Allies and took power in North Africa, Germany violated the 1940 armistice with France and invaded Vichy France on 10 November 1942 (operation code-named <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a>), triggering the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling_of_the_French_fleet_in_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon">scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon</a>. </p><p>Henri Giraud arrived in Algiers on 10 November 1942, and agreed to subordinate himself to Admiral Darlan as the French Africa army commander. Even though Darlan was now in the Allied camp, he maintained the repressive Vichy system in North Africa, including <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camps_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camps in France">concentration camps</a> in southern Algeria and racist laws. Detainees were also forced to work on the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_Railway" title="Trans-Saharan Railway">Trans-Saharan Railway</a>. Jewish goods were "aryanized" (i.e. stolen), and a special Jewish Affairs service was created, directed by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Gazagne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Gazagne (page does not exist)">Pierre Gazagne</a>. Numerous Jewish children were prohibited from going to school, something which not even Vichy had implemented in metropolitan France.<sup id="cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75">[75]</a></sup> Admiral Darlan was assassinated on 24 December 1942 in Algiers by the young monarchist <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnier_de_La_Chapelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonnier de La Chapelle">Bonnier de La Chapelle</a>. Although de La Chapelle had been a member of the resistance group led by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_d%27Astier_de_La_Vigerie" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie">Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie</a>, it is believed he was acting as an individual. </p><p>After Admiral Darlan's assassination, Henri Giraud became his <i>de facto</i> successor in French Africa with Allied support. This occurred through a series of consultations between Giraud and de Gaulle. De Gaulle wanted to pursue a political position in France and agreed to have Giraud as commander-in-chief, as the more qualified military person of the two. Later, the Americans sent <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a> to counsel Giraud and to press him to repeal the Vichy laws. After difficult negotiations, Giraud agreed to suppress the racist laws, and to liberate Vichy prisoners from the South Algerian concentration camps. The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremieux_decree" class="mw-redirect" title="Cremieux decree">Cremieux decree</a>, which granted French citizenship to Jews in Algeria and which had been repealed by Vichy, was immediately restored by General de Gaulle. </p><p>Giraud took part in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca_Conference_(1943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casablanca Conference (1943)">Casablanca conference</a>, with Roosevelt, Churchill, and de Gaulle, in January 1943. The Allies discussed their general strategy for the war, and recognised joint leadership of North Africa by Giraud and de Gaulle. Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle then became co-presidents of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="French Committee of National Liberation">Comité français de la Libération Nationale</a></i>, which unified the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a> and territories controlled by them and had been founded at the end of 1943. Democratic rule was restored in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_rule_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="French rule in Algeria">French Algeria</a>, and the Communists and Jews liberated from the concentration camps.<sup id="cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75">[75]</a></sup> </p><p>At the end of April 1945 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Gazagne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Gazagne (page does not exist)">Pierre Gazagne</a>, secretary of the general government headed by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yves_Chataigneau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yves Chataigneau (page does not exist)">Yves Chataigneau</a>, took advantage of his absence to exile anti-imperialist leader <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messali_Hadj" title="Messali Hadj">Messali Hadj</a> and arrest the leaders of his party, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_People%27s_Party" title="Algerian People's Party">Algerian People's Party</a> (PPA).<sup id="cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75">[75]</a></sup> On the day of the Liberation of France, the GPRF would harshly repress a rebellion in Algeria during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sétif massacre">Sétif massacre</a> of 8 May 1945, which has been qualified by some historians as the "real beginning of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75">[75]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Collaboration_with_Germany">Collaboration with Germany</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Collaboration with Germany">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37,_Marseille,_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37%2C_Marseille%2C_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="513"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-027-1475-37,_Marseille,_deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Besprechung.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>23 January 1943: German-Vichy French meeting in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseilles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a>. SS-Sturmbannführer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bernhard_Griese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernhard Griese (page does not exist)">Bernhard Griese</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcel_Lemoine_(pr%C3%A9fet)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcel Lemoine (préfet) (page does not exist)">Marcel Lemoine</a> (regional <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9fet" class="mw-redirect" title="Préfet">préfet</a></i>), <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rolf_M%C3%BChler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rolf Mühler (page does not exist)">Rolf Mühler</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_M%C3%BChler" class="extiw" title="de:Rolf Mühler">de</a>]</span> (Commander of Marseilles <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicherheitspolizei" title="Sicherheitspolizei">Sicherheitspolizei</a></i>); <i>laughing:</i> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a> (General Secretary of the French National Police created in 1941), creator of the GMRs; <i>behind:</i> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Darquier_de_Pellepoix" title="Louis Darquier de Pellepoix">Louis Darquier de Pellepoix</a> (Commissioner for Jewish Affairs).</div></div></div> <p>Historians distinguish between state collaboration followed by the Vichy regime, and "collaborationists", who were private French citizens eager to collaborate with Germany and who pushed towards a radicalisation of the regime. <i>Pétainistes</i>, on the other hand, were direct supporters of Marshal Pétain rather than of Germany (although they accepted Pétain's state collaboration). State collaboration was sealed by the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Montoire">Montoire</a> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loir-et-Cher" title="Loir-et-Cher">Loir-et-Cher</a>) interview in Hitler's train on 24 October 1940, during which Pétain and Hitler shook hands and agreed on co-operation between the two states. Organized by Pierre Laval, a strong proponent of collaboration, the interview and the handshake were photographed and exploited by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_propaganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi propaganda">Nazi propaganda</a> to gain the support of the civilian population. On 30 October 1940, Pétain made state collaboration official, declaring on the radio: "I enter today on the path of collaboration."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[a]</a></sup> On 22 June 1942, Laval declared that he was "hoping for the victory of Germany". The sincere desire to collaborate did not stop the Vichy government from organising the arrest and even sometimes the execution of German spies entering the Vichy zone.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a></sup> </p><p>The composition and policies of the Vichy cabinet were mixed. Many Vichy officials, such as Pétain, were <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionaries</a> who felt that France's unfortunate fate was a result of its republican character and the actions of its left-wing governments of the 1930s, in particular of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> (1936–1938) led by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, a monarchist writer and founder of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a></i> movement, judged that Pétain's accession to power was, in that respect, a "divine surprise", and many people of his persuasion believed it preferable to have an authoritarian government similar to that of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>'s Spain, even if under Germany's yoke, than to have a republican government. Others, like <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, were strong <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semites</a> and overt <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> sympathizers. A number of these joined the units of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_des_Volontaires_Fran%C3%A7ais_contre_le_Bolch%C3%A9visme" class="mw-redirect" title="Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme">Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme</a></i> (Legion of French Volunteers Against <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevism</a>) fighting on the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>, later becoming the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Waffen_Grenadier_Division_of_the_SS_Charlemagne_(1st_French)" title="33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)">SS Charlemagne Division</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy_(bureaucratic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Technocracy (bureaucratic)">technocrats</a> such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bichelonne" title="Jean Bichelonne">Jean Bichelonne</a> and engineers from the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_X-Crise" class="mw-redirect" title="Groupe X-Crise">Groupe X-Crise</a> used their position to push various state, administrative, and economic reforms. These reforms have been cited as evidence of a continuity of the French administration before and after the war. Many of these civil servants and the reforms they advocated were retained after the war. Just as the necessities of a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">war economy</a> during the First World War had pushed forward state measures to reorganise the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">economy of France</a> against the prevailing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberal</a> theories – structures retained after the 1919 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> – reforms adopted during World War II were kept and extended. Along with the 15 March 1944 Charter of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_National_de_la_R%C3%A9sistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil National de la Résistance">Conseil National de la Résistance</a> (CNR), which gathered all Resistance movements under one unified political body, these reforms were a primary instrument in the establishment of post-war <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">dirigisme</a></i>, a kind of semi-planned economy which led to France becoming a modern <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a>. An example of such continuities is the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a>, a renowned physician who also supported <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>. This institution was renamed as the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_d%C3%A9mographiques" title="Institut national d'études démographiques">National Institute of Demographic Studies</a> (INED) after the war and exists to this day. Another example is the creation of the national statistics institute, renamed <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INSEE" class="mw-redirect" title="INSEE">INSEE</a> after the Liberation. </p><p>The reorganisation and unification of the French police by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, who created the <i>groupes mobiles de réserve</i> (GMR, Reserve Mobile Groups), is another example of Vichy policy reform and restructuring maintained by subsequent governments. A national paramilitary police force, the GMR was occasionally used in actions against the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>, but its main purpose was to enforce Vichy authority through intimidation and repression of the civilian population. After Liberation, some of its units were merged with the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Army</a> to form the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compagnies_R%C3%A9publicaines_de_S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9" title="Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité">Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité</a> (CRS, Republican Security Companies), France's main anti-riot force. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Racial_policies_and_collaboration">Racial policies and collaboration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Racial policies and collaboration">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238,_Frankreich,_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238%2C_Frankreich%2C_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="550"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S69238,_Frankreich,_Internierungslager_Pithiviers.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>French Police registering new inmates at the Pithiviers camp</div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36,_Frankreich,_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36%2C_Frankreich%2C_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="796"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-720-0318-36,_Frankreich,_Milizion%C3%A4r_bewacht_Widerstandsk%C3%A4mpfer.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>French <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a> guarding detainees</div></div></div> <p>Germany interfered little in internal French affairs for the first two years after the armistice, as long as public order was maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>139</span></sup> As soon as it was established, Pétain's government voluntarily took measures against "undesirables": <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Jews</a>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metic" title="Metic">métèques</a></i> (immigrants from Mediterranean countries), <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasons</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">Communists</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsies">Gypsies</a> (also known as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani</a>), <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany_and_the_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust">homosexuals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ordremoral143_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ordremoral143-79">[78]</a></sup> and left-wing activists. Inspired by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>'s conception of the "Anti-France" (which he defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons, and foreigners"), Vichy persecuted these supposed enemies. </p><p>In July 1940, Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalisation">naturalisations</a> granted since the 1927 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_nationality_law" title="French nationality law">reform of the nationality law</a>. Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalised.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a></sup> This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment. </p><p>The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France">internment camps already opened</a> by the Third Republic were immediately put to new use, ultimately becoming transit camps for the implementation of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> and the extermination of all undesirables, including the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> (who refer to the extermination of the Romani as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porrajmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Porrajmos">Porrajmos</a>). A Vichy law of 4 October 1940 authorised internments of foreign <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> on the sole basis of a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="French prefectures">prefectoral order</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a></sup> and the first raids took place in May 1941. Vichy imposed no restrictions on <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people_in_France" title="Black people in France">black people</a> in the Unoccupied Zone; the regime even had a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulatto</a> cabinet minister, the Martinique-born lawyer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_L%C3%A9mery" title="Henry Lémery">Henry Lémery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a></sup> </p><p>The Third Republic had first opened concentration camps during World War I for the internment of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy aliens</a> and later used them for other purposes. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Gurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Gurs">Camp Gurs</a>, for example, had been set up in southwestern France after the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia_Offensive" title="Catalonia Offensive">fall of Catalonia</a>, in the first months of 1939, during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–1939), to receive the Republican refugees, including <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">Brigadists</a> from all nations, fleeing the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoist">Francoists</a>. After <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Daladier" title="Édouard Daladier">Édouard Daladier</a>'s government (April 1938 – March 1940) took the decision to outlaw the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> (PCF) following the signing of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">German–Soviet non-aggression pact</a> (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) in August 1939, these camps were also used to intern French communists. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy internment camp</a> was founded in 1939 for this use; it later became the central transit camp through which all deportees passed on their way to concentration and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> in the Third Reich and Eastern Europe. When the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a> started with France's declaration of war against Germany on 3 September 1939, these camps were used to intern enemy aliens. These included German Jews and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-fascist">anti-fascists</a>, but any German citizen (or other <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> national) could also be interned in Camp Gurs and others. As the Wehrmacht advanced into Northern France, common prisoners evacuated from prisons were also interned in these camps. Camp Gurs received its first contingent of political prisoners in June 1940. It included left-wing activists (communists, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">anarchists</a>, trade-unionists, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-militarist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-militarist">anti-militarists</a>) and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacifist">pacifists</a>, as well as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="French Fascism">French fascists</a> who supported <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Italy</a> and Germany. Finally, after Pétain's proclamation of the "French State" and the beginning of the implementation of the "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_nationale" title="Révolution nationale">Révolution nationale</a></i>" (National Revolution), the French administration opened up many concentration camps, to the point that, as historian Maurice Rajsfus writes, "The quick opening of new camps created employment, and the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a> never ceased to hire during this period."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a></sup> </p><p>Besides the political prisoners already detained there, Gurs was then used to intern foreign Jews, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateless_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateless person">stateless persons</a>, Romani, homosexuals, and prostitutes. Vichy opened its first internment camp in the northern zone on 5 October 1940, in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aincourt" title="Aincourt">Aincourt</a>, in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine-et-Oise" title="Seine-et-Oise">Seine-et-Oise</a> department, which it quickly filled with PCF members.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a></sup> The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Saltworks_at_Arc-et-Senans" title="Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans">Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans</a>, in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubs_(department)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doubs (department)">Doubs</a>, was used to intern Romani.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a></sup> The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_des_Milles" title="Camp des Milles">Camp des Milles</a>, near <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-en-Provence" title="Aix-en-Provence">Aix-en-Provence</a>, was the largest internment camp in the Southeast of France; twenty-five hundred Jews were deported from there following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=August_1942_raids&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="August 1942 raids (page does not exist)">August 1942 raids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a></sup> Exiled Republican, antifascist Spaniards who had sought refuge in France after the Nationalist victory in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> were then deported, and 5,000 of them died in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen concentration camp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cite_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cite-87">[86]</a></sup> In contrast, French colonial soldiers were interned by the Germans in French territory instead of being deported.<sup id="cite_ref-Cite_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cite-87">[86]</a></sup> </p><p>Besides the concentration camps opened by Vichy, the Germans also opened some <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilag" title="Ilag">Ilags</a> (<i>Internierungslager</i>) for the detention of enemy aliens on French territory; in Alsace, which was under the direct administration of the Reich, they opened the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natzweiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Natzweiler">Natzweiler camp</a>, the only concentration camp created by the Nazis on French territory. Natzweiler included a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a>, which was used to exterminate at least 86 detainees (mostly Jewish) with the aim of obtaining a collection of undamaged skeletons for the use of Nazi professor <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Hirt" title="August Hirt">August Hirt</a>. </p><p>The Vichy government enacted a number of racial laws. In August 1940, laws against antisemitism in the media (the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marchandeau_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marchandeau Act (page does not exist)">Marchandeau Act</a>) were repealed, while decree n°1775 of 5 September 1943 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denaturalised&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Denaturalised (page does not exist)">denaturalised</a> a number of French citizens, in particular Jews from Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Cite_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cite-87">[86]</a></sup> Foreigners were rounded-up in "Foreign Workers' Groups" (<i>groupements de travailleurs étrangers</i>) and as with the colonial troops, used by the Germans as manpower.<sup id="cite_ref-Cite_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cite-87">[86]</a></sup> The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute on Jews">Statute on Jews</a> excluded them from the civil administration. </p><p>Vichy also enacted racial laws in its territories in North Africa. "The history of the Holocaust in France's three North African colonies (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia) is intrinsically tied to France's fate during this period."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a></sup> </p><p>With regard to economic contribution to the German economy, it is estimated that France provided 42% of the total foreign aid.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Eugenics_policies">Eugenics policies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Eugenics policies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <table class="box-Refimprove_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399"/></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br/><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vichy+France%22">"Vichy France"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vichy+France%22+site:news.google.com/newspapers&source=newspapers">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vichy+France%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vichy+France%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2012</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1941, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> winner <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a>, an early proponent of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>, and a member of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>'s <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Popular_Party" title="French Popular Party">French Popular Party</a> (PPF),<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> advocated for the creation of the <i>Fondation Française pour l'Étude des Problèmes Humains</i> (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems), using connections to the Pétain cabinet. Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel was appointed as "regent".<sup id="cite_ref-Reggiani_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reggiani-94">[93]</a></sup> The Foundation also had for some time as general secretary <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Perroux" title="François Perroux">François Perroux</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Foundation was behind the 16 December 1942 Act mandating the "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prenuptial_certificate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prenuptial certificate (page does not exist)">prenuptial certificate</a>", which required all couples seeking marriage to submit to a biological examination, to ensure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular with regard to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">sexually transmitted diseases</a> (STDs) and "life hygiene".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Carrel's institute also conceived the "scholar booklet" (<i>"livret scolaire</i>"), which could be used to record students' grades in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">French secondary schools</a> and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Besides these eugenic activities aimed at classifying the population and improving its health, the Foundation also supported an 11 October 1946 law instituting <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">occupational medicine</a>, enacted by the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF) after the Liberation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Foundation initiated studies on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois), nutrition (Jean Sutter), and housing (Jean Merlet), as well as the first polls (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Stoetzel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Stoetzel (page does not exist)">Jean Stoetzel</a>). The foundation, which after the war became the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INED" class="mw-redirect" title="INED">INED</a> demographics institute, employed 300 researchers from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2009)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> of 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a></sup> "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs, roughly one franc per inhabitant: a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources. By way of comparison, the whole <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_National_de_la_Recherche_Scientifique" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique">Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique</a> (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs."<sup id="cite_ref-Reggiani_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reggiani-94">[93]</a></sup> </p><p>Alexis Carrel had previously published in 1935 the best-selling book <i>L'Homme, cet inconnu</i> ("Man, This Unknown"). Since the early 1930s, Carrel had advocated the use of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chambers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas chambers">gas chambers</a> to rid humanity of its "inferior stock"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, endorsing the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> discourse.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> One of the founders of these <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientifical</a> theories had been <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a> in his 1853–1855 essay titled "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_the_Human_Races" title="An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races">An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races</a>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 1936 preface to the German edition of his book, Alexis Carrel had added a praise to the eugenics policies of the Third Reich, writing the following: </p> <blockquote><p>The German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Carrel also wrote this in his book: </p> <blockquote><p>The conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to ensure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organised by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Coutrot" title="Jean Coutrot">Jean Coutrot</a>, the "<i>Entretiens de Pontigny</i>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Scholars such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucien_Bonnaf%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lucien Bonnafé (page does not exist)">Lucien Bonnafé</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patrick_Tort&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patrick Tort (page does not exist)">Patrick Tort</a>, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Lafont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Lafont (page does not exist)">Max Lafont</a> have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Statute_on_Jews">Statute on Jews</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Statute on Jews">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07,_Paris,_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07%2C_Paris%2C_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1975-041-07,_Paris,_Propaganda_gegen_Juden.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Poster above the entrance of an anti-semitic exposition called "The Jew and France"</div></div></div> <p>A Nazi ordinance dated 21 September 1940 forced Jews of the "occupied zone" to declare themselves as such at a police station or <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefectures_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefectures of France">sub-prefectures</a> (<i>sous-préfectures</i>). Under the responsibility of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Tulard" title="André Tulard">André Tulard</a>, head of the Service on Foreign Persons and Jewish Questions at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefecture_of_Police" title="Prefecture of Police">Prefecture of Police</a> of Paris, a filing system registering Jewish people was created. Tulard had previously created such a filing system under the Third Republic, registering members of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">Communist Party</a> (PCF). In the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seine_(department)" title="Seine (department)">department of the Seine</a>, encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs, nearly 150,000 persons, unaware of the upcoming danger and assisted by the police, presented themselves at police stations in accordance with the military order. The registered information was then centralised by the French police, who constructed, under the direction of inspector Tulard, a central filing system. According to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Dannecker" title="Theodor Dannecker">Dannecker report</a>, "this filing system is subdivided into files alphabetically classed, Jewish with French nationality and foreign Jewish having files of different colours, and the files were also classed, according to profession, nationality and street [of residency]".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a></sup> These files were then handed over to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Dannecker" title="Theodor Dannecker">Theodor Dannecker</a>, head of the <i>Gestapo</i> in France, under the orders of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a>, head of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSHA" class="mw-redirect" title="RSHA">RSHA</a> IV-D. They were used by the Gestapo on various raids, among them the August 1941 raid in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_arrondissement_of_Paris" title="11th arrondissement of Paris">11th arrondissement</a> of Paris, which resulted in 3,200 foreign and 1,000 French Jews being interned in various camps, including <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a>. </p><p>On 3 October 1940, the Vichy government voluntarily promulgated the first <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute on Jews">Statute on Jews</a>, which created a special <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">underclass</a> of French Jewish citizens, and enforced, for the first time in France, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a></sup> The October 1940 Statute excluded Jews from the administration, the armed forces, entertainment, arts, media, and certain professions, such as teaching, law, and medicine. A <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commissariat-General_for_Jewish_Affairs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs (page does not exist)">Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs</a> (CGQJ, <i>Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives</i>) was created on 29 March 1941. It was directed by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a> until May 1942 and then by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darquier_de_Pellepoix" class="mw-redirect" title="Darquier de Pellepoix">Darquier de Pellepoix</a> until February 1944. Mirroring the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Association of Jews">Reich Association of Jews</a>, the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Union_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_des_Isra%C3%A9lites_de_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Union Générale des Israélites de France (page does not exist)">Union Générale des Israélites de France</a></i> was founded. </p><p>The police oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting in February 1942. They also enforced requirements that Jews not appear in public places and ride only on the last car of the Parisian metro. </p><p>Along with many French police officials, André Tulard was present on the day of the inauguration of Drancy internment camp in 1941, which was used largely by French police as the central transit camp for detainees captured in France. All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> and other <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">camps</a>. </p> <h3><span id="July_1942_Vel.27_d.27Hiv_Roundup"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="July_1942_Vel'_d'Hiv_Roundup">July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: July 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506,_Paris,_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506%2C_Paris%2C_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="800"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506,_Paris,_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Two Jewish women in occupied Paris wearing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">yellow badges</a> before the mass arrests</div></div></div> <p>In July 1942, under German orders, the French police organised the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> (<i>Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv</i>) under orders by René Bousquet and his second in Paris, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>, with co-operation from authorities of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNCF" title="SNCF">SNCF</a>, the state railway company. The police arrested 13,152 Jews, including 4,051 children—which the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a></i> had not asked for—and 5,082 women, on 16 and 17 July and imprisoned them in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Velodrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Winter Velodrome">Winter Velodrome</a> in unhygienic conditions. They were led to Drancy internment camp (run by Nazi <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Brunner" title="Alois Brunner">Alois Brunner</a> and French constabulary police) and crammed into <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Box car">box cars</a> and shipped by rail to Auschwitz. Most of the victims died en route due to lack of food or water. The remaining survivors were sent to the gas chambers. This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42,000 French Jews sent to concentration camps in 1942, of whom only 811 would return after the end of the war. Although the Nazi VT (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verf%C3%BCgungstruppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Verfügungstruppe">Verfügungstruppe</a>) had directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated. "There was no effective police resistance until the end of Spring of 1944", wrote historians <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Luc_Einaudi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Luc Einaudi (page does not exist)">Jean-Luc Einaudi</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Rajsfus" title="Maurice Rajsfus">Maurice Rajsfus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Einaudi_2001_p._100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Einaudi_2001_p.-100">[99]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="August_1942_and_January_1943_raids">August 1942 and January 1943 raids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: August 1942 and January 1943 raids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_up_of_Marseille" title="Round up of Marseille">Round up of Marseille</a></div> <p>The French police, headed by Bousquet, arrested 7,000 Jews in the southern zone in August 1942. 2,500 of them transited through the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_des_Milles" title="Camp des Milles">Camp des Milles</a> near Aix-en-Provence before joining Drancy. Then, on 22, 23, and 24 January 1943, assisted by Bousquet's police force, the Germans organised a raid in Marseilles. During the Battle of Marseilles, the French police checked the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_document" title="Identity document">identity documents</a> of 40,000 people, and the operation succeeded in sending 2,000 Marseillese people in the death trains, leading to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>. The operation also encompassed the expulsion of an entire neighbourhood (30,000 persons) in the Old Port before its destruction. For this occasion, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-Gruppenf%C3%BChrer" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-Gruppenführer">SS-Gruppenführer</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Oberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Oberg">Karl Oberg</a>, in charge of the German Police in France, made the trip from Paris and transmitted to Bousquet orders directly received from <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>. It is another notable case of the French police's willful collaboration with the Nazis.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jewish_death_toll">Jewish death toll</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Jewish death toll">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In 1940, approximately 350,000 Jews lived in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">metropolitan France</a>, less than half of them with French citizenship (the others being foreign, mostly exiles from Germany during the 1930s).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a></sup> About 200,000 of them, and the large majority of foreign Jews, resided in Paris and its outskirts. Among the 150,000 French Jews, about 30,000, generally native from Central Europe, had been <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalised" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalised">naturalised</a> French during the 1930s. Of the total, approximately 25,000 French Jews and 50,000 foreign Jews were deported.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a></sup> According to historian <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>, 76,000 Jews were deported and died in concentration and extermination camps. Including the Jews who died in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camps_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentration camps in France">concentration camps in France</a>, this would have made for a total figure of 90,000 Jewish deaths (a quarter of the total Jewish population before the war, by his estimate).<sup id="cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-104">[103]</a></sup> Paxton's numbers imply that 14,000 Jews died in French concentration camps. However, the systematic census of Jewish deportees from France (citizens or not) drawn under <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Klarsfeld" title="Serge Klarsfeld">Serge Klarsfeld</a> concluded that 3,000 had died in French concentration camps and 1,000 more had been shot. Of the approximately 76,000 deported, 2,566 survived. The total thus reported is slightly below 77,500 dead (somewhat less than a quarter of the Jewish population in France in 1940).<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a></sup> </p><p>Proportionally, either number makes for a lower death toll than in some other countries (in the Netherlands, 75% of the Jewish population was murdered).<sup id="cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-104">[103]</a></sup> This fact has been used as arguments by supporters of Vichy. However, according to Paxton, the figure would have been greatly lower if the "French state" had not willfully collaborated with Germany, which lacked staff for police activities. During the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> of July 1942, Laval ordered the deportation of children, against explicit German orders. Paxton pointed out that if the total number of victims had not been higher, it was due to the shortage in wagons, the resistance of the civilian population, and deportation in other countries (notably in Italy).<sup id="cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxtonnotes-104">[103]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Government_responsibility">Government responsibility</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Government responsibility">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG/300px-Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="177" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG/450px-Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG/600px-Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2638" data-file-height="1554"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rafle_du_Vel_d%27Hiv_jardin_du_souvenir_plaque.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Commemorative plaque to the victims held in the <i>Vel' d'Hiv</i> after the 16–17 July 1942 roundup of Jews in Paris</div></div></div> <p>For decades, the French government argued that the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="French Republic">French Republic</a> had been dismantled when <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> instituted a new French State during the war and that the Republic had been re-established when the war was over. It was not for the Republic, therefore, to apologise for events that happened while it had not existed and that had been carried out by a State it did not recognise. For example, former President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> had maintained that the Vichy Government, not France's Republic, was responsible. This position was more recently reiterated by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Marine Le Pen</a>, leader of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Front (France)">National Front Party</a>, during the 2017 election campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-106">[105]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a></sup> </p><p>The first official admission that the French State had been complicit in the deportation of 76,000 Jews during WW II was made in 1995 by then President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a>, at the site of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9lodrome_d%27Hiver" title="Vélodrome d'Hiver">Vélodrome d'Hiver</a>, where 13,000 Jews had been rounded up for deportation to death camps in July 1942. "France, on that day [16 July 1942], committed the irreparable. Breaking its word, it handed those who were under its protection over to their executioners," he said. Those responsible for the roundup were "4500 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis..... the criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French state".<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-108">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a></sup> </p><p>On 16 July 2017, also at a ceremony at the Vel' d'Hiv site, President <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a> denounced the country's role in the Holocaust in France and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for the 1942 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup"> roundup</a> and subsequent deportation of 13,000 Jews. "It was indeed France that organised this", Macron insisted, French police collaborating with the Nazis. "Not a single German" was directly involved," he added. Macron was even more specific than Chirac had been in stating that the Government during the War was certainly that of France. "It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie."<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-111">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-112">[111]</a></sup> </p><p>Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's remark when he added, "I say it again here. It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death."<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Military">Military</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31"/></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. <small>You can help by <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>.</small> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2016</span>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Portions of the French military fell into Vichy control: </p><p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">General</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Nogu%C3%A8s" title="Charles Noguès">Charles Noguès</a> served as commander-in-chief of Vichy French Forces. </p><p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Navy#Second_World_War" title="French Navy">Vichy French Navy</a> were under the command of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">Admiral</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> with naval garrison in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>. </p><p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_French_Air_Force" title="Vichy French Air Force">Vichy French Air Force</a> was led by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General" class="mw-redirect" title="General">General</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Romatet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Romatet (page does not exist)">Jean Romatet</a> with involvement in actions in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Collaborationnistes"><i>Collaborationnistes</i></span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Collaborationnistes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice" title="Milice">Milice</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_French_Volunteers_Against_Bolshevism" title="Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism">Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_imp%C3%A9riale" title="Légion impériale">Légion impériale</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Waffen_Grenadier_Division_of_the_SS_Charlemagne_(1st_French)" title="33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)">33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French)</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlingue" title="Carlingue">Carlingue</a>, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_mobile_de_r%C3%A9serve" title="Groupe mobile de réserve">Groupe mobile de réserve</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15,_Russland-Mitte,_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion,_Fahne.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15%2C_Russland-Mitte%2C_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion%2C_Fahne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="511"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-141-1258-15,_Russland-Mitte,_Soldaten_der_franz%C3%B6sischen_Legion,_Fahne.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_French_Volunteers_Against_Bolshevism" title="Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism">Légion des Volontaires</a></i> fighting with the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> on the Russian front.</div></div></div> <p><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Hoffmann" title="Stanley Hoffmann">Stanley Hoffmann</a> in 1974,<sup id="cite_ref-S_H_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S_H-115">[114]</a></sup> and after him, other historians such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Az%C3%A9ma" title="Jean-Pierre Azéma">Jean-Pierre Azéma</a> have used the term <i>collaborationnistes</i> to refer to fascists and Nazi sympathisers who, for ideological reasons, wished a reinforced collaboration with Hitler's Germany. Examples of these are <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Populaire Français">Parti Populaire Français</a> (PPF) leader <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>, writer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a> or <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a>. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among <i>collaborationnistes</i> was anticommunism.<sup id="cite_ref-S_H_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S_H-115">[114]</a></sup> <i>Collaborationnisme</i> (collaborationism) should be distinguished from collaboration. Collaboration refers to those of the French who for whatever reason collaborated with the Germans whereas collaborationism refers to those, primarily from the fascist right, who embraced the goal of a German victory as their own. </p><p>Organizations such as <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a></i> opposed the Third Republic, particularly when the left-wing <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> was in power. </p><p>Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a></sup> </p><p>To enforce the régime's will, some paramilitary organisations were created. A notable example was the "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9gion_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_Combattants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Légion Française des Combattants (page does not exist)">Légion Française des Combattants</a></i>" (LFC) (French Legion of Fighters), including at first only former combatants, but quickly adding "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amis_de_la_L%C3%A9gion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amis de la Légion (page does not exist)">Amis de la Légion</a></i>" and cadets of the Légion, who had never seen battle, but who supported Pétain's régime. The name was then quickly changed to "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L%C3%A9gion_Fran%C3%A7aise_des_Combattants_et_des_volontaires_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_Nationale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Légion Française des Combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution Nationale (page does not exist)">Légion Française des Combattants et des volontaires de la Révolution Nationale</a></i>" (French Legion of Fighters and Volunteers of the National Revolution). <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a> created a "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27Ordre_L%C3%A9gionnaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Service d'Ordre Légionnaire">Service d'Ordre Légionnaire</a></i>" (SOL), which consisted mostly of French supporters of the Nazis, of which Pétain fully approved. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_and_economic_history">Social and economic history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Social and economic history">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/220px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/330px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg/440px-French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="627"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_coins_zinc_%26_aluminum_World_War_II_1940s.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Vichy French <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and aluminium coins made during the war. These coins circulated in both the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">German–occupied zone</a> and unoccupied zone.</div></div></div> <p>Vichy authorities were strongly opposed to "modern" social trends and tried through "national regeneration" to restore behaviour more in line with traditional Catholicism. Philip Manow argues that, "Vichy represents the authoritarian, antidemocratic solution that the French political right, in coalition with the national Church hierarchy, had sought repeatedly during the interwar period and almost put in place in 1934."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a></sup> Calling for "National Regeneration", Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy with central planning a key feature.<sup id="cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-3">[3]</a></sup> </p><p>Labor unions came under tight government control. There were no elections. The independence of women was reversed, with an emphasis put on motherhood. Government agencies had to fire married women employees. Conservative Catholics became prominent. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, anti-Bolshevism. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Petter_Graver" title="Hans Petter Graver">Hans Petter Graver</a> says Vichy "is notorious for its enactment of anti-Semitic laws and decrees, and these were all loyally enforced by the judiciary".<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economy">Economy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled labourer and small businessman. In practice, however, the needs of artisans for raw materials were neglected in favour of large businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a></sup> The General Committee for the Organization of Commerce (CGOC) was a national program to modernise and professionalise small business.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a></sup> </p><p>In 1940 the government took direct control of all production, which was synchronised with the demands of the Germans. It replaced free trade unions with compulsory state unions that dictated labour policy without regard to the voice or needs of the workers. The centralised, bureaucratic control of the French economy was not a success, as German demands grew heavier and more unrealistic, passive resistance and inefficiencies multiplied, and Allied bombers hit the rail yards; however, Vichy made the first comprehensive long-range plans for the French economy. The government had never before attempted a comprehensive overview. De Gaulle's Provisional Government in 1944–45 quietly used the Vichy plans as a base for its own reconstruction program. The <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monnet_Plan" title="Monnet Plan">Monnet Plan</a> of 1946 was closely based on Vichy plans.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a></sup> Thus both teams of wartime and early postwar planners repudiated prewar laissez-faire practices and embraced the cause of drastic economic overhaul and a planned economy.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Forced_labour">Forced labour</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Forced labour">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Nazi Germany kept French POWs as forced labourers throughout the war. They added compulsory (and volunteer) workers from occupied nations, especially in metal factories. The shortage of volunteers led the Vichy government to pass a law in September 1942 that effectively deported workers to Germany, where they constituted fifteen percent of the labour force by August 1944. The largest number worked in the giant <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> steel works in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essen" title="Essen">Essen</a>. Low pay, long hours, frequent bombings, and crowded air raid shelters added to the unpleasantness of poor housing, inadequate heating, limited food, and poor medical care, all compounded by harsh Nazi discipline. They finally returned home in the summer of 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a></sup> The forced labour draft encouraged the French Resistance and undermined the Vichy government.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Food_shortages">Food shortages</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Food shortages">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Civilians suffered shortages of all varieties of consumer goods.<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond1999_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1999-125">[124]</a></sup> The rationing system was stringent but badly mismanaged, leading to malnourishment, black markets, and hostility to state management of the food supply. The Germans seized about twenty percent of the French food production, causing severe disruption to the French household economy.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a></sup> French farm production fell by half because of lack of fuel, fertiliser and workers; even so the Germans seized half the meat, twenty percent of the produce, and two percent of the champagne.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a></sup> Supply problems quickly affected French stores, which lacked most items. The government answered by rationing, but German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas. The queues lengthened in front of shops. </p><p>Some people—including German soldiers—benefited from the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices. Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation. Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common. These activities were strictly forbidden, however, and thus carried the risk of confiscation and fines. Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival. The official ration provided starvation level diets of one thousand thirteen or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Women">Women</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Women">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The 2 million French soldiers held as POWs and forced labourers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat but the anxieties of separation for their 800,000 wives were high. The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the Vichy regime promoted a highly traditional model of female roles.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a></sup> The Révolution Nationale official ideology fostered the patriarchal family, headed by a man with a subservient wife who was devoted to her many children. It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration. It used propaganda, women's organisations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education.<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond1999_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond1999-125">[124]</a></sup> The falling birthrate appeared to be a grave problem to Vichy. It introduced family allowances and opposed birth control and abortion. Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food was short as well as most necessities.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a></sup> Mother's Day became a major date in the Vichy calendar, with festivities in the towns and schools featuring the award of medals to mothers of numerous children. Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women. Family allowances that had begun in the 1930s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children. In 1942 the birth rate started to rise, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_France#After_World_War_II" title="Demographics of France">by 1945 it was higher than it had been for a century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>331–332</span></sup> </p><p>On the other side women of the Resistance, many of whom were associated with combat groups linked to the French Communist Party (PCF), broke the gender barrier by fighting side by side with men. After the war, their services were ignored, but France did give women the vote in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span id="German_invasion.2C_November_1942"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="German_invasion,_November_1942">German invasion, November 1942</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: German invasion, November 1942">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Attila_(World_War_II)" title="Operation Attila (World War II)">Operation Attila (World War II)</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG/220px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG/330px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG/440px-France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="601"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France_map_Lambert-93_with_regions_and_departments-occupation_evolution.PNG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Progressive end of the Vichy regime</div></div></div> <p>Hitler ordered <i>Case Anton</i> to occupy Corsica and then the rest of the unoccupied southern zone in immediate reaction to the landing of the Allies in North Africa (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>) on 8 November 1942. Following the conclusion of the operation on 12 November, Vichy's remaining military forces were disbanded. Vichy continued to exercise its remaining jurisdiction over almost all of metropolitan France, with the residual power devolved into the hands of Laval, until the gradual collapse of the regime following the Allied invasion in June 1944. On 7 September 1944, following the Allied invasion of France, the remainders of the Vichy government cabinet fled to Germany and established a <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet government</a> in exile in the so-called <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a>. That rump government finally fell when the city was taken by the Allied French army in April 1945. </p><p>Part of the residual legitimacy of the Vichy regime resulted from the continued ambivalence of U.S. and other leaders. President Roosevelt continued to cultivate Vichy, and promoted General <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giraud" title="Henri Giraud">Henri Giraud</a> as a preferable alternative to de Gaulle, despite the poor performance of Vichy forces in North Africa—Admiral <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a> had landed in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> the day before Operation Torch. Algiers was headquarters of the Vichy French XIX Army Corps, which controlled Vichy military units in North Africa. Darlan was neutralised within 15 hours by a 400-strong French resistance force. Roosevelt and Churchill accepted Darlan, rather than de Gaulle, as the French leader in North Africa. De Gaulle had not even been informed of the landing in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75">[75]</a></sup> The United States also resented the Free French taking control of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Pierre_and_Miquelon" class="mw-redirect" title="St Pierre and Miquelon">St Pierre and Miquelon</a> on 24 December 1941, because, Secretary of State <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Hull</a> believed, it interfered with a U.S.-Vichy agreement to maintain the status quo with respect to French territorial possessions in the western hemisphere. </p><p>Following the invasion of France via Normandy and Provence (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a>) and the departure of the Vichy leaders, the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union finally recognised the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF) headed by de Gaulle as the legitimate government of France on 23 October 1944. Before that, the first return of democracy to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_France" title="Metropolitan France">Metropolitan France</a> since 1940 had occurred with the declaration of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_du_Vercors" title="Maquis du Vercors">Free Republic of Vercors</a> on 3 July 1944, at the behest of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French government</a>—but that act of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">resistance</a> was quashed by an overwhelming German attack by the end of July. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Decline_of_the_regime">Decline of the regime</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Decline of the regime">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Independence_of_the_SOL">Independence of the SOL</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Independence of the SOL">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milice_poster.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg/220px-Milice_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg/330px-Milice_poster.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milice_poster.jpg/440px-Milice_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="1040"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milice_poster.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A recruitment poster for the Milice. The text says "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Communism">Against Communism</a> / French Militia / <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary-General">Secretary-General</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>".</div></div></div> <p>In 1943 the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27ordre_l%C3%A9gionnaire" title="Service d'ordre légionnaire">Service d'ordre légionnaire</a></i> (SOL) collaborationist militia, headed by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, became independent and was transformed into the "<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milice_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Milice française">Milice française</a></i>" (French Militia). Officially directed by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> himself, the SOL was led by Darnand, who held an <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS" class="mw-redirect" title="SS">SS</a> rank and pledged an oath of loyalty to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>. Under Darnand and his sub-commanders, such as <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bernonville" title="Jacques de Bernonville">Jacques de Bernonville</a>, the Milice was responsible for helping the German forces and police in the repression of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> and <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">Maquis</a></i>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sigmaringen_commission">Sigmaringen commission</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sigmaringen commission">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/220px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/330px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg/440px-Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3643" data-file-height="2770"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sigmaringen_schloss.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Sigmaringen operation was based in the city's ancient castle.</div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/220px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/330px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg/440px-Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="2480"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo-le-molay-littry-4-1944.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Liberation of France, 1944</div></div></div> <p>Following the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a> on 25 August 1944, Pétain and his ministers were taken to Germany by the German forces. There, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_de_Brinon" title="Fernand de Brinon">Fernand de Brinon</a> established a pseudo-government in exile at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmaringen" title="Sigmaringen">Sigmaringen</a>. Pétain refused to participate and the Sigmaringen operation had little or no authority. The offices used the official title <i>French Delegation</i> (French: <i lang="fr">Délégation française</i>) or the <i>French Government Commission for the Protection of National Interests</i> (French: <i lang="fr">Commission gouvernementale française pour la défense des intérêts nationaux</i>). Sigmaringen had its own radio station (Radio-patrie, Ici la France) and official press (<i>La France</i>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Petit_Parisien" title="Le Petit Parisien">Le Petit Parisien</a></i>), and hosted the embassies of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>: Germany, Italy and Japan. The population of the enclave was about 6,000, including known collaborationist journalists, the writers <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Lucien Rebatet</a>, the actor <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Le_Vigan" title="Robert Le Vigan">Robert Le Vigan</a>, and their families, as well as 500 soldiers, 700 French SS, prisoners of war and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">French civilian forced labourers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jackson2001_39-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jackson2001-39">[39]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>567–568</span></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Provisional_government">Provisional government</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Provisional government">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></div> <p>The Free French, concerned that the Allies might decide to put France under administration of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Military_Government_for_Occupied_Territories" title="Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories">Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories</a>, strove to establish quickly the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a>. The first action of that government was to re-establish republican legality throughout metropolitan France. </p><p>The provisional government considered the Vichy government to have been unconstitutional and all its actions therefore without legitimate authority. All "constitutional acts, legislative or regulatory" taken by the Vichy government, as well as decrees taken to implement them, were declared null and void by the Order of 9 August 1944. Inasmuch as blanket rescission of all acts taken by Vichy (i.e., including measures that might have been taken by a legitimate republican government) was deemed impractical, though, the Order provided that acts not expressly noted as nullified in the Order were to continue to receive "provisional application". Many acts were explicitly repealed, including all acts that Vichy had called "constitutional acts", all acts that discriminated against Jews, all acts related to so-called "secret societies" (e.g., <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason" class="mw-redirect" title="Freemason">Freemasons</a>), and all acts that established special tribunals.<sup id="cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-133">[132]</a></sup> </p><p>Collaborationist paramilitary and political organisations, such as the Milice and the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27ordre_l%C3%A9gionnaire" title="Service d'ordre légionnaire">Service d'ordre légionnaire</a></i>, were also dissolved.<sup id="cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-133">[132]</a></sup> </p><p>The provisional government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime, through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected not later than 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Purges">Purges</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Purges">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">Pursuit of Nazi collaborators</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a></div> <table class="box-Refimprove_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399"/></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br/><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vichy+France%22">"Vichy France"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vichy+France%22+site:news.google.com/newspapers&source=newspapers">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vichy+France%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vichy+France%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2016</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the liberation, France was swept for a short period with a wave of executions of Collaborationists. Collaborationists were brought to the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9lodrome_d%27hiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Vélodrome d'hiver">Vélodrome d'hiver</a>, Fresnes prison or the Drancy internment camp. Women who were suspected of having romantic liaisons with Germans, or more often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> of being prostitutes who had entertained German customers, were publicly humiliated by having their heads shaved. Those who had engaged in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> were also stigmatised as "war profiteers" (<i>profiteurs de guerre</i>), and popularly called "BOF" (<i>Beurre Oeuf Fromage</i>, or Butter Eggs Cheese, because of the products sold at outrageous prices during the Occupation). However, the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> (GPRF, 1944–46) quickly reestablished order, and brought Collaborationists before the courts. Many convicted Collaborationists were then given amnesty under the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a> (1946–54). </p><p>Four different periods are distinguished by historians: </p> <ul><li>the first phase of popular convictions (<i>épuration sauvage</i> – wild purge): executions without judgments and shaving of women's heads. Estimations by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9fecture_de_police" class="mw-redirect" title="Préfecture de police">police prefects</a> made in 1948 and 1952 counted as many as 6,000 executions before the Liberation, and 4,000 afterward.</li> <li>the second phase (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">épuration légale</a></i> or legal purge), which began with Charles de Gaulle's 26 and 27 June 1944 purge <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordonnance" title="Ordonnance">ordonnances</a></i> (de Gaulle's first ordonnance instituting purge Commissions was enacted on 18 August 1943): judgments of Collaborationists by the <i>Commissions d'épuration</i>, who condemned approximately 120,000 persons (e.g. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, leader of the royalist <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a></i>, was thus condemned to a life sentence on 25 January 1945), including 1,500 death sentences (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Darnand" title="Joseph Darnand">Joseph Darnand</a>, head of the Milice, and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a>, head of the French state, were executed after trial on 4 October 1945, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a>, executed on 6 February 1945, etc.)—many of those who survived this phase were later given amnesty.</li> <li>the third phase, more lenient towards Collaborationists (the trial of Philippe Pétain or of writer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>).</li> <li>finally came the period for amnesty and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graces" class="mw-redirect" title="Graces">graces</a> (e.g.,. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_Esteva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Pierre Esteva (page does not exist)">Jean-Pierre Esteva</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a>, creator of the General Commission for Jewish Affairs, René Bousquet, head of French police, etc.)</li></ul> <p>Other historians have distinguished the purges against intellectuals (Brasillach, Céline, etc.), industrialists, fighters (LVF, etc.) and civil servants (Papon, etc.). </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10,_Paris,_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10%2C_Paris%2C_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="529"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-041-10,_Paris,_der_Kollaboration_beschuldigte_Franz%C3%B6sinnen.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Paris 1944: Women accused of collaboration with Nazis are paraded through the streets; they often had their hair cut off as a form of humiliation.</div></div></div> <p>Philippe Pétain was charged with treason in July 1945. He was convicted and sentenced to death by firing squad, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment. In the police, some collaborators soon resumed official responsibilities. This continuity of the administration was pointed out,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in particular concerning the events of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_massacre_of_1961" title="Paris massacre of 1961">Paris massacre of 1961</a>, executed under the orders of head of the Parisian police <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a> when Charles de Gaulle was head of state. Papon was tried and convicted for crimes against humanity in 1998. </p><p>The French members of the Waffen-SS <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Division_Charlemagne" class="mw-redirect" title="SS Division Charlemagne"><i>Charlemagne</i> Division</a> who survived the war were regarded as traitors. Some of the more prominent officers were executed, while the rank-and-file were given prison terms; some of them were given the option of doing time in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Indochina War">Indochina</a> (1946–54) with the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_%C3%A9trang%C3%A8re" class="mw-redirect" title="Légion étrangère">Foreign Legion</a> instead of prison.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Among artists, singer <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tino_Rossi" title="Tino Rossi">Tino Rossi</a> was detained in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnes_prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Fresnes prison">Fresnes prison</a>, where, according to <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_(newspaper)" title="Combat (newspaper)">Combat</a></i> newspaper, prison guards asked him for autographs. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Beno%C3%AEt_(novelist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Benoît (novelist)">Pierre Benoit</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arletty" title="Arletty">Arletty</a> were also detained. </p><p>Executions without trials and other forms of "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popular_justice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Popular justice (page does not exist)">popular justice</a>" were harshly criticised immediately after the war, with circles close to <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A9tainism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pétainism (page does not exist)">Pétainists</a> advancing the figures of 100,000, and denouncing the "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>", "anarchy", or "blind vengeance". The writer and Jewish internee <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Aron" title="Robert Aron">Robert Aron</a> estimated the popular executions to a number of 40,000 in 1960. This surprised de Gaulle, who estimated the number to be around 10,000, which is also the figure accepted today by mainstream historians. Approximately 9,000 of these 10,000 refer to summary executions in the whole of the country, which occurred during battle.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some imply that France did too little to deal with collaborators at this stage, by selectively pointing out that in absolute value (numbers), there were fewer legal executions in France than in its smaller neighbour Belgium, and fewer internments than in Norway or the Netherlands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, the situation in Belgium was not comparable as it mixed collaboration with elements of a war of secession: The 1940 invasion prompted the Flemish population to generally side with the Germans in the hope of gaining national recognition, and relative to national population a much higher proportion of Belgians than French thus ended up collaborating with the Nazis or volunteering to fight alongside them;<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a></sup> The Walloon population in turn led massive anti-Flemish retribution after the war, some of which, such as the execution of <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irma_Laplasse" class="extiw" title="nl:Irma Laplasse">Irma Swertvaeger Laplasse</a>, remained controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a></sup> </p><p>The proportion of collaborators was also higher in Norway, and collaboration occurred on a larger scale in the Netherlands (as in Flanders) based partly on linguistic and cultural commonality with Germany. The internments in Norway and Netherlands, meanwhile, were <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_purge_in_Norway_after_World_War_II#Process" title="Legal purge in Norway after World War II">highly temporary</a> and were rather indiscriminate; there was a brief internment peak in these countries as internment was used partly for the purpose of separating Collaborationists from non-Collaborationists.<sup id="cite_ref-Andenæs_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andenæs-138">[137]</a></sup> Norway ended up <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_purge_in_Norway_after_World_War_II#People_executed_as_part_of_the_legal_purge" title="Legal purge in Norway after World War II">executing only 37 Collaborationists</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="1980s_trials">1980s trials</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: 1980s trials">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Some accused war criminals were judged, some for a second time, from the 1980s onwards: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Barbie" title="Klaus Barbie">Klaus Barbie</a>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, René Bousquet (the head of the French police during the war) and his deputy <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>. Bousquet and Leguay were both convicted for their responsibilities in the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> of July 1942. Among others, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_hunter" title="Nazi hunter">Nazi hunters</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_and_Beate_Klarsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Serge and Beate Klarsfeld">Serge and Beate Klarsfeld</a> spent part of their post-war effort trying to bring them before the courts. A fair number of collaborationists then joined the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_de_l%27arm%C3%A9e_secr%C3%A8te" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation de l'armée secrète">OAS</a> terrorist movement during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> (1954–62). <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bernonville" title="Jacques de Bernonville">Jacques de Bernonville</a> escaped to Quebec, then Brazil. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Ploncard_d%27Assac" title="Jacques Ploncard d'Assac">Jacques Ploncard d'Assac</a> became counsellor to the dictator <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a> in Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a></sup> </p><p>In 1993, former Vichy official <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a> was assassinated while he awaited prosecution in Paris following a 1991 inculpation for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>; he had been prosecuted but partially acquitted and immediately amnestied in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a></sup> In 1994 former Vichy official <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a> (1915–1996) was convicted of crimes against humanity. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a> was likewise convicted in 1998, released three years later due to ill health, and died in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span id="Historiographical_debates_and_.22Vichy_Syndrome.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Historiographical_debates_and_"Vichy_Syndrome"">Historiographical debates and "Vichy Syndrome"</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Historiographical debates and "Vichy Syndrome"">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="box-Refimprove_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399"/></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing_with_Wiki_Markup/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br/><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vichy+France%22">"Vichy France"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vichy+France%22+site:news.google.com/newspapers&source=newspapers">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vichy+France%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vichy+France%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vichy+France%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Until <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a>'s presidency, the official point of view of the French government was that the Vichy regime was an illegal government distinct from the French Republic, established by traitors under foreign influence.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a></sup> Indeed, Vichy France eschewed the formal name of France ("French Republic") and styled itself the "French State", replacing the Republican motto of <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_Egalit%C3%A9,_Fraternit%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité">Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité</a></i> (liberty, equality, fraternity) inherited from the 1789 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, with the motto <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travail,_Famille,_Patrie" class="mw-redirect" title="Travail, Famille, Patrie">Travail, Famille, Patrie</a></i> (work, family, fatherland). </p><p>While the criminal behaviour of Vichy France was consistently acknowledged, this point of view denied any responsibility of the state of France, alleging that acts committed between 1940 and 1944 were unconstitutional acts devoid of legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a></sup> The main proponent of this view was <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> himself, who insisted, as did other historians afterwards, on the unclear conditions of the June 1940 vote granting full powers to Pétain, which was refused by the minority of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_80" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy 80">Vichy 80</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a></sup> In particular, coercive measures used by Pierre Laval have been denounced by those historians who hold that the vote did not, therefore, have Constitutional legality (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France#Conditions_of_armistice_and_10_July_1940_vote_of_full_powers" title="Vichy France">See subsection: <i>Conditions of armistice and 10 July 1940 vote of full powers</i></a>). In later years, de Gaulle's position was reiterated by president Mitterrand.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-112">[111]</a></sup> "I will not apologize in the name of France. The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible," he said in September 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-106">[105]</a></sup> </p><p>The first President to accept responsibility for the arrest and deportation of Jews from France was Jacques Chirac, in a 16 July 1995 speech. He recognised the responsibility of "the French State"<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-108">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-112">[111]</a></sup> for seconding the "criminal folly of the occupying country", in particular the French police, headed by René Bousquet (charged in 1990 with crimes against humanity),<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a></sup> which assisted the Nazis in the enactment of the so-called "Final Solution". The July 1942 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a> is a tragic example of how the French police did the Nazi work, going even further than what military orders demanded (by sending children to Drancy internment camp, last stop before the extermination camps).<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a></sup> </p><p>President Macron's statement on 16 July 2017 was even more specific, stating clearly that the Vichy regime was certainly the French State during WW II, and played a role in the Holocaust. (Earlier that year, speeches made by Marine Le Pen had made the headlines by claiming that the Vichy Government was "not France.")<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a></sup> Macron made the following remark when discussing the Vel' d'Hiver roundup of Jews: "It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it's convenient, but it is false."<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-111">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto3_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-112">[111]</a></sup> </p><p>As historian Henry Rousso has put it in <i>The Vichy Syndrome</i> (1987), Vichy and the state collaboration of France remains a "past that doesn't pass away".<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a></sup> </p><p>Historiographical debates are still, today, passionate, opposing conflictual views on the nature and legitimacy of Vichy's collaborationism with Germany in the implementation of the Holocaust. Three main periods have been distinguished in the historiography of Vichy: first the Gaullist period, which aimed at national reconciliation and unity under the figure of Charles de Gaulle, who conceived himself above political parties and divisions; then the 1960s, with <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Oph%C3%BCls" title="Marcel Ophüls">Marcel Ophüls</a>'s film <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sorrow_and_the_Pity" title="The Sorrow and the Pity">The Sorrow and the Pity</a></i> (1971); finally the 1990s, with the trial of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, civil servant in Bordeaux in charge of the "Jewish Questions" during the war, who was convicted after a very long trial (1981–1998) for crimes against humanity. The trial of Papon did not only concern an individual itinerary, but the French administration's collective responsibility in the deportation of the Jews. Furthermore, his career after the war, which led him to be successively prefect of the Paris police during the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a> (1954–1962) and then treasurer of the Gaullist <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_des_D%C3%A9mocrates_pour_la_R%C3%A9publique" class="mw-redirect" title="Union des Démocrates pour la République">Union des Démocrates pour la République</a> party from 1968 to 1971, and finally Budget Minister under president <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Valéry Giscard d'Estaing</a> and prime minister <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Barre" title="Raymond Barre">Raymond Barre</a> from 1978 to 1981, was symptomatic of the quick rehabilitation of former collaborationists after the war. Critics contend that this itinerary, shared by others (although few had such public roles), demonstrates France's collective amnesia, while others point out that the perception of the war and of the state collaboration has evolved during these years. Papon's career was considered more scandalous as he had been responsible, during his function as prefect of police of Paris, for the 1961 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris massacre">Paris massacre</a> of Algerians during the war, and was forced to resign from this position after the "disappearance", in Paris in 1965, of the Moroccan anti-colonialist leader <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehdi_Ben_Barka" title="Mehdi Ben Barka">Mehdi Ben Barka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a></sup> Papon was convicted in 1998 as having been complicit with the Nazis in crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a></sup> </p><p>While it is certain that the Vichy government and a large number of its high administration collaborated in the implementation of the Holocaust, the exact level of such co-operation is still debated. Compared with the Jewish communities established in other countries invaded by Germany, French Jews suffered proportionately lighter losses (see Jewish death toll section above); although, starting in 1942, repression and deportations struck French Jews as well as foreign Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-Cite_87-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cite-87">[86]</a></sup> Former Vichy officials later claimed that they did as much as they could to minimise the impact of the Nazi policies, although mainstream French historians contend that the Vichy regime went beyond the Nazi expectations. </p><p>The regional newspaper <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Matin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nice Matin">Nice Matin</a></i> revealed on 28 February 2007, that in more than 1,000 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condominium" title="Condominium">condominium</a> properties on the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Azur" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Azur">Côte d'Azur</a>, rules dating to Vichy were still "in force", or at least existed on paper. One of these rules, for example, stated that: </p> <blockquote><p>The contractors shall make the following statements: they are of French nationality, are not Jewish, nor married to Jewish in the sense of the laws and ordinances in force [under Vichy, <i>ed. note</i>]</p></blockquote> <p>The president of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_Repr%C3%A9sentatif_des_Institutions_juives_de_France" title="Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France">Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France</a>-Côte d'Azur, a Jewish association group, issued a strong condemnation labelling it "the utmost horror" when one of the inhabitants of such a condominium qualified this as an "anachronism" with "no consequences".<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a></sup> Jewish inhabitants were able and willing to live in the buildings, and to explain this the <i>Nice Matin</i> reporter surmised that some tenants may have not read the condominium contracts in detail, while others deemed the rules obsolete.<sup id="cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lefigaro.fr-152">[151]</a></sup> A reason for the latter is that any racially discriminatory condominium or other local rule that may have existed "on paper", Vichy-era or otherwise, was invalidated by the constitutions of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">French Fourth Republic</a> (1946) and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">French Fifth Republic</a> (1958) and was inapplicable under French <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidiscrimination_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiscrimination law">antidiscrimination law</a>. Thus, even if the tenants or coowners had signed or otherwise agreed to these rules after 1946, any such agreement would be null and void (caduque) under French law, as were the rules. Rewriting or eliminating the obsolete rules would have had to be done at the occupants' expense, including notary fees of 900 to 7000 EUR per building.<sup id="cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lefigaro.fr-152">[151]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span id=".22Sword_and_shield.22_argument"></span><span class="mw-headline" id=""Sword_and_shield"_argument">"Sword and shield" argument</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: "Sword and shield" argument">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Today, the few remaining Vichy supporters continue to maintain the official argument advanced by Pétain and Laval: the state collaboration was supposed to protect the French civilian population from the hardships of the Occupation. At his trial Pétain proclaimed that while Charles de Gaulle had represented the "sword" of France, Pétain had been the "shield" which protected France.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Purification">Purification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Purification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Munholland reports a widespread consensus among historians regarding the authoritarian character of the Vichy regime and its: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047036">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>broadly stated desire to regenerate a "decadent" state and society that had become corrupted by an ambient lassitude, secularism, and hedonism under the Third Republic by returning to earlier and purer values and imposing a greater discipline and dynamism upon the industrial order.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a></sup> </p></blockquote> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Foreign_Jews">Foreign Jews</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Foreign Jews">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Although this claim is rejected by the rest of the French population and by the state itself, another myth remains more widespread than this one. This other myth refers to the alleged "protection" by Vichy of French Jews by "accepting" to collaborate in the deportation – and, ultimately, in the extermination – of foreign Jews. </p><p>However, this argument has been rejected by several historians who are specialists of the subject, among them US historian <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>, who is widely recognised, and historian of the French police <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Rajsfus" title="Maurice Rajsfus">Maurice Rajsfus</a>. Both were called on as experts during the Papon trial in the 1990s. </p><p>Robert Paxton thus declared, before the court, on 31 October 1997, that "Vichy took initiatives... The armistice allowed it a breathing space." <sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> Henceforth, on its own Vichy decided, within the homeland, to implement the "National Revolution" ("Révolution nationale"). After naming the alleged causes of the defeat ("democracy, parliamentarism, cosmopolitanism, the left wing, foreigners, Jews, ..."), Vichy put in place, by 3 October 1940, the first <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_anti-Jewish_legislation" title="Vichy anti-Jewish legislation">anti-Jewish legislation</a>. From then on, Jewish people were considered "second-zone citizens<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> ". </p><p>Internationally, France "believed the war to be finished". Thus, by July 1940, Vichy was eagerly negotiating with the German authorities in an attempt to gain a place for France in the Third Reich's "New Order". But "Hitler never forgot the 1918 defeat. He always said no." Vichy's ambition was doomed from the start.<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> </p><p>"Antisemitism was a constant theme", recalled Robert Paxton. It even, at first, opposed German plans. "At this time the Nazis had not yet decided to exterminate the Jews, but to expel them. Their idea was not to make of France an antisemitic country. On the contrary, they wanted to send there the Jews that they expelled" from the Reich.<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> </p><p>The historic change came in 1941–1942, with the pending German defeat on the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>. The war then became "total", and in August 1941, Hitler decided on the "global extermination of all European Jews". This new policy was officially formulated during the January 1942 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a>, and implemented in all European occupied countries by spring<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2009)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> 1942. France, praising itself for having remained an independent state (as opposed to other occupied countries) "decided to cooperate. This is the second Vichy."<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> The first train of deportees left Drancy on 27 March 1942, for Poland – the first in a long series. </p><p>"The Nazis needed the French administration... They always complained about the lack of staff." recalled Paxton,<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> something which Maurice Rajsfus has also underlined. Although the American historian recognised during the trial that the "civil behavior of certain individuals" had permitted many Jews to escape deportation, he stated that: </p> <blockquote><p>The French state, itself, participated in the policy of extermination of the Jews... How can one claim the reverse when such technical and administrative resources were made available to them?<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Pointing to the French police's registering of Jews, as well as Laval's decision, taken completely autonomously in August 1942, to deport children along with their parents, Paxton added: </p> <blockquote><p>Contrary to preconceived ideas, Vichy did not sacrifice foreign Jews in the hope of protecting French Jews. At the hierarchy summit, it knew, from the start, that the deportation of French Jews was unavoidable.<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Despite Paxton's assertion about Vichy knowledge "from the start", deportations from France did not start until summer 1942, several months after mass deportation from other countries started. Part of the population housed at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camp</a>, opened in 1933, was Jewish, and major death camps in Poland and Germany were opened in 1941 and early 1942. </p><p>Paxton then referred to the case of Italy, where deportation of Jewish people had started only after the German occupation. Italy surrendered to the Allies in mid-1943 but was then invaded by Germany. Fighting continued there through 1944. In particular, in Nice, "Italians had protected the Jews. And the French authorities complained about it to the Germans."<sup id="cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155">[154]</a></sup> In this instance, deportations from Italy started immediately upon its invasion by Germany. In fact, the rise of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian fascism">Italian fascism</a> had drastically curtailed Jewish immigration during the inter-war period, and Italy had passed drastic anti-Semitic laws in 1938 that stripped Jews of their citizenship. Ultimately, a similar proportion of Jews from Italy as from France were deported. </p><p>More recent work by the historian Susan Zuccotti finds that, in general, the Vichy government facilitated the deportation of foreign Jews rather than French ones, until at least 1943: </p> <blockquote><p> Vichy officials [had] hoped to deport foreign Jews throughout France in order to ease pressure on native Jews. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> himself expressed the official Vichy position... In the early months of 1943, the terror [Adam] Munz and [Alfred] Feldman described in German-occupied France was still experienced by foreign Jews like themselves. It is difficult to know exactly how many French Jews were arrested, usually for specific or alleged offences, but on 21 January 1943, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Knochen" title="Helmut Knochen">Helmut Knochen</a> informed <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eichmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Eichmann">Eichmann</a> in Berlin that there were 2,159 French citizens among the 3,811 prisoners at Drancy. Many had been at Drancy for several months. They had not been deported because, until January 1943, there had usually been enough foreigners and their children to fill the forty-three trains that had carried about 41,591 people to the east... By January 1943, however, foreign Jews were increasingly aware of the danger and difficult to find. Nazi pressure for the arrest of French Jews and the deportation of those already at Drancy increased accordingly. Thus, when Knochen reported that there were 2,159 French citizens among the 3,811 prisoners at Drancy on 21 January 1943, he also asked Eichmann for permission to deport them. There had been no convoy from Drancy in December and January, and [SS Lieutenant Heinz] <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_R%C3%B6thke" title="Heinz Röthke">Röthke</a> was pressuring Knochen to resume them. Röthke also wanted to empty Drancy in order to refill it. Despite Vichy officials' past disapproval and Eichmann's own prior discouragement of such a step, permission for the deportation of the French Jews at Drancy, except for those in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws#Nazi_Germany" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">mixed marriages</a>, was granted from Berlin on 25 January.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Whatever the Vichy government's intent initially or subsequently, the numerical outcome was that less than 15% of French Jews, vs. nearly twice that proportion of non-citizen Jews residing in France, died. More Jews lived in France at the end of the Vichy regime than had approximately ten years earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notable_figures">Notable figures</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Notable figures">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:French_collaborators_with_Nazi_Germany" title="Category:French collaborators with Nazi Germany">Category:French collaborators with Nazi Germany</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r889293853/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:left;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pucheu,_Pierre.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/200px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/300px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg/400px-Pucheu%2C_Pierre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="716"/></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pucheu" title="Pierre Pucheu">Pierre Pucheu</a> in 1941, who was executed in 1944.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xavier_Vallat.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/200px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/300px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Xavier_Vallat.jpg/400px-Xavier_Vallat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648"/></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a></div></div></div></div></div> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a>, Head of State.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a>, Prime Minister (1940, 1942–1944).</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-%C3%89tienne_Flandin" title="Pierre-Étienne Flandin">Pierre-Étienne Flandin</a>, Prime Minister (1940–1941).</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Darlan" title="François Darlan">François Darlan</a>, Prime Minister (1941–1942).</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Pucheu" title="Pierre Pucheu">Pierre Pucheu</a>, Minister of the Interior.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a>, Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and Minister of Defense.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Huntziger" title="Charles Huntziger">Charles Huntziger</a>, general and Minister of Defense.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Bousquet" title="René Bousquet">René Bousquet</a>, head of the French police.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Leguay" title="Jean Leguay">Jean Leguay</a>, delegate of Bousquet in the "free zone", charged with crimes against humanity for his role in the July 1942 <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv Roundup</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Darquier_de_Pellepoix" title="Louis Darquier de Pellepoix">Louis Darquier de Pellepoix</a>, Commissioner for Jewish Affairs.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Henriot" title="Philippe Henriot">Philippe Henriot</a>, State Secretary of Information and Propaganda.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Papon" title="Maurice Papon">Maurice Papon</a>, head of the Jewish Questions Service in the prefecture of Bordeaux. Condemned for crimes against humanity in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Sabiani" title="Simon Sabiani">Simon Sabiani</a>, head of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Populaire Français">Parti Populaire Français</a></i> in Marseille.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Touvier" title="Paul Touvier">Paul Touvier</a>, condemned in 1995 for crimes against humanity for his role as head of the <i>Milice</i> in Lyon.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Vallat" title="Xavier Vallat">Xavier Vallat</a>, Commissioner General for Jewish Questions.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a>, founder of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassemblement_national_populaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rassemblement national populaire">Rassemblement national populaire</a></i> (RNP) in 1941. Joined the government in the last months of the Occupation.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Henry-Haye" title="Gaston Henry-Haye">Gaston Henry-Haye</a>, Vichy ambassador to the United States of America.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a>, later President of the French Republic (1981–1995)</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Non-Vichy_collaborationists">Non-Vichy collaborationists</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Non-Vichy collaborationists">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Bucard" title="Marcel Bucard">Marcel Bucard</a>, founder of the far-right <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_franciste" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement franciste">Mouvement franciste</a></i> and <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_des_volontaires_francais_contre_le_bolchevisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion des volontaires francais contre le bolchevisme">Legion des volontaires francais contre le bolchevisme</a></i> (LVF).</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Deloncle" title="Eugène Deloncle">Eugène Deloncle</a>, co-founder of the right-wing terrorist group <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Cagoule" title="La Cagoule">La Cagoule</a></i> in 1935 and fascist <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouvement_social_r%C3%A9volutionnaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement social révolutionnaire">Mouvement social révolutionnaire</a></i> in 1940.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Doriot" title="Jacques Doriot">Jacques Doriot</a>, founder of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Populaire_Fran%C3%A7ais" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Populaire Français">Parti Populaire Français</a></i> (PPF) and member of the LVF.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Leandri" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne Leandri">Étienne Leandri</a>, wore the Gestapo uniform during the war and participated in the creation of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaullist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaullist">Gaullist</a> <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27Action_Civique" title="Service d'Action Civique">Service d'Action Civique</a></i> (SAC) in the 1960s.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brasillach" title="Robert Brasillach">Robert Brasillach</a>, writer, executed for collaboration after the war.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Ferdinand_C%C3%A9line" title="Louis-Ferdinand Céline">Louis-Ferdinand Céline</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Drieu_La_Rochelle" title="Pierre Drieu La Rochelle">Pierre Drieu La Rochelle</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Le_Vigan" title="Robert Le Vigan">Robert Le Vigan</a>, actor.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Rebatet" title="Lucien Rebatet">Lucien Rebatet</a>, writer.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Charles Maurras</a>, writer and founder of royalist movement <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Action Française">Action Française</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Taittinger" title="Pierre Taittinger">Pierre Taittinger</a>, chairman of the municipal council of Paris 1943–1944.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Lafont" title="Henri Lafont">Henri Lafont</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Bonny" title="Pierre Bonny">Pierre Bonny</a>, also known as Pierre Bony.</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="box-Too_many_see_alsos plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48"/></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#"See_also"_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">see also</a>" section <b>may contain an excessive number of suggestions</b>. Please ensure that only the most relevant links are given, that they are not <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Red_link" title="Wikipedia:Red link">red links</a>, and that any links are not already in this article. <small><i>(March 2019)</i></small><small class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>1942–43 <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riom_Trial" title="Riom Trial">Riom Trial</a> and <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vichy_80" title="The Vichy 80">The Vichy 80</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadix" title="Cadix">Cadix</a>, Allied intelligence center in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uz%C3%A8s" title="Uzès">Uzès</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration_with_the_Axis_Powers_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II">Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Vichy_France" title="Foreign relations of Vichy France">Foreign relations of Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Colonial_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="French Colonial Empire">French Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">German occupation of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian occupation of France during World War II">Italian occupation of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies" title="List of French possessions and colonies">List of French possessions and colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">Military Administration in France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of France during World War II">Military history of France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane" title="Oradour-sur-Glane">Oradour-sur-Glane</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordre_Nouveau_(1940s)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordre Nouveau (1940s)">Ordre Nouveau</a></i>, French translation of <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Order_(political_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Order (political system)">Nationsozialistische Neue Ordnung</a></i>, Hitler's planned Nazi hegemony in Europe</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_Todt" title="Organisation Todt">Organisation Todt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursuit_of_Nazi_collaborators" title="Pursuit of Nazi collaborators">Pursuit of Nazi collaborators</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Elizabeth_Thorpe" title="Amy Elizabeth Thorpe">Amy Elizabeth Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(Frankreich)_Area_(Luftflotte_3,_France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Front (Frankreich) Area (Luftflotte 3, France)">Western Front (Frankreich) Area (Luftflotte 3, France)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Basque_Country" title="World War II in the Basque Country">World War II in the Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_of_Septfonds" title="Camp of Septfonds">Camp of Septfonds</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: Pétain: "<i>J'entre aujourd'hui dans la voie de la collaboration.</i>"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-law-1944-08-09-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-law-1944-08-09_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090716040542/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071212&dateTexte=20090620">"Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental – Version consolidée au 10 août 1944"</a> [Law of 9 August 1944 Concerning the reestablishment of the legally constituted Republic on the mainland – consolidated version of 10 August 1944]. <i>gouv.fr</i>. Legifrance. 9 August 1944. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071212&dateTexte=20090620">the original</a> on 16 July 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2015</span>. <q>Article 1: The form of the government of France is and remains the Republic. By law, it has not ceased to exist. <br/> Article 2: The following are therefore null and void: all legislative or regulatory acts as well as all actions of any description whatsoever taken to execute them, promulgated in Metropolitan France after 16 June 1940 and until the restoration of the Provisional Government of the French Republic. This nullification is hereby expressly declared and must be noted.<br/>Article 3. The following acts are hereby expressly nullified and held invalid: The so-called "Constitutional Law of 10 July 1940; as well as any laws called 'Constitutional Law';...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gouv.fr&rft.atitle=Ordonnance+du+9+ao%C3%BBt+1944+relative+au+r%C3%A9tablissement+de+la+l%C3%A9galit%C3%A9+r%C3%A9publicaine+sur+le+territoire+continental+%E2%80%93+Version+consolid%C3%A9e+au+10+ao%C3%BBt+1944&rft.date=1944-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legifrance.gouv.fr%2FaffichTexte.do%3FcidTexte%3DLEGITEXT000006071212%26dateTexte%3D20090620&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NDompnier-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NDompnier_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Dompnier, Nathalie (2001). "Entre <i>La Marseillaise</i> et <i>Maréchal, nous voilà !</i> quel hymne pour le régime de Vichy ?". In Chimènes, Myriam (ed.). <i>La vie musicale sous Vichy</i>. Histoire du temps présent (in French). Bruxelles: Éditions Complexe – IRPMF-CNRS, coll. p. 71. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2870278642" title="Special:BookSources/978-2870278642"><bdi>978-2870278642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Entre+La+Marseillaise+et+Mar%C3%A9chal%2C+nous+voil%C3%A0+%21+quel+hymne+pour+le+r%C3%A9gime+de+Vichy+%3F&rft.btitle=La+vie+musicale+sous+Vichy&rft.place=Bruxelles&rft.series=Histoire+du+temps+pr%C3%A9sent&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+Complexe+%E2%80%93+IRPMF-CNRS%2C+coll.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2870278642&rft.aulast=Dompnier&rft.aufirst=Nathalie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Debbie_Lackerstein_2013_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Debbie Lackerstein, <i>National Regeneration in Vichy France: Ideas and Policies, 1930–1944</i> (2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levieux_1999-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levieux_1999_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Levieux, Eleanor (1999). <i>Insiders' French : beyond the dictionary</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 239. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47502-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47502-8"><bdi>978-0-226-47502-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insiders%27+French+%3A+beyond+the+dictionary&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-226-47502-8&rft.aulast=Levieux&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Simon Kitson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/occupiers.htm#trust">"Vichy Web – The Occupiers and Their Policies"</a>. <i>French Studies, University of Birmingham</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20171011034645/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/occupiers.htm#trust">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=French+Studies%2C+University+of+Birmingham&rft.atitle=Vichy+Web+%E2%80%93+The+Occupiers+and+Their+Policies&rft.au=Simon+Kitson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartsweb.bham.ac.uk%2Fvichy%2Foccupiers.htm%23trust&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kroener160162-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kroener160162_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kroener, Bernhard R.; Müller, Rolf-Dieter; Umbreit, Hans (2000). <i>Germany and the Second World War:Organization and mobilization of the German sphere of power. Wartime administration, economy, and manpower resources 1939–1941</i>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 160–162. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822887-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822887-5"><bdi>978-0-19-822887-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+Second+World+War%3AOrganization+and+mobilization+of+the+German+sphere+of+power.+Wartime+administration%2C+economy%2C+and+manpower+resources+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=160-162&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822887-5&rft.aulast=Kroener&rft.aufirst=Bernhard+R.&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+Rolf-Dieter&rft.au=Umbreit%2C+Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Philip G. Nord (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=oyC7tl0ny40C&pg=PA12"><i>France's New Deal: From the Thirties to the Postwar Era</i></a>. Princeton U.P. p. 12. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691142975" title="Special:BookSources/9780691142975"><bdi>9780691142975</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151024221808/https://books.google.com/books?id=oyC7tl0ny40C&pg=PA12">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%27s+New+Deal%3A+From+the+Thirties+to+the+Postwar+Era&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Princeton+U.P.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780691142975&rft.au=Philip+G.+Nord&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoyC7tl0ny40C%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Stanley G. Payne (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=HvqRDWVyIcEC&pg=PA137"><i>Fascism: A Comparative Approach Toward a Definition</i></a>. U. of Wisconsin Press. p. 137. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299080648" title="Special:BookSources/9780299080648"><bdi>9780299080648</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151024213648/https://books.google.com/books?id=HvqRDWVyIcEC&pg=PA137">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascism%3A+A+Comparative+Approach+Toward+a+Definition&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=U.+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780299080648&rft.au=Stanley+G.+Payne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvqRDWVyIcEC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Laqueur, Walter (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=2s8OaLD7y_oC&pg=PA298"><i>Fascism: A Reader's Guide</i></a>. U. of California Press. p. 298. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520036420" title="Special:BookSources/9780520036420"><bdi>9780520036420</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20150927165554/https://books.google.com/books?id=2s8OaLD7y_oC&pg=PA298">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascism%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=U.+of+California+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780520036420&rft.aulast=Laqueur&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2s8OaLD7y_oC%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-karlsgodt-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-karlsgodt_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Karlsgodt, Elizabeth (2011). <i>Defending National Treasures: French Art and Heritage Under Vichy</i>. Stanford University Press. pp. 126–128. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804770187" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804770187"><bdi>978-0804770187</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Defending+National+Treasures%3A+French+Art+and+Heritage+Under+Vichy&rft.pages=126-128&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0804770187&rft.aulast=Karlsgodt&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flood, Christopher "Pétain and de Gaulle" pages 88–110 from <i>France At War In the Twentieth Century</i> edited by Valerie Holman and Debra Kelly, Oxford: Berghahan Books, 2000 pages 92–93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200096–98-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200096–98_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, pp. 96–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200099_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly2000101-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly2000101_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994712-714-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994712-714_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 712-714.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 716.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 720.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994717_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 717.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-724_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 723-724.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-718-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994716-718_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 716-718.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994718-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994718_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 718.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994723_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 723.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994725-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994725_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 725.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-725-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994720-725_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 720-725.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994724-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994724_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 724.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJennings1994719_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJennings1994">Jennings 1994</a>, p. 719.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornick, Martyn "Fighting Myth with Reality: The Fall of France, Anglophobia, and the BBC" pages 65–87 from <i>France At War In the Twentieth Century</i> edited by Valerie Holman and Debra Kelly, Oxford: Berghahan Books, 2000 pages 69–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-70-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-70_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 69-70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200069_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200070_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200071-76-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200071-76_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 71-76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200097_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-73-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200072-73_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 72-73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-76-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200075-76_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 75-76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200076-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanKelly200076_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmanKelly2000">Holman & Kelly 2000</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Doughty, <i>The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940</i> (1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jackson2001-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jackson2001_39-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jackson, Julian (2001). <i>France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820706-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820706-1"><bdi>978-0-19-820706-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%3A+The+Dark+Years%2C+1940%E2%80%931944&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820706-1&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Singer, Barnett (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111"><i>Maxime Weygand: A Biography of the French General in Two World Wars</i></a>. McFarland. p. 111. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786435715" title="Special:BookSources/9780786435715"><bdi>9780786435715</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151101104418/https://books.google.com/books?id=0VZeIHEv3FkC&pg=PA111">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maxime+Weygand%3A+A+Biography+of+the+French+General+in+Two+World+Wars&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780786435715&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Barnett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0VZeIHEv3FkC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">http://<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://web.b.ebscohost.com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/ehost/detail/detail?sid=7b437e44-ef8b-4a6c-929a-c2fa8e5c3a15%40sessionmgr110&vid=0&hid=123&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=khh&AN=19409261">Spying for Germany in Vichy France.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Vinen, <i>The Unfree French: Life under the Occupation</i> (2006) pp 183–214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French Colonial Soldiers in German Prisoner-of-War Camps (1940–1945), Raffael Scheck, 2010, French History, p421</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Richard Joseph Golsan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=3g6pUzgXeQsC&pg=PA14"><i>The Papon Affair: Memory and Justice on Trial</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 14. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415923651" title="Special:BookSources/9780415923651"><bdi>9780415923651</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151102063642/https://books.google.com/books?id=3g6pUzgXeQsC&pg=PA14">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papon+Affair%3A+Memory+and+Justice+on+Trial&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780415923651&rft.au=Richard+Joseph+Golsan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3g6pUzgXeQsC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loi-1940-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-loi-1940_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940lc.htm">"Loi constitutionnelle du 10 Juillet 1940"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20010723063501/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940lc.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Loi+constitutionnelle+du+10+Juillet+1940&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1940lc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loi2-1940-07-11-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-loi2-1940-07-11_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1940/1940-07-10b.html">"Constitutional act no. 2, defining the authority of the chief of the French state"</a>. Journal Officiel de la République française. 11 July 1940. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151208195717/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1940/1940-07-10b.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitutional+act+no.+2%2C+defining+the+authority+of+the+chief+of+the+French+state&rft.pub=Journal+Officiel+de+la+R%C3%A9publique+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.date=1940-07-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fpha%2Fpolicy%2F1940%2F1940-07-10b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christofferson2006-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-christofferson2006_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-christofferson2006_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Christofferson, Thomas R.; Christofferson, Michael S. (2006). <i>France during World War II: From Defeat to Liberation</i>. Fordham University Press. pp. 37–40. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2562-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2562-0"><bdi>978-0-8232-2562-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+during+World+War+II%3A+From+Defeat+to+Liberation&rft.pages=37-40&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-2562-0&rft.au=Christofferson%2C+Thomas+R.&rft.au=Christofferson%2C+Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Pierre Azéma, <i>De Munich à la Libération</i>, Le Seuil, 1979, p.82 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-005215-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-005215-6">2-02-005215-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: <i>L'Assemblée Nationale donne les plein pouvoirs au gouvernement de la République, sous l'autorité et la signature du maréchal Pétain, à l'effet de promulguer par un ou plusieurs actes une nouvelle Constitution de l'État français. Cette Constitution doit garantir les droits du travail, de la famille et de la patrie. Elle sera ratifiée par la nation et appliquée par les Assemblées qu'elle aura créées.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940.htm">"Actes constitutionnels du Gouvernement de Vichy, 1940–1944, France, MJP, université de Perpignan"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.webcitation.org/6CfOsbBET?url=http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Actes+constitutionnels+du+Gouvernement+de+Vichy%2C+1940%E2%80%931944%2C+France%2C+MJP%2C+universit%C3%A9+de+Perpignan&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1940.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John F. Sweets, Choices in Vichy France: The French Under Nazi Occupation (New York, 1986), p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ousby, Ian <i>Occupation The Ordeal of France, 1940–1944</i>, New York: CooperSquare Press, 2000 page 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacroix-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lacroix_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mondediplo.com/2003/05/05lacroix">When the US wanted to take over France</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20101127123523/http://mondediplo.com/2003/05/05lacroix">Archived</a> 27 November 2010 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Annie Lacroix-Riz, in <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a></i>, May 2003 (English, French, etc.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110811114324/http://www.international.gc.ca/history-histoire/world-monde/1939-1945.aspx?lang=eng#junior">"Canada and the World: A History"</a>. International.gc.ca. 31 January 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.international.gc.ca/history-histoire/world-monde/1939-1945.aspx?lang=eng#junior">the original</a> on 11 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canada+and+the+World%3A+A+History&rft.pub=International.gc.ca&rft.date=2011-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.international.gc.ca%2Fhistory-histoire%2Fworld-monde%2F1939-1945.aspx%3Flang%3Deng%23junior&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrin, Philippe (1997). <i>La France à l'heure allemande 1940–1944</i>. Paris: Seuil. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-031477-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-031477-0">2-02-031477-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2199&dat=19440822&id=GPplAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-b0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=5227,5878166&hl=en">Lawrence Journal-World – Aug 22, 1944</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20160126054329/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2199&dat=19440822&id=GPplAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-b0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=5227,5878166&hl=en">Archived</a> 26 January 2016 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 17 January 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Toland_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Toland (author)">Toland</a>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rising_Sun" title="The Rising Sun">The Rising Sun</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jouin1965-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jouin1965_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jouin1965_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Jouin, Yves (1965). "La Nouvelle-Calédonie et la Polynésie Française dans la Guerre du Pacifique". <i>Revue Historique des Armées</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 155–164.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+Historique+des+Arm%C3%A9es&rft.atitle=La+Nouvelle-Cal%C3%A9donie+et+la+Polyn%C3%A9sie+Fran%C3%A7aise+dans+la+Guerre+du+Pacifique&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=155-164&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Jouin&rft.aufirst=Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://histoire.itereva.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=114&Itemid=67&limit=1&limitstart=3">"Les ÉFO dans la Seconde Guerre Mondiale : la question du ralliement et ses conséquences"</a>. Itereva Histoire-Géographie. 5 November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110817222523/http://histoire.itereva.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=114&Itemid=67&limit=1&limitstart=3">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Les+%C3%89FO+dans+la+Seconde+Guerre+Mondiale+%3A+la+question+du+ralliement+et+ses+cons%C3%A9quences&rft.pub=Itereva+Histoire-G%C3%A9ographie&rft.date=2006-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoire.itereva.net%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D114%26Itemid%3D67%26limit%3D1%26limitstart%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Triest, Willard G. "Gearing up for Operation Bobcat" in Mason, John T., editor, <i>The Pacific War Remembered.</i> U.S. Naval Institute Press, 2003, p. 41–51 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1591144787" title="Special:BookSources/1591144787">1591144787</a>, 9781591144786.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://deuxiemeguerremondia.forumactif.com/t8009-la-polynesie-francaise-pendant-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale">"Citation of the <i>bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique</i> for valor during the fourth battle of Monte Cassino"</a>. 22 July 1944. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110711020806/http://deuxiemeguerremondia.forumactif.com/t8009-la-polynesie-francaise-pendant-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Citation+of+the+bataillon+d%27infanterie+de+marine+et+du+Pacifique+for+valor+during+the+fourth+battle+of+Monte+Cassino&rft.date=1944-07-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeuxiemeguerremondia.forumactif.com%2Ft8009-la-polynesie-francaise-pendant-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110723131803/http://www.france-libre.net/1ere-dfl/unites/bimp.php">"Le Bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique (BIMP)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.france-libre.net/1ere-dfl/unites/bimp.php">the original</a> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+Bataillon+d%27infanterie+de+marine+et+du+Pacifique+%28BIMP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.france-libre.net%2F1ere-dfl%2Funites%2Fbimp.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA71"><i>World War II Pacific Island Guide</i>, p. 71</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20150319130955/http://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA71">Archived</a> 19 March 2015 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Gordon L. Rottman, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110928032450/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/histoire-geo/spip/spip.php?article129&lang=fr">"Document 3: le choix des Nouvelles-Hébrides"</a>. 17 July 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ac-noumea.nc/histoire-geo/spip/spip.php?article129&lang=fr">the original</a> on 28 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Document+3%3A+le+choix+des+Nouvelles-H%C3%A9brides&rft.date=2010-07-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ac-noumea.nc%2Fhistoire-geo%2Fspip%2Fspip.php%3Farticle129%26lang%3Dfr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Regnault, Jean-Marc; Kurtovitch, Ismet (2002). "Les ralliements du Pacifique en 1940: Entre légende gaulliste, enjeux stratégiques mondiaux et rivalités Londres/Vichy". <i>Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 71–90. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20530880">20530880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27Histoire+Moderne+et+Contemporaine&rft.atitle=Les+ralliements+du+Pacifique+en+1940%3A+Entre+l%C3%A9gende+gaulliste%2C+enjeux+strat%C3%A9giques+mondiaux+et+rivalit%C3%A9s+Londres%2FVichy&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=71-90&rft.date=2002&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20530880&rft.aulast=Regnault&rft.aufirst=Jean-Marc&rft.au=Kurtovitch%2C+Ismet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Lestrade, Claude (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jso_0300-953x_1997_num_105_2_2029">"Le ralliement de Wallis à la " France libre " (1942)"</a>. <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_de_la_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Oc%C3%A9anistes" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal de la Société des Océanistes">Journal de la Société des Océanistes</a></i>. <b>105</b> (105): 199–203. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fjso.1997.2029">10.3406/jso.1997.2029</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020109/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/jso_0300-953x_1997_num_105_2_2029">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Oc%C3%A9anistes&rft.atitle=Le+ralliement+de+Wallis+%C3%A0+la+%22+France+libre+%22+%281942%29&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=105&rft.pages=199-203&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fjso.1997.2029&rft.aulast=Lestrade&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fweb%2Frevues%2Fhome%2Fprescript%2Farticle%2Fjso_0300-953x_1997_num_105_2_2029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichecitoyennete.php?idLang=en&idCitoyen=25">http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichecitoyennete.php?idLang=en&idCitoyen=25</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199375–76-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaugh199375–76_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaugh1993">Raugh 1993</a>, pp. 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195489-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195489_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1954">Playfair 1954</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMockler1984241-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMockler1984241_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMockler1984">Mockler 1984</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004322–323-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004322–323_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, pp. 322–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, pp. 323–324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Funk, Arthur L. (April 1973). "Negotiating the 'Deal with Darlan<span class="cs1-kern-right">'</span>". <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 81–117. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/stable/259995">259995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Negotiating+the+%27Deal+with+Darlan%27&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81-117&rft.date=1973-04&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F259995&rft.aulast=Funk&rft.aufirst=Arthur+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur L. Funk, <i>The Politics of Torch</i> (1974)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LDHNorthAfrica-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LDHNorthAfrica_75-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article285">Extraits de l'entretien d'Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20131001080355/http://www.ldh-toulon.net/spip.php?article285">Archived</a> 1 October 2013 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> [1, avec Christian Makarian et Dominique Simonnet, publié dans <i>l'Express</i> du 14 mars 2002], on the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligue_des_droits_de_l%27homme" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligue des droits de l'homme">LDH</a> website <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon Kitson, <i>The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting Espionage in Vichy France.</i> University of Chicago Press, 2008; the French edition appeared in 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.Lee Ready (1995), <i>World War Two. Nation by Nation</i>, London, Cassell, page 86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85409-290-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85409-290-1">1-85409-290-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ordremoral143-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ordremoral143_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Boninchi, Marc (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.cairn.info/vichy-et-l-ordre-moral--9782130553397-page-143.htm"><i>Vichy et l'ordre moral</i></a>. Paris: PUF. pp. 143–193. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782130553397" title="Special:BookSources/9782130553397"><bdi>9782130553397</bdi></a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/420826274">420826274</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20160815081238/http://www.cairn.info/vichy-et-l-ordre-moral--9782130553397-page-143.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2016</span> – via <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairn.info" title="Cairn.info">Cairn.info</a>. <span class="cs1-registration">(Registration required (<span title="The site requires registration to access this page.">help</span>))</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vichy+et+l%27ordre+moral&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=143-193&rft.pub=PUF&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F420826274&rft.isbn=9782130553397&rft.aulast=Boninchi&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Fvichy-et-l-ordre-moral--9782130553397-page-143.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Cite uses deprecated parameter <code class="cs1-code">|registration=</code> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">François Masure, "<i>État et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés</i>", in <i>Journal des anthropologues</i>, hors-série 2007, pp. 39–49 (see p. 48) <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dominique Rémy, <i>Les Lois de Vichy</i>, Romillat, 2004, p.91, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87894-026-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-87894-026-1">2-87894-026-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA368&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Vichy France and the Jews</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20151024234432/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA368&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false">Archived</a> 24 October 2015 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Michael Robert Marrus, Robert O. Paxton (1995). <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 367–368. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2499-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2499-7">0-8047-2499-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Rajsfus" title="Maurice Rajsfus">Maurice Rajsfus</a>, <i>Drancy, un camp de concentration très ordinaire</i>, Cherche Midi éditeur (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.aloufok.net/article.php3?id_article=551">Aincourt, camp d'internement et centre de tri</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20060714215544/http://www.aloufok.net/article.php3?id_article=551">Archived</a> 14 July 2006 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichelieu.php?idLang=fr&idLieu=1207">"Saline royale d'Arc et Senans (25) – L'internement des Tsiganes"</a>. Cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110521092121/http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichelieu.php?idLang=fr&idLieu=1207">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saline+royale+d%27Arc+et+Senans+%2825%29+%E2%80%93+L%27internement+des+Tsiganes&rft.pub=Cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr%2Fpage%2Faffichelieu.php%3FidLang%3Dfr%26idLieu%3D1207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110722112044/http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php">"Listes des internés du camp des Milles 1941"</a>. Jewishtraces.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php">the original</a> on 22 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Listes+des+intern%C3%A9s+du+camp+des+Milles+1941&rft.pub=Jewishtraces.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishtraces.org%2Frecherche.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cite-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cite_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cite_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cite_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cite_87-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cite_87-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/index.php?lg=fr&nav=20&flash=0">Film documentary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20160128001311/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/index.php?lg=fr&nav=20&flash=0">Archived</a> 28 January 2016 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on the website of the <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_nationale_de_l%27histoire_de_l%27immigration" title="Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration">Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration</a></i> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007311">"Vichy discrimination against Jews in North Africa"</a>. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (ushmm.org). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090506100608/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007311">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vichy+discrimination+against+Jews+in+North+Africa&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum+%28ushmm.org%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10007311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007310">"Jewish population of French North Africa"</a>. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (ushmm.org). 6 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090506062430/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007310">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+population+of+French+North+Africa&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum+%28ushmm.org%29&rft.date=2011-01-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10007310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007312">"Jews in North Africa: Oppression and Resistance"</a>. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (ushmm.org). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090803073149/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007312">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+in+North+Africa%3A+Oppression+and+Resistance&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum+%28ushmm.org%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10007312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007313">"Jews in North Africa after the Allied Landings"</a>. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (ushmm.org). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090506095038/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007313">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+in+North+Africa+after+the+Allied+Landings&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum+%28ushmm.org%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10007313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/s/shaked-edith/re-examining-wannsee.html">"The Holocaust: Re-examining The Wannsee Conference, Himmler's Appointments Book, and Tunisian Jews"</a>. Nizkor.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110604110519/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/s/shaked-edith/re-examining-wannsee.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust%3A+Re-examining+The+Wannsee+Conference%2C+Himmler%27s+Appointments+Book%2C+and+Tunisian+Jews&rft.pub=Nizkor.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nizkor.org%2Fhweb%2Fpeople%2Fs%2Fshaked-edith%2Fre-examining-wannsee.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christoph Buchheim, 'Die besetzten Lander im Dienste der Deutschen Kriegswirtschaft', <i>VfZ</i>, 32, (1984), p. 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reggiani-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reggiani_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reggiani_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Reggiani, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331">Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20070204110007/http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331">Archived</a> 4 February 2007 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Historical_Studies" title="French Historical Studies">French Historical Studies</a></i>, 2002; 25: 331–356</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gwen Terrenoire, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf">Eugenics in France (1913–1941) : a review of research findings</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20060218180717/http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf">Archived</a> 18 February 2006 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Joint Programmatic Commission <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331">Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20070204110007/http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331">Archived</a> 4 February 2007 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> (<i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_historical_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="French historical studies">French historical studies</a></i>, 25:2 Spring 2002), p. 339. Also quoted in French by <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didier_Daeninckx" title="Didier Daeninckx">Didier Daeninckx</a> in <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20070316220837/http://www.amnistia.net/news/enquetes/negauniv/carrel/carrel.htm">"Quand le négationnisme s'invite à l'université"</a>. <i>amnistia.net</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.amnistia.net/news/enquetes/negauniv/carrel/carrel.htm">the original</a> on 16 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=amnistia.net&rft.atitle=Quand+le+n%C3%A9gationnisme+s%27invite+%C3%A0+l%27universit%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnistia.net%2Fnews%2Fenquetes%2Fnegauniv%2Fcarrel%2Fcarrel.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Szasz, Thomas</a>. <i>The Theology of Medicine</i> New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French: « ce fichier se subdivise en fichier simplement alphabétique, les Juifs de nationalité française et étrangère ayant respectivement des fiches de couleur différentes, et des fichiers professionnels par nationalité et par rue. »</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/03/marshal-petain-nazi-zealous-anti-semitism">The Guardian: <i>Disclosed: the zealous way Marshal Pétain enforced Nazi anti-Semitic laws</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20161201173012/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/03/marshal-petain-nazi-zealous-anti-semitism">Archived</a> 1 December 2016 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 3 October 2010, last accessed 3 October 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Einaudi_2001_p.-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einaudi_2001_p._100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Einaudi (2001). <i>Les silences de la police : 16 juillet 1942-17 octobre 1961</i> (in French). Paris: L'Esprit frappeur. p. 17. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8"><bdi>978-2-84405-173-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+silences+de+la+police+%3A+16+juillet+1942-17+octobre+1961&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=L%27Esprit+frappeur&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-84405-173-8&rft.au=Einaudi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Rajsfus" title="Maurice Rajsfus">Maurice Rajsfus</a>, <i>La Police de Vichy. Les Forces de l'ordre françaises au service de la Gestapo, 1940/1944</i>, <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_Cherche-midi_%C3%A9diteur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Cherche-midi éditeur (page does not exist)">Le Cherche-midi éditeur</a>, 1995. Chapter XIV, <i>La Bataille de Marseille</i>, pp. 209–217. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005429">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>France" in U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum online Holocaust Encyclopedia"</a>. Ushmm.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.webcitation.org/6AMeVMgde?url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005429">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22France%22+in+U.S.+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum+online+Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Ushmm.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Farticle.php%3Flang%3Den%26ModuleId%3D10005429&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Azéma, Jean-Pierre and Bédarida, François (dir.), <i>La France des années noires</i>, 2 vol., Paris, Seuil, 1993 [rééd. Seuil, 2000 (Points Histoire)]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paxtonnotes-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paxtonnotes_104-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://memoirenet.pagesperso-orange.fr/articlee507.html?id_article=132">Le rôle du gouvernement de Vichy dans la déportation des juifs</a>, notes taken during a conference of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a> at Lyon on 4 November 2000 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoah#Les_victimes_françaises" class="extiw" title="fr:Shoah">Summary from data compiled by the Association des Fils et Filles des déportés juifs de France, 1985.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Simons, Marlise (17 July 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/17/world/chirac-affirms-france-s-guilt-in-fate-of-jews.html">"Chirac Affirms France's Guilt In Fate of Jews"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20171207075618/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/17/world/chirac-affirms-france-s-guilt-in-fate-of-jews.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chirac+Affirms+France%27s+Guilt+In+Fate+of+Jews&rft.date=1995-07-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Simons&rft.aufirst=Marlise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F07%2F17%2Fworld%2Fchirac-affirms-france-s-guilt-in-fate-of-jews.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">McAuley, James (10 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/10/marine-le-pen-doesnt-deny-that-french-jews-were-handed-over-to-nazis-but-she-claims-france-is-not-to-blame/">"Marine Le Pen: France 'not responsible' for deporting Jews during Holocaust"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20180113160619/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/10/marine-le-pen-doesnt-deny-that-french-jews-were-handed-over-to-nazis-but-she-claims-france-is-not-to-blame/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Israel+PM+mourns+France%27s+deported+Jews&rft.date=2017-07-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-40622845&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-S_H-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-S_H_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-S_H_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hoffmann, Stanley (1974). "La droite à Vichy". <i>Essais sur la France: déclin ou renouveau?</i>. 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London: Allen Lane. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780713999648" title="Special:BookSources/9780713999648"><bdi>9780713999648</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taste+of+War%3A+World+War+Two+and+the+Battle+for+Food&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780713999648&rft.aulast=Collingham&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Mouré, Kenneth (2010). 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"Partisianes and Gender Politics in Vichy France". <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 126–151. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286436">10.2307/286436</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/stable/286436">286436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Partisianes+and+Gender+Politics+in+Vichy+France&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=126-151&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286436&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286436&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ord_1944-08-09-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_133-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ord_1944-08-09_133-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">"Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20120208122602/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ordonnance+du+9+ao%C3%BBt+1944+relative+au+r%C3%A9tablissement+de+la+l%C3%A9galit%C3%A9+r%C3%A9publicaine+sur+le+territoire+continental&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jean-Pierre Maury. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-2.htm">"Ordonnance du 21 avril 1944 relative à l'organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération"</a>. Mjp.univ-perp.fr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.webcitation.org/6FI71Z6Yt?url=http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ordonnance+du+21+avril+1944+relative+%C3%A0+l%27organisation+des+pouvoirs+publics+en+France+apr%C3%A8s+la+Lib%C3%A9ration&rft.pub=Mjp.univ-perp.fr&rft.au=Jean-Pierre+Maury&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmjp.univ-perp.fr%2Ffrance%2Fco1944-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://axis101.bizland.com/FlemishFeldpost.htm">"Flemish Legion Military and Feldpost History"</a>. Axis and Foreign Volunteer Legion Military Awards & Postal History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20090224152106/http://axis101.bizland.com/FlemishFeldpost.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flemish+Legion+Military+and+Feldpost+History&rft.pub=Axis+and+Foreign+Volunteer+Legion+Military+Awards+%26+Postal+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faxis101.bizland.com%2FFlemishFeldpost.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.german-foreign-policy.com/en/fulltext/56118/print?PHPSESSID=8vchae88fotkvc6tbv2ngjb717">"Accession Plans"</a>. german-foreign-policy.com. 11 December 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110723112313/http://www.german-foreign-policy.com/en/fulltext/56118/print?PHPSESSID=8vchae88fotkvc6tbv2ngjb717">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Accession+Plans&rft.pub=german-foreign-policy.com&rft.date=2007-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.german-foreign-policy.com%2Fen%2Ffulltext%2F56118%2Fprint%3FPHPSESSID%3D8vchae88fotkvc6tbv2ngjb717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Helm, Sarah (16 February 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/war-memories-widen-belgiums-communal-rift-1319199.html">"War memories widen Belgium's communal rift"</a>. <i>The Independent on Sunday</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20120131210215/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/war-memories-widen-belgiums-communal-rift-1319199.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent+on+Sunday&rft.atitle=War+memories+widen+Belgium%27s+communal+rift&rft.date=1996-02-16&rft.aulast=Helm&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fwar-memories-widen-belgiums-communal-rift-1319199.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andenæs-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andenæs_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johs._Anden%C3%A6s" class="mw-redirect" title="Johs. Andenæs">Andenæs, Johs</a> (1980) [1979]. <i>Det vanskelige oppgjøret</i> (in Norwegian) (2nd ed.). Oslo: Tanum-Norli. p. 59. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-82-518-0917-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-82-518-0917-7"><bdi>978-82-518-0917-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Det+vanskelige+oppgj%C3%B8ret&rft.place=Oslo&rft.pages=59&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Tanum-Norli&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-82-518-0917-7&rft.aulast=Anden%C3%A6s&rft.aufirst=Johs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.worldwar2facts.org/vichy-france-facts.html">"Vichy France Facts"</a>. <i>World War 2 Facts</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20140113055940/http://www.worldwar2facts.org/vichy-france-facts.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+War+2+Facts&rft.atitle=Vichy+France+Facts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar2facts.org%2Fvichy-france-facts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://crdp.ac-reims.fr/memoire/enseigner/rene_bousquet/05_proces.htm">René Bousquet devant la Haute Cour de Justice</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20021203191545/http://crdp.ac-reims.fr/memoire/enseigner/rene_bousquet/05_proces.htm">Archived</a> 3 December 2002 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Kitson, Simon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter8/interviews/filetodownload,27676,en.pdf">"Bousquet, Touvier and Papon: Three Vichy personalities"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20110520113939/http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter8/interviews/filetodownload,27676,en.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bousquet%2C+Touvier+and+Papon%3A+Three+Vichy+personalities&rft.aulast=Kitson&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.port.ac.uk%2Fspecial%2Ffrance1815to2003%2Fchapter8%2Finterviews%2Ffiletodownload%2C27676%2Cen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Carrier, Peter (29 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/?id=bRshMk5sBxUC&pg=PA86&dq=Vichy+regime+++illegal#v=onepage&q=Vichy+regime+++illegal&f=false"><i>Holocaust Monuments and National Memory Cultures in France and Germany Since 1989: The Origins and Political Function of the Vél' D'Hiv' in Paris and the Holocaust Monument in Berlin</i></a>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845452957" title="Special:BookSources/9781845452957"><bdi>9781845452957</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocaust+Monuments+and+National+Memory+Cultures+in+France+and+Germany+Since+1989%3A+The+Origins+and+Political+Function+of+the+V%C3%A9l%27+D%27Hiv%27+in+Paris+and+the+Holocaust+Monument+in+Berlin&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2017-12-29&rft.isbn=9781845452957&rft.aulast=Carrier&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DbRshMk5sBxUC%26pg%3DPA86%26dq%3DVichy%2Bregime%2B%2B%2Billegal%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DVichy%2Bregime%2B%2B%2Billegal%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One of the first legal acts of the provisional government was to pass an ordinance reestablishing the rule of law: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">Ordonnance du 9 août 1944</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20120208122602/http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-1.htm">Archived</a> 8 February 2012 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental, article 1: "The form of government of France is and stays the Republic. In law, the Republic never ceased to exist." article 2: "Thus, all constitutional acts, statutes and regulations, and decisions taken for the execution thereof, taken after 16 June 1940 up to the reestablishment of the provisional government of the French Republic, are null and devoid of effects."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Wolf, Joan Beth (29 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/?id=zFfp4IHbBkMC&pg=PA176&dq=De+Gaulle+Vichy+regime++Republic#v=onepage&q=De+Gaulle+Vichy+regime++Republic&f=false"><i>Harnessing the Holocaust: The Politics of Memory in France</i></a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804748896" title="Special:BookSources/9780804748896"><bdi>9780804748896</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harnessing+the+Holocaust%3A+The+Politics+of+Memory+in+France&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-12-29&rft.isbn=9780804748896&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Joan+Beth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DzFfp4IHbBkMC%26pg%3DPA176%26dq%3DDe%2BGaulle%2BVichy%2Bregime%2B%2BRepublic%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DDe%2BGaulle%2BVichy%2Bregime%2B%2BRepublic%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-rene-bousquet-1490548.html">"Obituary: Rene Bousquet"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 9 June 1993. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20171216091558/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-rene-bousquet-1490548.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Rene+Bousquet&rft.date=1993-06-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fpeople%2Fobituary-rene-bousquet-1490548.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3224,36-395520,0.html">En 1995, la reconnaissance des « fautes commises par l'État »</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100212144141/http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/acheter.cgi?offre=ARCHIVES&type_item=ART_ARCH_30J&objet_id=886000&clef=ARC-TRK-D_01">Archived</a> 12 February 2010 at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive-It" class="mw-redirect" title="Archive-It">Archive-It</a> in <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i>, 26 January 2005 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/09/marine-le-pen-denies-french-role-wartime-roundup-paris-jews">"Marine Le Pen denies French role in wartime roundup of Paris Jews"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 9 April 2017. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20180203001021/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/09/marine-le-pen-denies-french-role-wartime-roundup-paris-jews">Archived</a> from the original on 3 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Marine+Le+Pen+denies+French+role+in+wartime+roundup+of+Paris+Jews&rft.date=2017-04-09&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fapr%2F09%2Fmarine-le-pen-denies-french-role-wartime-roundup-paris-jews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Traverso, Enzo (16 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/?id=wAJiCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT57&dq=the+Vichy+Syndrome++past+that+doesn't+pass#v=onepage&q=the%20Vichy%20Syndrome%20%20past%20that%20doesn't%20pass&f=false"><i>Fire and Blood: The European Civil War, 1914–1945</i></a>. Verso Books. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781784781347" title="Special:BookSources/9781784781347"><bdi>9781784781347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+and+Blood%3A+The+European+Civil+War%2C+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft.isbn=9781784781347&rft.aulast=Traverso&rft.aufirst=Enzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DwAJiCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT57%26dq%3Dthe%2BVichy%2BSyndrome%2B%2Bpast%2Bthat%2Bdoesn%27t%2Bpass%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dthe%2520Vichy%2520Syndrome%2520%2520past%2520that%2520doesn%27t%2520pass%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mulholland, Maureen; Melikan, R. A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/?id=Hn0y5bqdLeYC&pg=PA173&dq=Vichy+Papon's+responsibility#v=onepage&q=Vichy%20Papon's%20responsibility&f=false"><i>The Trial in History: Domestic and international trials, 1700–2000</i></a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719064869" title="Special:BookSources/9780719064869"><bdi>9780719064869</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trial+in+History%3A+Domestic+and+international+trials%2C+1700%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780719064869&rft.aulast=Mulholland&rft.aufirst=Maureen&rft.au=Melikan%2C+R.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DHn0y5bqdLeYC%26pg%3DPA173%26dq%3DVichy%2BPapon%27s%2Bresponsibility%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DVichy%2520Papon%27s%2520responsibility%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Whitney, Craig R. (18 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/18/world/europe/18papon.html">"Maurice Papon, Convicted Vichy Official, 96, Dies"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20171216201126/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/18/world/europe/18papon.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Maurice+Papon%2C+Convicted+Vichy+Official%2C+96%2C+Dies&rft.date=2007-02-18&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F02%2F18%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F18papon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_Matin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nice Matin">Nice Matin</a></i>, 28 February 2007 (subscription only) – The news is taken up by <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i> on 1 March 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/2007-03-01/2007-03-01-846877">Des immeubles niçois à l'heure de Vichy</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lefigaro.fr-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lefigaro.fr_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a></i>, 15 October 2007, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.lefigaro.fr/france/20070228.WWW000000332_a_vendre_appartement_pour_francais_non_juif.html">A vendre appartement pour Français non juif</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20081228080820/http://www.lefigaro.fr/france/20070228.WWW000000332_a_vendre_appartement_pour_francais_non_juif.html">Archived</a> 28 December 2008 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Curtis, Michale (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=vrQtAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT108"><i>Verdict On Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime</i></a>. Skyhorse. p. 108. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628720631" title="Special:BookSources/9781628720631"><bdi>9781628720631</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20160126054329/https://books.google.com/books?id=vrQtAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT108">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Verdict+On+Vichy%3A+Power+and+Prejudice+in+the+Vichy+France+Regime&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Skyhorse&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781628720631&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Michale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvrQtAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kim Munholland, "Wartime France: Remembering Vichy". <i>French Historical Studies</i> (1994) 18#3 pp. 801–820 quoting p. 809</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PaxtonPapontrial-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PaxtonPapontrial_155-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Humanit%C3%A9" title="L'Humanité">L'Humanité</a></i>, 1 November 1997, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.humanite.fr/journal/1997-11-01/1997-11-01-790819">Robert Paxton donne une accablante leçon d'histoire</a> (Robert Paxton gives a damning lesson of history) <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.humanite.fr/node/169724."></a><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>: History Lesson. Retrieved 29 August 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20171011035825/https://www.humanite.fr/node/169724.">Archived</a> 11 October 2017 at the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Zuccotti, <i>The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews</i>. University of Nebraska Press, 1999, pp. 168–169. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-9914-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-9914-1">0-8032-9914-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">François Delpech, <i>Historiens et Géographes</i>, no 273, mai–juin 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0046-757X">0046-757X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Whitney, Craig R. (3 April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/03/world/ex-vichy-aide-is-convicted-and-reaction-ranges-wide.html">"Ex-Vichy Aide Is Convicted And Reaction Ranges Wide"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20180202130555/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/03/world/ex-vichy-aide-is-convicted-and-reaction-ranges-wide.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ex-Vichy+Aide+Is+Convicted+And+Reaction+Ranges+Wide&rft.date=1998-04-03&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F04%2F03%2Fworld%2Fex-vichy-aide-is-convicted-and-reaction-ranges-wide.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span> </li> </ol></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="English">English</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: English">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Atkin" title="Nicholas Atkin">Atkin, Nicholas</a>, <i>Pétain</i>, (Longman, 1997)</li> <li>Azema, Jean-Pierre. <i>From Munich to Liberation 1938–1944</i> (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1985)</li> <li>Azema, Jean-Pierre, ed. <i>Collaboration and Resistance: Images of Life in Vichy France 1940–1944</i> (2000) 220pp; photographs</li> <li>Boyd, Douglas. <i>Voices from the Dark Years: The Truth About Occupied France 1940–1945</i> (The History Press, 2015)</li> <li>Burrin, Philippe. <i>France Under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise</i> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Callil" title="Carmen Callil">Carmen Callil</a> <i>Bad Faith. A Forgotten History of Family, Fatherland and Vichy France</i>. New York: Knopf. 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-41131-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-41131-3">0-375-41131-3</a>; Biography of Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs</li> <li>Christofferson, Thomas R., and Michael S. Christofferson. <i>France during World War II: From Defeat to Liberation</i> (2nd ed. 2006) 206pp; brief introduction <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/117259687/france-during-world-war-ii-from-defeat-to-liberation">online edition</a></li> <li>Davies, Peter. <i>France and the Second World War: Resistance, Occupation and Liberation</i> (Introduction to History) (2000) 128pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/France-Second-World-War-Introduction/dp/0415238978/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Diamond, Hanna. <i>Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: Choices and Constraints</i> (1999)</li> <li>Diamond, Hanna, and Simon Kitson, eds. <i>Vichy, Resistance, Liberation: New Perspectives on Wartime France</i> (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/118215376/vichy-resistance-liberation-new-perspectives-on">online edition</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/148">online review</a></li> <li>Fogg, Shannon Lee. <i>The Politics of Everyday Life in Vichy France: Foreigners, Undesirables, and Strangers</i> (2009), 226pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/Politics-Everyday-Life-Vichy-France/dp/0521269504/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gildea, Robert. <i>Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation</i> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/Marianne-Chains-France-During-Occupation/dp/0312423594/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Glass" title="Charles Glass">Glass, Charles</a>, <i>Americans in Paris: Life and Death Under Nazi Occupation</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/Americans-Paris-Death-Occupation-1940-1944/dp/0007228538/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gordon, B. <i>Historical Dictionary of World War Two France: The Occupation, Vichy and the Resistance, 1938–1946</i> (Westport, Conn., 1998)</li> <li>Halls, W. D. <i>Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France</i> (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/77437072/politics-society-and-christianity-in-vichy-france">online edition</a></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHolmanKelly2000" class="citation book">Holman, Valerie; Kelly, Debra (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=HqeQ3zN18JEC"><i>France at War in the Twentieth Century: Propaganda, Myth, and Metaphor</i></a>. Contemporary France (Providence, R.I.). New York: Berghahn Books. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-701-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-701-3"><bdi>978-1-57181-701-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41497185">41497185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+at+War+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Propaganda%2C+Myth%2C+and+Metaphor&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Contemporary+France+%28Providence%2C+R.I.%29&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2000-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41497185&rft.isbn=978-1-57181-701-3&rft.aulast=Holman&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Debra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHqeQ3zN18JEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Jackson, Julian. <i>France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/France-Years-1940-1944-Julian-Jackson/dp/0199254575/">excerpt and text search</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/117421133/france-the-dark-years-1940-1944">online edition</a></li> <li><cite class="citation news">Jennings, Eric (1994). "<span class="cs1-kern-left">'</span>Reinventing Jeanne': The Iconology of Joan of Arc in Vichy Schoolbooks, 1940–44". <i>The Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>29</b> (4). pp. 711–734.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=%27Reinventing+Jeanne%27%3A+The+Iconology+of+Joan+of+Arc+in+Vichy+Schoolbooks%2C+1940%E2%80%9344&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=711-734&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Kedward, H. R. <i>Occupied France: Collaboration and Resistance</i> (Oxford, 1985), short survey</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kitson" title="Simon Kitson">Kitson, Simon</a>, <i>The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France</i>, (University of Chicago Press, 2008). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43893-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43893-1">978-0-226-43893-1</a>.</li> <li>Kooreman, Megan. <i>The Expectation of Justice: France, 1944–1946</i>. (Duke University Press. 1999)</li> <li>Lackerstein, Debbie. <i>National Regeneration in Vichy France: Ideas and Policies, 1930–1944</i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/National-Regeneration-Vichy-France-1930-1944/dp/0754667219/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Langer" title="William Langer">Langer, William</a>, <i>Our Vichy gamble</i>, (1947); U.S. policy 1940–42</li> <li>Larkin, Maurice. <i>France since the Popular Front: Government and People 1936–1996</i> (Oxford U P 1997). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-873151-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-873151-5">0-19-873151-5</a></li> <li>Lemmes, Fabian. "Collaboration in wartime France, 1940–1944", <i>European Review of History</i> (2008), 15#2 pp 157–177</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFLevieux1999" class="citation book">Levieux, Eleanor (1999). <i>Insiders' French : beyond the dictionary</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47502-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47502-8"><bdi>978-0-226-47502-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insiders%27+French+%3A+beyond+the+dictionary&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-226-47502-8&rft.aulast=Levieux&rft.aufirst=Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Manow, Philip. "Workers, farmers and Catholicism: A history of political class coalitions and the south-European welfare state regime". <i>Journal of European Social Policy</i> (2015) 25#1 pp: 32-49.</li> <li>Marrus, Michael R. and Robert Paxton. <i>Vichy France and the Jews</i>. (Stanford University Press, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/100397037/vichy-france-and-the-jews">online 1981 edition</a></li> <li>Martin Mauthner. <i>Otto Abetz and His Paris Acolytes – French Writers Who Flirted with Fascism, 1930–1945</i>. (Sussex Academic Press, 2016). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-784-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-784-1">978-1-84519-784-1</a></li> <li>Melton, George E. <i>Darlan: Admiral and Statesman of France, 1881–1942</i>. (Praeger, 1998). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-95973-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-95973-2">0-275-95973-2</a>.</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMockler1984" class="citation book">Mockler, Anthony (1984). <i>Haile Selassie's War: The Italian−Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941</i>. New York: Random House. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54222-5"><bdi>978-0-394-54222-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haile+Selassie%27s+War%3A+The+Italian%E2%88%92Ethiopian+Campaign%2C+1935%E2%80%931941&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-394-54222-5&rft.aulast=Mockler&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Nord, Philip. <i>France's New Deal: From the Thirties to the Postwar Era</i> (Princeton U.P., 2010)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair1954" class="citation book"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Stanley_Ord_Playfair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ian Stanley Ord Playfair">Playfair, Major-General I. S. O.</a>; et al. (1954). <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ramsay_Montagu_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ramsay Montagu Butler">Butler, J. R. M.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-Med-I/index.html"><i>The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941)</i></a>. History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. <b>I</b>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMSO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMSO">HMSO</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/494123451">494123451</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+and+Middle+East%3A+The+Early+Successes+Against+Italy+%28to+May+1941%29&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War%2C+United+Kingdom+Military+Series&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F494123451&rft.aulast=Playfair&rft.aufirst=Major-General+I.+S.+O.&rft.au=with+Stitt+RN%2C+Commander+G.+M.+S.&rft.au=Molony%2C+Brigadier+C.+J.+C.&rft.au=Toomer%2C+Air+Vice-Marshal+S.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FUK-Med-I%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Paxton, Robert O. <i> Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944</i> (2nd ed. 2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/Vichy-France-Guard-Order-1940-1944/dp/0231124694/">excerpt and text search</a>; influential survey</li> <li>Pollard, Miranda. <i>Reign of virtue: mobilising gender in Vichy France</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2012)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRaugh1993" class="citation book">Raugh, H. E. (1993). <i>Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship</i>. London: Brassey's. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-040983-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-040983-2"><bdi>978-0-08-040983-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wavell+in+the+Middle+East%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+A+Study+in+Generalship&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-08-040983-2&rft.aulast=Raugh&rft.aufirst=H.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Smith, Colin. <i>England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy, 1940–1942</i>, London, Weidenfeld, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-85218-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-85218-6">978-0-297-85218-6</a></li> <li>Sutherland, Jonathan, and Diane Canwell. <i>Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II</i> (Pen & Sword Aviation, 2011)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Sweets" title="John F. Sweets">Sweets, John F.</a>, <i>Choices in Vichy France: The French Under Nazi Occupation</i> (New York, 1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.amazon.com/Choices-Vichy-France-French-Occupation/dp/0195090527/">excerpt and text search</a>, focus on city of <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand" title="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Thomas_(historian)" title="Martin Thomas (historian)">Thomas, Martin</a>, <i>The French Empire at War, 1940–45</i>, Manchester University Press, 1998, paperback 2007.</li> <li>Vinen, Richard. <i>The Unfree French: Life Under the Occupation</i> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_H._Weisberg" title="Richard H. Weisberg">Weisberg, Richard H.</a>. <i>Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France</i>. New York University Press. 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9336-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9336-3">0-8147-9336-3</a></li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historiography">Historiography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Conan, Eric, and Henry Rousso. <i>Vichy: An ever-present past</i> (UP of New England, 1998)</li> <li>Fishman, Sarah, et al. <i>France at War: Vichy and the Historians</i> (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/102314051/france-at-war-vichy-and-the-historians">online edition</a></li> <li>Golsan, Richard J. <i>Vichy's Afterlife: History & Counterhistory in Postwar France</i> (2000)</li> <li>Gordon, Bertram M. "The 'Vichy Syndrome' problem in history", <i>French Historical Studies</i> (1995) 19#2 pp 495–518, on the denial of the realities of Vichy <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/stable/286785">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Munholland, Kim. "Wartime France: Remembering Vichy", <i>French Historical Studies</i> (1994) 18#3 pp. 801–820 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.jstor.org/stable/286693">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Poznanski, Renée. "Rescue of the Jews and the Resistance in France: From History to Historiography", <i>French Politics, Culture and Society</i> (2012) 30#2 pp 8–32.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a>. <i>The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944</i>. (2nd ed. 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-93539-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-93539-X">0-674-93539-X</a></li> <li>Singer, Barnett. "The Changing Image of Vichy in France", <i>Contemporary Review</i> Summer 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-205755180/the-changing-image-of-vichy-in-france">online edition</a></li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="French">French</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: French">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Amouroux" title="Henri Amouroux">Henri Amouroux</a>, <i>La grande histoire des Français sous l'Occupation</i>, 8 volumes, Laffont, 1976</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Az%C3%A9ma" title="Jean-Pierre Azéma">Jean-Pierre Azéma</a> & François Bedarida, <i>Vichy et les Français</i>, Paris, Fayard, 1996. <ul><li><i>Le régime de Vichy et les Français</i> (dir. Jean-Pierre Azéma & François Bédarida, Institut d'histoire du temps présent), Fayard, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-02683-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-02683-1">2-213-02683-1</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michèle Cointet. <i>Dictionnaire historique de la France sous l'Occupation</i> (2nd ed. 2000) 732pp</li> <li>Michèle Cointet. <i>L'Eglise sous Vichy. 1940–1945. La repentance en question.</i>, Perrin, Paris, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-262-01231-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-262-01231-8">2-262-01231-8</a></li> <li>Eric Conan et <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Henry Rousso</a>. <i>Vichy, un passé qui ne passe pas</i>, Fayard, Paris, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-59237-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-59237-3">2-213-59237-3</a></li> <li>Yves Maxime Danan, <i>La vie politique à Alger, de 1940 à 1944</i>, L.G.D.J., Paris 1963.</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Jean-Luc Einaudi (2001). <i>Les silences de la police : 16 juillet 1942-17 octobre 1961</i> (in French). Paris: L'Esprit frappeur. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84405-173-8"><bdi>978-2-84405-173-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+silences+de+la+police+%3A+16+juillet+1942-17+octobre+1961&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=L%27Esprit+frappeur&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-84405-173-8&rft.au=Jean-Luc+Einaudi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>André Kaspi. <i>Les Juifs pendant l'Occupation</i>, Seuil, Paris, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-013509-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-013509-4">2-02-013509-4</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Klarsfeld" title="Serge Klarsfeld">Serge Klarsfeld</a>. <i>Vichy-Auschwitz. Le rôle de Vichy dans la solution finale de la question juive en France. 1943–1944.</i>, Fayard, Paris, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-01573-2" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-01573-2">2-213-01573-2</a></li> <li>Launay, Jacques de. <i>Le Dossier de Vichy</i>, in series, <i>Collection Archives</i>, [Éditions] Julliard, [Paris], 1967. <i>N.B</i>.: A documentary history.</li> <li>Herbert R. Lottman. <i>Pétain.</i> Seuil, 1984, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-02-006763-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-02-006763-3">2-02-006763-3</a></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRousso2007" class="citation book"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=F3sKCwAAQBAJ"><i>Le régime de Vichy</i></a> [<i>The Vichy Regime</i>]. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Que_sais-je" class="mw-redirect" title="Que sais-je">Que sais-je</a> ? n° 1720 (in French). Paris: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France" title="Presses Universitaires de France">Presses Universitaires de France</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-13-054077-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-13-054077-9"><bdi>978-2-13-054077-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777999316">777999316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+r%C3%A9gime+de+Vichy&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Que+sais-je+%3F+n%C2%B0+1720&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F777999316&rft.isbn=978-2-13-054077-9&rft.aulast=Rousso&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF3sKCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li> <li>Jacques Sabille. "Les Juifs de Tunisie sous Vichy et l'Occupation". Paris: Edition du <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDJC" class="mw-redirect" title="CDJC">Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine</a>, 1954</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSémelin2013" class="citation book">Sémelin, Jacques (2013). <i>Persécutions et entraides dans la France occupée : comment 75 % des juifs de France ont échappé à la mort</i> (in French). Paris: Seuil Arènes. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35204-235-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35204-235-8"><bdi>978-2-35204-235-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pers%C3%A9cutions+et+entraides+dans+la+France+occup%C3%A9e+%3A+comment+75+%25+des+juifs+de+France+ont+%C3%A9chapp%C3%A9+%C3%A0+la+mort&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Seuil+Ar%C3%A8nes&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-2-35204-235-8&rft.aulast=S%C3%A9melin&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="German">German</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: German">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eberhard_J%C3%A4ckel" title="Eberhard Jäckel">Eberhard Jäckel</a>: <i>Frankreich in Hitlers Europa: die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im 2. Weltkrieg</i>, Stuttgart 1966.</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martin_Jungius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Jungius (page does not exist)">Martin Jungius</a>: <i>Der verwaltete Raub. Die "Arisierung" der Wirtschaft in Frankreich 1940–1944</i>. Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2008, Beiheft der Francia Nr. 67, hrsg. von Deutschen Historischen Institut Paris.</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mayer_(Historiker)" class="extiw" title="de:Michael Mayer (Historiker)">Michael Mayer</a> <i>Staaten als Täter. Ministerialbürokratie und 'Judenpolitik' in NS-Deutschland und Vichy-Frankreich. Ein Vergleich. Preface by Horst Möller and Georges-Henri Soutou</i> München, Oldenbourg, 2010 (Studien zur Zeitgeschichte; 80). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-486-58945-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-486-58945-0">978-3-486-58945-0</a>. (Comparative study of anti-Jewish policy implemented by the government in Nazi-Germany, by German occupational forces in France and by the semi-autonomic French government in Vichy)</li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRousso2009" class="citation book"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a> (2009) [1st pub. 2007 <a href="#CITEREFRousso2007">Le Régime de Vichy</a>]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://books.google.com/books?id=dprN2vGyktAC"><i>Vichy: Frankreich unter deutscher Besatzung ; 1940 – 1944</i></a> [<i>Vichy: France under the Occupation: 1940–1944</i>]. Beck'sche Reihe (in German). Munich: <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.H._Beck" title="C.H. Beck">C.H. Beck</a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58454-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58454-1"><bdi>978-3-406-58454-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/316118163">316118163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vichy%3A+Frankreich+unter+deutscher+Besatzung+%3B+1940+%E2%80%93+1944&rft.place=Munich&rft.series=Beck%27sche+Reihe&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F316118163&rft.isbn=978-3-406-58454-1&rft.aulast=Rousso&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdprN2vGyktAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVichy+France" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Films">Films</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Films">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Oph%C3%BCls" title="Marcel Ophüls">Marcel Ophüls</a>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sorrow_and_the_Pity" title="The Sorrow and the Pity">The Sorrow and the Pity</a></i> (1969).</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chabrol" title="Claude Chabrol">Claude Chabrol</a>, <i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eye_of_Vichy" title="The Eye of Vichy">The Eye of Vichy</a></i> (1993).</li></ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vichy_government_(1940-1944)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Vichy government (1940-1944)">Vichy government (1940-1944)</a></b></i>.</td></tr></tbody></table> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_Appeal_to_the_French_People_on_the_Entry_of_German_Troops_into_Unoccupied_France" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Adolf Hitler's Appeal to the French People on the Entry of German Troops into Unoccupied France">Adolf Hitler's Appeal to the French People on the Entry of German Troops into Unoccupied France</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_Letter_to_Marshal_Petain_Announcing_Complete_German_Occupation_of_France" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Adolf Hitler's Letter to Marshal Petain Announcing Complete German Occupation of France">Adolf Hitler's Letter to Marshal Petain Announcing Complete German Occupation of France</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_Letter_to_Marshal_Petain_Announcing_Decision_to_Occupy_Toulon" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Adolf Hitler's Letter to Marshal Petain Announcing Decision to Occupy Toulon">Adolf Hitler's Letter to Marshal Petain Announcing Decision to Occupy Toulon</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Kitson" title="Simon Kitson">Simon Kitson</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://web.archive.org/web/20140911225053/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/">Vichy web-page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1940/400710a.html">Original "Establishment of the Vichy government" constitutional act</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.hist-geo.com/Carte/France/1940-1942/Armistice-22-Juin-1940-11.png">Map of the "free" and "occupied" French zones</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.hist-geo.com/Carte/France/1940-1942/Armistice-22-Juin-1940-Analyse.php"><i>National Geographic</i> coverage of the armistice</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764199,00.html">"Obituary of a Republic"</a>, <i>Time</i>, 22 July 1940</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/vica/">Vica Nazi Propaganda Comics – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections</a>—Pro-Nazi comics produced in Vichy France</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/camp/eur/ger/dip/nd40m.html">NAZI diplomacy: Vichy, 1940</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/france/deportations.asp">The Holocaust in France</a>, at <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202026.pdf">Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, But Not for All: France and the "Alien" Jews, 1933–1942</a></li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Administrative_divisions_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German_occupations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Administrative_divisions_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German_occupations" title="Template:Administrative divisions in Nazi Germany and German occupations"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Administrative_divisions_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German_occupations" title="Template talk:Administrative divisions in Nazi Germany and German occupations"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li 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style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_Civil_Administration" title="Chief of Civil Administration">Civil Administration Areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_Alsace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of Alsace (page does not exist)">Alsace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_the_Bialystok_area&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of the Bialystok area (page does not exist)">Bialystok area</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_Carinthia_and_Carniola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of Carinthia and Carniola (page does not exist)">Carinthia and Carniola</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_Danzig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of Danzig (page does not exist)">Danzig</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_Lower_Styria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of Lower Styria (page does not exist)">Lower Styria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Administration_Area_of_Luxembourg" title="Civil Administration Area of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_Administration_Area_of_Government_district_Zichenau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Administration Area of Government district Zichenau (page does not exist)">Government district Zichenau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CdZ-Gebiet_Lothringen" title="CdZ-Gebiet Lothringen">Territory of the Chief of Civil Administration of Lorraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezirk" title="Bezirk">Districts</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezirk_Bialystok" title="Bezirk Bialystok">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Brussels" title="District of Brussels">Brussels</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i lang="de" title="German language text">Gaus</i></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Baden" title="Gau Baden">Baden-Alsace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Bayreuth" title="Gau Bayreuth">Bayreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Berlin" title="Gau Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Cologne-Aachen" title="Gau Cologne-Aachen">Cologne–Aachen</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_D%C3%BCsseldorf" title="Gau Düsseldorf">Düsseldorf</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Eastern_Hanover" title="Gau Eastern Hanover">Eastern Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_East_Prussia" title="Gau East Prussia">East Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Electoral_Hesse" title="Gau Electoral Hesse">Electoral Hesse</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Essen" title="Gau Essen">Essen</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Franconia" title="Gau Franconia">Franconia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Halle-Merseburg" title="Gau Halle-Merseburg">Halle-Merseburg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Hamburg" title="Gau Hamburg">Hamburg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Hesse-Nassau" title="Gau Hesse-Nassau">Hesse-Nassau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Lower_Silesia" title="Gau Lower Silesia">Lower Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Magdeburg-Anhalt" title="Gau Magdeburg-Anhalt">Magdeburg-Anhalt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Main_Franconia" title="Gau Main Franconia">Main Franconia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_March_of_Brandenburg" title="Gau March of Brandenburg">March of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Mecklenburg" title="Gau Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Moselland" title="Gau Moselland">Moselland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Munich-Upper_Bavaria" title="Gau Munich-Upper Bavaria">Munich–Upper Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSDAP/AO" title="NSDAP/AO">NSDAP/AO</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Pomerania" title="Gau Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Saxony" title="Gau Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Schleswig-Holstein" title="Gau Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Silesia" title="Gau Silesia">Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Swabia" title="Gau Swabia">Swabia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Southern_Hanover-Brunswick" title="Gau Southern Hanover-Brunswick">Southern Hanover–Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Thuringia" title="Gau Thuringia">Thuringia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Upper_Silesia" title="Gau Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Weser-Ems" title="Gau Weser-Ems">Weser-Ems</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Westphalia-North" title="Gau Westphalia-North">Westphalia-North</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Westphalia-South" title="Gau Westphalia-South">Westphalia-South</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_Westmark" title="Gau Westmark">Westmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gau_W%C3%BCrttemberg-Hohenzollern" title="Gau Württemberg-Hohenzollern">Württemberg-Hohenzollern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General<br/>Governments</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Districts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Districts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Galicia" title="District of Galicia">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_District" title="Kraków District">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=District_of_Lublin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Lublin (page does not exist)">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=District_of_Radom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Radom (page does not exist)">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=District_of_Warsaw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Warsaw (page does not exist)">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Urban_districts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Urban districts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>Kielce</li> <li>Lviv</li> <li>Lublin</li> <li>Kraków</li> <li>Radom</li> <li>Tschenstochau</li> <li>Warsaw</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="KreishauptmannschaftenCategory:Articles_containing_German-language_text" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i lang="de" title="German language text">Kreishauptmannschaften</i></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>Garwolin</li> <li>Grójec</li> <li>Lowicz</li> <li>Mińsk Mazowiecki</li> <li>Ostrów Mazowiecka</li> <li>Siedlce</li> <li>Skierniewice</li> <li>Sochaczew</li> <li>Sokołów Podlaski-Węgrów</li> <li>Dębica</li> <li>Jarosław</li> <li>Jaslo</li> <li>Krakau-Land</li> <li>Krosno</li> <li>Miechow</li> <li>Nowy Targ</li> <li>Nowy Sącz</li> <li>Przemyśl</li> <li>Rzeszow</li> <li>Sanok</li> <li>Tarnów</li> <li>Biała Podlaska</li> <li>Bilgoraj</li> <li>Chelm</li> <li>Hrubieszow</li> <li>Janow Lubelski</li> <li>Krasnystaw</li> <li>Lublin-Land</li> <li>Pulawy</li> <li>Radzyn</li> <li>Zamość</li> <li>Busko-Zdrój</li> <li>Jedrzejow</li> <li>Kielce-Land</li> <li>Końskie</li> <li>Opatów</li> <li>Piotrków Trybunalski</li> <li>Radom-Land</li> <li>Radomsko</li> <li>Starachowice</li> <li>Tomaszów Mazowiecki</li> <li>Brzeżany</li> <li>Czortków</li> <li>Drohobycz</li> <li>Kamianka-Buzka</li> <li>Kolomyia</li> <li>Lemberg-Land</li> <li>Rava-Ruska</li> <li>Ivano-Frankivsk</li> <li>Sambir</li> <li>Stryj</li> <li>Tarnopol</li> <li>Zolochiv</li> <li>Kalush</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protectorate</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i lang="de" title="German language text"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau" title="Reichsgau">Reichsgaus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_K%C3%A4rnten" title="Reichsgau Kärnten">Carinthia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Niederdonau" title="Reichsgau Niederdonau">Lower Danube</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Oberdonau" title="Reichsgau Oberdonau">Upper Danube</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia" title="Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia">Danzig–West Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Flandern" title="Reichsgau Flandern">Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Salzburg" title="Reichsgau Salzburg">Salzburg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Steiermark" title="Reichsgau Steiermark">Styria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Sudetenland" title="Reichsgau Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Tirol-Vorarlberg" title="Reichsgau Tirol-Vorarlberg">Tyrol–Vorarlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Wien" title="Reichsgau Wien">Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Wallonien" title="Reichsgau Wallonien">Wallonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau_Wartheland" title="Reichsgau Wartheland">Wartheland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">German<br/>occupations</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="German-occupied_Africa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">German-occupied Africa</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French protectorate of Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">German-occupied Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1943%E2%80%9344)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey" title="Bailiwick of Guernsey">Bailiwick of Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailiwick of Jersey">Bailiwick of Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Second Czechoslovak Republic">Second Czechoslovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Third Czechoslovak Republic">Third Czechoslovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_State_of_Austria" title="Federal State of Austria">Federal State of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Denmark">Kingdom of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Kingdom of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)">Kingdom of Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Islands_of_the_Aegean" title="Italian Islands of the Aegean">Italian Islands of the Aegean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Norway">Kingdom of Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Kingdom of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Monaco">Principality of Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Finland">Republic of Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Lithuania" title="Provisional Government of Lithuania">Provisional Government of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Republic of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marino" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of San Marino">Republic of San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_the_Military_Commander_in_Serbia" title="Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia">Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin" title="Territory of the Saar Basin">Territory of the Saar Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_national_government_(1941)" title="Ukrainian national government (1941)">Ukrainian National Government</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Military Administration (Nazi Germany)">Military administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France">Belgium and Northern France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Zone_of_Protection_in_Slovakia" title="German Zone of Protection in Slovakia">German Zone of Protection in Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_of_Luxembourg" title="Military Administration of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Poland" title="Military Administration in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Administration in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_the_Military_Commander_in_Serbia" title="Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia">Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operational Zones</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Adriatic_Littoral" title="Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral">Adriatic Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Alpine_Foothills" title="Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills">Alpine Foothills</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Albania" title="German occupation of Albania">Albanian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_Government" title="Commissioner Government">Commissioner Government</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">French State</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupied_territory_of_Montenegro" title="German occupied territory of Montenegro">German occupied territory of Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_National_Salvation" title="Government of National Salvation">Government of National Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_State_(1941%E2%80%931944)" title="Hellenic State (1941–1944)">Hellenic State</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent State of Macedonia">Independent State of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_National_Unity_(Hungary)" title="Government of National Unity (Hungary)">Kingdom of Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lepel_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lepel Republic (page does not exist)">Lepel Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lokot_Autonomy" title="Lokot Autonomy">Lokot Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisling_regime" title="Quisling regime">National Government</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i lang="de" title="German language text"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat" title="Reichskommissariat">Reichskommissariats</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e5e5e5;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Founded</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_of_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Reichskommissariat of Belgium and Northern France">Belgium and Northern France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Niederlande" title="Reichskommissariat Niederlande">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Norwegen" title="Reichskommissariat Norwegen">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Ostland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ukraine" title="Reichskommissariat Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#e5e5e5;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Kaukasus" title="Reichskommissariat Kaukasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Don-Wolga" title="Reichskommissariat Don-Wolga">Don–Volga</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Moskowien" title="Reichskommissariat Moskowien">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Turkestan" title="Reichskommissariat Turkestan">Turkestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany" title="Areas annexed by Nazi Germany">Areas annexed by Nazi Germany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:World_War_II&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div id="*_Outline&#10;**_Topic_lists&#10;*_Military_engagements&#10;**_Battles&#10;**_Operations&#10;*_Commanders&#10;*_Casualties&#10;*_Conferences"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topic lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_II" title="List of military engagements of World War II">Military engagements</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_Theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific Theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_Campaign" title="North African Campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" title="American Theater (World War II)">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America_during_World_War_II" title="Latin America during World War II">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">General<br/>aspects</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_awards_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Category:Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a><br/><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">leaders</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Brazil#World_War_II" title="Military history of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Canada during World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> (from June 1940)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (from September 1943)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Mexico#World_War_II" title="Military history of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Campaign" title="Norwegian Campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a> (Commonwealth)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Poland (1939–45)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis and<br/>Axis-aligned</a><br/><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"/><span class="nobold">(<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">leaders</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1939%E2%80%9343)" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reorganized_National_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China">Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Finland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Finland during World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Free India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan#Late_Sh.C5.8Dwa_.281937.E2.80.931947.29_.E2.80.93_Expansionism" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a> (Second Republic)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vichy France</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed neutrality">Armed neutrality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_resistance_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian resistance during World War II">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Resistance" title="Austrian Resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_German-occupied_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance in German-occupied Czechoslovakia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%9344" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–44">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriots_(Ethiopia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriots (Ethiopia)">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Resistance" title="Greek Resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_dissidence_during_the_early_Sh%C5%8Dwa_period" title="Japanese dissidence during the early Shōwa period">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%9345" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–45">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Anti-communist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Viet Minh">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetniks" title="Chetniks">Monarchists</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II" title="Timeline of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%E2%80%9340_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–40 Winter Offensive">China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung"><i>Weserübung</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands" title="Battle of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium" title="Battle of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">Armistice of 22 June 1940</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" title="Western Desert Campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">North China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass"><i>Compass</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Greece" title="Battle of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Soviet Union (<i>Barbarossa</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_Campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon Campaign">Syria and Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%9342)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–42)">Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> <ul><li>The outbreak of the <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1941%E2%80%9342)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippines Campaign (1941–42)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Campaign" title="Malayan Campaign">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%9342)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–42)">Borneo (1941–42)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_conquest_of_Burma" title="Japanese conquest of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1942)">Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu (occupation)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_Summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, Summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" title="Battle of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Torch</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign" title="Tunisian Campaign">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1943)" title="Battle of Smolensk (1943)">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu"> Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage"> <i>Cottage</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Lower Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign" title="Burma Campaign"> Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan"> Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio"><i>Shingle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy_Pocket" title="Battle of the Korsun–Cherkassy Pocket">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest"><i>Tempest</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go"><i>Ichi-Go</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i> (Battle of Normandy - D-Day)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings"><i>Neptune</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" title="Invasion of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration"><i>Bagration</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_Offensive" title="Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_Offensive" title="Jassy–Kishinev Offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_Offensive" title="Belgrade Offensive">Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden"><i>Market Garden</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn_Offensive" title="Tallinn Offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow"><i>Crossbow</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive"><i>Pointblank</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_Offensive" title="Budapest Offensive">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte"><i>Bodenplatte</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines Campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign_1944%E2%80%9345" title="Burma Campaign 1944–45">Burma (1944–45)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive" title="Vistula–Oder Offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign_(1945)" title="Borneo campaign (1945)">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_Offensive" title="Prague Offensive">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Guangxi_Campaign" title="Second Guangxi Campaign">Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign_(1945)" title="Borneo campaign (1945)">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raid_on_Taihoku" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid on Taihoku">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other<br/>aspects</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation <i>Paperclip</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Operation <i>Osoaviakhim</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Operation <i>Keelhaul</i></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%E2%80%93Hungarian_relations,_1945%E2%80%931991" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian–Hungarian relations, 1945–1991">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_popular_culture" title="World War II in popular culture">Popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German</a> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Forced labour</a>) / <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht"><i>Wehrmacht</i> war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li>Croatian war crimes <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_persecution_of_Serbs#Ustaše_persecution_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="World War II persecution of Serbs">against the Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">against the Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime<br/>sexual violence</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Rape during the occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_of_Manila" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of Manila">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">German prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">German prisoners in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">In the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet prisoner mistreatment by Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Soviet prisoners in Finland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_famines" title="List of famines">Famines</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%9343" title="Chinese famine of 1942–43">Chinese famine of 1942–43</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek Famine of 1941-1944</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%9345" title="Dutch famine of 1944–45">Dutch famine of 1944–45</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_Famine_of_1945" title="Vietnamese Famine of 1945">Vietnamese Famine of 1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_World_War_II_articles" title="Index of World War II articles">Article index</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World_War_II" title="Portal:World War II">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="France_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:France_topics" title="Template:France topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:France_topics" title="Template talk:France topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:France_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="France_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_French_history" title="Timeline of French history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_France" title="Prehistory of France">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Celtic Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Visigoths" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Visigoths">Kingdom of the Visigoths</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_France" title="Early modern France">Early modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="France in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolutionary era</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_in_the_twentieth_century" title="France in the twentieth century">Twentieth century</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Regimes</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Constitutional monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration" title="Bourbon Restoration">Bourbon Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France during the Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/80px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="96" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/120px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg/160px-Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="364"/></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_France" title="Geography of France">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_France" title="Administrative divisions of France">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_communes_in_France_with_over_20,000_inhabitants" title="List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_France" title="List of islands of France">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_France" title="List of lakes of France">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_mountains_by_prominence" title="List of French mountains by prominence">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_France" title="List of rivers of France">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_France" title="Constitution of France">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_France" title="Elections in France">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_elections_in_France" title="Presidential elections in France">presidential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_France" title="Foreign relations of France">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_France" title="Politics of France">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_France" title="Human rights in France">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_France" title="Intersex rights in France">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_France" title="LGBT rights in France">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_France" title="Judiciary of France">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_France" title="Law enforcement in France">enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Armed_Forces" title="French Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Parliament" title="French Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_France" title="List of political parties in France">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_France" title="Economy of France">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_France#Agriculture" title="Economy of France">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banque_de_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Banque de France">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_France" title="Economic history of France">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_France" title="Energy in France">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exports_of_France" title="List of exports of France">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">Franc <span style="font-size:85%;">(former currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_regions_and_overseas_collectivities_by_GDP" title="List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP">French subdivisions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronext_Paris" title="Euronext Paris">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_France" title="Taxation in France">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_France" title="Tourism in France">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_France" title="List of trade unions in France">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_France" title="Transport in France">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:French_society" title="Category:French society">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_France" title="Demographics of France">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_people" title="French people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_France" title="Culture of France">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_architecture" title="French architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_art" title="French art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_France" title="Cinema of France">Cinema</a> (<a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_comedy_films" title="French comedy films">comedy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cuisine" title="French cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cultural_icons_of_France" title="List of cultural icons of France">Cultural icons</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_fashion" title="French fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remarkable_Gardens_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Remarkable Gardens of France">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_France" title="Languages of France">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_France" title="Media of France">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_France" title="Music of France">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_holidays_in_France" title="Public holidays in France">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_France" title="Sport in France">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of France">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_France" title="Theatre of France">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="padding:0.25em;"><div><div style="margin-top:0;line-height:1.4em;margin-bottom:-0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_France" title="Outline of France">Outline</a></li></ul> </div><div style="margin-top:-0.2em;line-height:1.4em;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:France" title="Book:France">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:France" title="Category:France">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_France" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject France">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69808&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69808&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12064507f">cb12064507f</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12064507f">(data)</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_International_Authority_File" title="Virtual International Authority File">VIAF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://viaf.org/viaf/248133054">248133054</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"> <a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldCat_Identities" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCat Identities">WorldCat Identities</a> (via VIAF): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://www.worldcat.org/identities/containsVIAFID/248133054">248133054</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="//web.archive.org/web/20190512024422im_/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"/></noscript></div> <div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&oldid=894470397">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vichy_France&oldid=894470397</a>"</div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category" 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title="Category:France in World War II">France in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:France%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Category:France–Germany relations">France–Germany relations</a></li><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" title="Category:German occupation of France during World War II">German occupation of France during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust_in_France" title="Category:The Holocaust in France">The Holocaust in France</a></li><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Modern_history_of_France" title="Category:Modern history of France">Modern history of France</a></li><li><a href="/web/20190512024422/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Category:Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a></li><li><a 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hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%92%D1%96%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Рэжым Вішы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Режим на Виши – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renad_Vichy" title="Renad Vichy – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govern_de_Vichy" title="Govern de Vichy – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%C4%95" title="Виши режимĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichistick%C3%A1_Francie" title="Vichistická Francie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llywodraeth_Vichy" title="Llywodraeth Vichy – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regeringen" title="Vichy-regeringen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-Regime" title="Vichy-Regime – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%92%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%8D" title="Γαλλία του Βισύ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8r%27n_ad_Vichy" title="Guèr'n ad Vichy – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_de_Vichy" title="Francia de Vichy – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C4%9Dimo_de_Vichy" title="Reĝimo de Vichy – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyko_gobernua" title="Vichyko gobernua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="فرانسه ویشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" title="Régime de Vichy – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-Frankryk" title="Vichy-Frankryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Fhrainc_V%C3%ADseach" title="An Fhrainc Víseach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_de_Vichy" title="Francia de Vichy – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%EC%8B%9C_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4" title="비시 프랑스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%B7%D5%AB_(%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4)" title="Վիշի (ֆաշիզմ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1ijska_Francuska" title="Višijska Francuska – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia_di_Vichy" title="Francia di Vichy – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prancis_Vichy" title="Prancis Vichy – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-stj%C3%B3rnin" title="Vichy-stjórnin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governo_di_Vichy" title="Governo di Vichy – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99" title="צרפת של וישי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ვიშის რეჟიმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serikali_ya_V%C3%ADchy" title="Serikali ya Víchy – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8_%D3%A9%D0%BA%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%82%D2%AF" title="Виши өкмөтү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimen_Viciacense" title="Regimen Viciacense – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1%C4%AB_Francija" title="Višī Francija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1i_re%C5%BEimas" title="Viši režimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-korm%C3%A1ny" title="Vichy-kormány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Вишиевска Франција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="വിഷി ഫ്രാൻസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="विशी फ्रान्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%89" title="فرنسا فيشى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perancis_Vichy" title="Perancis Vichy – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-Frankrijk" title="Vichy-Frankrijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC%E6%94%BF%E6%A8%A9" title="ヴィシー政権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichii_France" title="Vichii France – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regimet" title="Vichy-regimet – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy-regimet" title="Vichy-regimet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regim_de_P%C3%A9tain" title="Regim de Pétain – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="وشی فرانس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tot_francho%C3%A9s_(1940-1944)" title="Étot franchoés (1940-1944) – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francja_Vichy" title="Francja Vichy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7a_de_Vichy" title="França de Vichy – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimul_de_la_Vichy" title="Regimul de la Vichy – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Режим Виши – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantza_de_Vichy" title="Frantza de Vichy – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_Fraunce" title="Vichy Fraunce – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%BAzsky_%C5%A1t%C3%A1t" title="Francúzsky štát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%DA%95%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="فەڕەنسای ڤیشی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вишијевска Француска – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1ijevska_Francuska" title="Višijevska Francuska – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyn_Ranska" title="Vichyn Ranska – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichyregimen" title="Vichyregimen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pransiyang_Vichy" title="Pransiyang Vichy – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5" title="ฝรั่งเศสเขตวีชี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_Fransas%C4%B1" title="Vichy Fransası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%92%D1%96%D1%88%D1%96" title="Режим Віші – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%86%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="ویچی فرانس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADnh_ph%E1%BB%A7_Vichy" title="Chính phủ Vichy – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redjime_di_Vichy" title="Redjime di Vichy – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%99_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92" title="ווישי רעגירונג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="維希法國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190512024422/https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%B8%8C%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" title="維希法國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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