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<span>Positivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criminal_personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Criminal personality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Italian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_positivist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_positivist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Sociological positivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociological_positivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_association_(sub-cultural)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_association_(sub-cultural)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Differential association (sub-cultural)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_association_(sub-cultural)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chicago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Chicago</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chicago-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_structure_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_structure_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Social structure theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_structure_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disorganization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorganization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Disorganization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disorganization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Social Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Strain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subcultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subcultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Subcultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subcultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>Control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychoanalytic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychoanalytic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.6</span> <span>Psychoanalytic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychoanalytic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolic_interactionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolic_interactionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Symbolic interactionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolic_interactionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labeling_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labeling_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Labeling theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labeling_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traitor_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traitor_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Traitor theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traitor_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rational_choice_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rational_choice_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Rational choice theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rational_choice_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routine_activity_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routine_activity_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Routine activity theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routine_activity_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biosocial_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosocial_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Biosocial theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosocial_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Marxist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Convict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Convict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Convict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Convict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Queer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Queer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Queer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Queer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Cultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_deprivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_deprivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.15</span> <span>Relative deprivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_deprivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.16</span> <span>Rural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.17</span> <span>Public</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_and_definitions_of_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_and_definitions_of_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types and definitions of crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_and_definitions_of_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subtopics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subtopics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Subtopics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subtopics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Criminology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">79 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85" title="علم الإجرام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الإجرام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminolox%C3%ADa" title="Criminoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Criminoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologiya" title="Kriminologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kriminologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="کریمینولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کریمینولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="অপরাধ বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপরাধ বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C4%81n-ch%C5%8De-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hoān-chōe-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoān-chōe-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Крыміналогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крыміналогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminolohiya" title="Kriminolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kriminolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криминология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Криминология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologija" title="Kriminologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kriminologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torfedouriezh" title="Torfedouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Torfedouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" title="Criminologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Criminologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologie" title="Kriminologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kriminologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troseddeg" title="Troseddeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Troseddeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologie" title="Kriminologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kriminologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminoloogia" title="Kriminoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kriminoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Εγκληματολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εγκληματολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminolog%C3%ADa" title="Criminología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Criminología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologio" title="Kriminologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kriminologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologia" title="Kriminologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kriminologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="جرم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جرم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologie" title="Criminologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Criminologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminolox%C3%ADa" title="Criminoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Criminoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%84%ED%95%99" title="범죄학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="범죄학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քրեաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրեաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="अपराध शास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपराध शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologija" title="Kriminologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kriminologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" title="Criminologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Criminologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="קרימינולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרימינולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A7-%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಅಪರಾಧ-ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಪರಾಧ-ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криминология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Криминология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawannas%C3%AE" title="Tawannasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tawannasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криминология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Криминология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" title="Criminologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Criminologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminolo%C4%A3ija" title="Kriminoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kriminoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologie" title="Kriminologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kriminologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologija" title="Kriminologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kriminologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminol%C3%B3gia" title="Kriminológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kriminológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Криминологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Криминологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF" title="ക്രിമിനോളജി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്രിമിനോളജി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminolo%C4%A1ija" title="Kriminoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kriminoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologie" title="Criminologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Criminologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E5%AD%A6" title="犯罪学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="犯罪学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" title="Criminologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Criminologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologiya" title="Kriminologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kriminologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A7_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਅਪਰਾਧ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਪਰਾਧ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="جرمپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جرمپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryminologia" title="Kryminologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kryminologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" title="Criminologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Criminologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologiya" title="Kriminologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Kriminologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologie" title="Criminologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Criminologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криминология – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Криминология" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Криминология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Криминология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%90%D9%85%D9%90%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="کرِمِنالوجی – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="کرِمِنالوجی" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologjia" title="Kriminologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kriminologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جرميات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جرميات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminol%C3%B3gia" title="Kriminológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kriminológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminalistika" title="Kriminalistika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kriminalistika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تاوانناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاوانناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Криминологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Криминологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologija" title="Kriminologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kriminologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologia" title="Kriminologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kriminologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminologi" title="Kriminologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kriminologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="อาชญาวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาชญาวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Ҷурмшиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷурмшиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminoloji" title="Kriminoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kriminoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Кримінологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кримінологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جرمیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جرمیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BB%99i_ph%E1%BA%A1m_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Tội phạm học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tội phạm học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminolohiya" title="Kriminolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kriminolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E5%AD%A6" title="犯罪学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="犯罪学" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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title="Criminologist">Criminologist</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of crime and criminal actions/behavior</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Criminology_(journal)" title="Criminology (journal)">Criminology (journal)</a>. For the Raekwon song, see <a href="/wiki/Criminology_(song)" title="Criminology (song)">Criminology (song)</a>. 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Main Theories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subcultural theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Methods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_methods_in_criminology" title="Quantitative methods in criminology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Subfields and other major theories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Browse</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology" title="Template:Criminology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology" title="Template talk:Criminology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_Network_Diagram_(segment).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sociology" title="Template:Sociology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sociology" title="Template talk:Sociology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sociology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger,_China,_Anonym,_um_1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg/350px-Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg/525px-Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg/700px-Drei_Frauen_am_Pranger%2C_China%2C_Anonym%2C_um_1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="894" data-file-height="688" /></a><figcaption>Three women in the <a href="/wiki/Pillory" title="Pillory">pillory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a>, 1875</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Criminology</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">crimen</i></span>, 'accusation', and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">-λογία</span></span>, <i>-logia</i>, from λόγος <i>logos</i>, 'word, reason') is the interdisciplinary study of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behaviour</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">behavioural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, which draws primarily upon the research of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political scientists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">legal sociologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatrists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social workers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropologists</a>, scholars of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, as well as the processes that define <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">administration of justice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> system. </p><p>The interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law, <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a> of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it develops; second, it analyzes the <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of crime">causation of crime</a> and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions and educational, private and public social agencies. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_academic_criminology">History of academic criminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of academic criminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern academic criminology has direct roots in the 19th-century Italian School of "criminal anthropology", which according to the historian Mary Gibson "caused a radical refocusing of criminological discussion throughout Europe and the United States from law to the criminal. While this 'Italian School' was in turn attacked and partially supplanted in countries such as France by 'sociological' theories of delinquency, they retained the new focus on the criminal."<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_M._S._1982_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_M._S._1982-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Gibson, the term <i>criminology</i> was most likely coined in 1885 by <a href="/wiki/Italian_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian law">Italian law</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Garofalo" title="Raffaele Garofalo">Raffaele Garofalo</a> as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminologia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminologia (page does not exist)">Criminologia</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologia" class="extiw" title="it:Criminologia">it</a>]</sup>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Gibson,_M._S._1982_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson,_M._S._1982-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 19th century, French anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Topinard" title="Paul Topinard">Paul Topinard</a> used the analogous French term <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminologie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminologie (page does not exist)">Criminologie</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologie" class="extiw" title="fr:Criminologie">fr</a>]</sup>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Criminology grew substantially as a discipline in the first quarter of the twentieth century. From 1900 through to 2000 this field of research underwent three significant phases in the United States: (1) Golden Age of Research (1900–1930) which has been described as a multiple-factor approach, (2) Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960) which endeavored to show the limits of systematically connecting criminological research to theory, and (3) a 1960–2000 period, which was seen as a significant turning point for criminology.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_of_thought">Schools of thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were three main schools of thought in early criminological theory, spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century: <a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a>. These schools of thought were superseded by several contemporary paradigms of criminology, such as the sub-culture, control, strain, labelling, <a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">critical criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">cultural criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school_(criminology)" title="Postmodernist school (criminology)">postmodern criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">feminist criminology</a>, Queer criminology, and others discussed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_Classical_School">Origins and Classical School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins and Classical School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this section is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Criminology##" title="Talk:Criminology">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical school</a> arose in the mid-18th century and reflects ideas from <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Beccaria,_Cesare_1764_64_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beccaria,_Cesare_1764_64-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> author of <i><a href="/wiki/Dei_delitti_e_delle_pene" class="mw-redirect" title="Dei delitti e delle pene">On Crimes and Punishments</a></i> (1763–64), <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> (inventor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Panopticon" title="Panopticon">panopticon</a></i>), and other early criminological philosophers proposed ideas including:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> should be used as a way to deter people from further criminal action. This is premised on the belief that individuals want to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.</li> <li>Punishment should be "public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible [i.e., no more than necessary for effective deterrence] under the given circumstances, and established by law."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Severity of punishment should be determined by actual harms, not intent.</li></ol> <p>This school developed during a major reform in <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a> when society began designing prisons for the sake of extreme punishment. This period also saw many legal reforms, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">legal system in the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positivist">Positivist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Positivist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a> argues criminal behaviour comes from internal and external factors out of the individual's control. Its key method of thought is that criminals are born as criminals and not made into them;<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this school of thought also supports theory of nature in the debate between nature versus nurture. They also argue that criminal behavior is innate and within a person. Philosophers within this school applied the scientific method to study human behavior. Positivism comprises three segments: <a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)#Biological_positivism" title="Positivist school (criminology)">biological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)#Psychological_positivism" title="Positivist school (criminology)">psychological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social positivism">social positivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychological Positivism is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them. </p><p>Social Positivism, which is often referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and motivate criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criminal_personality">Criminal personality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criminal personality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of having a criminal personality is achieved from the school of thought of psychological positivism. It essentially means that parts of an individual's personality have traits that align with many of those possessed by criminals, such as neuroticism, anti-social tendencies, aggressive behaviors, and other factors. There is evidence of correlation, but not causation, between these personality traits and criminal actions.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italian">Italian</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Italian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> (1835–1909), an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is often called "the father of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal anthropology">criminology</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the <a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian school of criminology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-siegel-p7_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siegel-p7-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggested physiological traits such as the measurements of cheekbones or hairline, or a cleft palate could indicate "<a href="/wiki/Atavism" title="Atavism">atavistic</a>" criminal tendencies. This approach, whose influence came via the theory of <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>, has been superseded. <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a>, a student of Lombroso, believed social as well as biological factors played a role, and believed criminals should not be held responsible when factors causing their criminality were beyond their control. Criminologists have since rejected Lombroso's biological theories since <a href="/wiki/Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control groups</a> were not used in his studies.<sup id="cite_ref-siegel-p139_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siegel-p139-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sociological_positivist">Sociological positivist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sociological positivist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a> suggests societal factors such as <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, membership of subcultures, or low levels of education can predispose people to crime. <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a> used data and statistical analysis to study the relationship between crime and sociological factors. He found age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors to crime.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lance Lochner performed three different research experiments, each one proving education reduces crime.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rawson_W._Rawson" title="Rawson W. Rawson">Rawson W. Rawson</a> used <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime statistics</a> to suggest a link between <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime rate">crime rates</a>, with crowded cities producing more crime.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fletcher_(statistician)" title="Joseph Fletcher (statistician)">Joseph Fletcher</a> and John Glyde read papers to the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_Society_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical Society of London">Statistical Society of London</a> on their studies of crime and its distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Mayhew" title="Henry Mayhew">Henry Mayhew</a> used <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> methods and an <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> approach to address social questions and poverty, and gave his studies in <i><a href="/wiki/London_Labour_and_the_London_Poor" title="London Labour and the London Poor">London Labour and the London Poor</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of a society with uneven distribution of wealth and other differences among people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Differential_association_(sub-cultural)"><span id="Differential_association_.28sub-cultural.29"></span>Differential association (sub-cultural)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Differential association (sub-cultural)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Differential association (sub-cultural) posits that people learn crime through <a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">association</a>. This theory was advocated by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Sutherland" title="Edwin Sutherland">Edwin Sutherland</a>, who focused on how "a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Associating with people who may condone criminal conduct, or justify crime under specific circumstances makes one more likely to take that view, under his theory. Interacting with this type of "<a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">antisocial</a>" peer is a major cause of delinquency. Reinforcing criminal behavior makes it chronic. Where there are criminal <a href="/wiki/Subcultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcultures">subcultures</a>, many individuals learn crime, and crime rates swell in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago">Chicago</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chicago"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago school</a> arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Park" title="Robert E. Park">Robert E. Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Burgess" title="Ernest Burgess">Ernest Burgess</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban sociologists</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. In the 1920s, Park and Burgess identified five <a href="/wiki/Concentric_ring_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentric ring model">concentric zones</a> that often exist as cities grow, including the "<a href="/wiki/Zone_of_transition" title="Zone of transition">zone of transition</a>", which was identified as the most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s, <a href="/wiki/Henry_D._McKay" title="Henry D. McKay">Henry McKay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shaw" title="Clifford Shaw">Clifford R. Shaw</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">juvenile delinquents</a>, finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition. The Chicago School was a school of thought developed that blames social structures for human behaviors. This thought can be associated or used within criminology, because it essentially takes the stance of defending criminals and criminal behaviors. The defense and argument lies in the thoughts that these people and their acts are not their faults but they are actually the result of society (i.e. unemployment, poverty, etc.), and these people are actually, in fact, behaving properly.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chicago school sociologists adopted a <a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">social ecology</a> approach to studying cities and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty often experience a breakdown in the <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>, such as family and schools. This results in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_disorganization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social disorganization (page does not exist)">social disorganization</a>, which reduces the ability of these institutions to control behavior and creates an environment ripe for <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant behavior</a>. </p><p>Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link. <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Sutherland" title="Edwin Sutherland">Edwin Sutherland</a> suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals with whom they may associate. </p><p>Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Functionalism (sociology)">functionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interactionism" title="Interactionism">interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">behavioural genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_structure_theories">Social structure theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Social structure theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This theory is applied to a variety of approaches within the bases of criminology in particular and in sociology more generally as a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a> or structural conflict perspective in sociology and sociology of crime. As this perspective is itself broad enough, embracing as it does a diversity of positions.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disorganization">Disorganization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Disorganization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of <a href="/wiki/Population_turnover" class="mw-redirect" title="Population turnover">population turnover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bursik-1988-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory suggests that crime and deviance is valued within groups in society, 'subcultures' or 'gangs'. These groups have different values to the <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norm</a>. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneous">heterogeneity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bursik-1988-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With high turnover, informal <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a> in a community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_Ecology">Social Ecology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Social Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration.<sup id="cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bursik-1988-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle-class</a> people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain. <a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a> suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strain">Strain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Strain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain theory (sociology)</a></div> <p>Strain theory, also known as Mertonian Anomie, advanced by American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert Merton</a>, suggests that mainstream culture, especially in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom, and prosperity—as Merton put it, the <i><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></i>. Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivator. Merton also used the term <i><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a></i>, but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a>. Merton saw the term as meaning a <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomy</a> between what society expected of its citizens and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of those dejected will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviant</a> subcultures (such as <a href="/wiki/Gang" title="Gang">gang members</a>, or what he calls "<a href="/wiki/Hobo" title="Hobo">hobos</a>"). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Agnew_(criminologist)" title="Robert Agnew (criminologist)">Robert Agnew</a> developed this theory further to include types of strain which were not derived from financial constraints. This is known as <a href="/wiki/General_strain_theory" title="General strain theory">general strain theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subcultural">Subcultural</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Subcultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subcultural theory</a></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago school</a> and strain theory, and also drawing on <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Sutherland" title="Edwin Sutherland">Edwin Sutherland</a>'s idea of <a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">differential association</a>, sub-cultural theorists focused on small cultural groups <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(sociology)" title="Fragmentation (sociology)">fragmenting</a> away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Albert_K._Cohen" title="Albert K. Cohen">Albert K. Cohen</a> tied anomie theory with <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Reaction_formation" title="Reaction formation">reaction formation</a> idea, suggesting that delinquency among lower-class youths is a reaction against the social norms of the middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some youth, especially from poorer areas where opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places that may include "toughness" and disrespect for authority. Criminal acts may result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cloward" title="Richard Cloward">Richard Cloward</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Ohlin" title="Lloyd Ohlin">Lloyd Ohlin</a> suggested that delinquency can result from a differential opportunity for lower class youth.<sup id="cite_ref-cloward_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cloward-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a>-paying jobs available to them.<sup id="cite_ref-cloward_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cloward-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Delinquency tends to occur among the lower-working-class males who have a lack of resources available to them and live in impoverished areas, as mentioned extensively by Albert Cohen (Cohen, 1965). Bias has been known to occur among law enforcement agencies, where officers tend to place a bias on minority groups, without knowing for sure if they had committed a crime or not. </p><p>British sub-cultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a>, where some criminal activities were seen as "imaginary solutions" to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at gangs and the influence of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation of adults. </p><p>Sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Gastil" title="Raymond Gastil">Raymond D. Gastil</a> have explored the impact of a <a href="/wiki/Southern_culture_of_honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern culture of honor">Southern culture of honor</a> on violent crime rates.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Control">Control</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another approach is made by the social bond or <a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">social control theory</a>. Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do <i>not</i> become criminal. <a href="/wiki/Travis_Hirschi" title="Travis Hirschi">Travis Hirschi</a> identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules", "commitment to achievement", and "involvement in conventional activities".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more a person features those characteristics, the less likely he or she is to become deviant (or criminal). On the other hand, if these factors are not present, a person is more likely to become a criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory with the idea that a person with low <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a> is more likely to become criminal. As opposed to most criminology theories, these do not look at why people commit crime but rather why they do not commit crime.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A simple example: Someone wants a big yacht but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way, whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either wait, deny themselves of what want or seek an intelligent intermediate solution, such as joining a yacht club to use a yacht by group consolidation of resources without violating social norms. </p><p>Social bonds, through <a href="/wiki/Peer_group" title="Peer group">peers</a>, parents, and others can have a countering effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes families with delinquent children, from those who are not delinquent, is the control exerted by parents or <a href="/wiki/Chaperone_(social)" title="Chaperone (social)">chaperonage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, theorists such as <a href="/wiki/David_Matza" title="David Matza">David Matza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gresham_Sykes" title="Gresham Sykes">Gresham Sykes</a> argued that criminals are able to temporarily neutralize internal moral and social-behavioral constraints through <a href="/wiki/Techniques_of_neutralization" title="Techniques of neutralization">techniques of neutralization</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychoanalytic">Psychoanalytic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Psychoanalytic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_criminology" title="Psychoanalytic criminology">Psychoanalytic criminology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> is a psychological theory (and therapy) which regards the unconscious mind, <a href="/wiki/Repressed_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Repressed memories">repressed memories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">trauma</a>, as the key drivers of behavior, especially deviant behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> talks about how the unconscious desire for pain relates to psychoanalysis in his essay, <i>Beyond the Pleasure Principle,</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Freud suggested that unconscious impulses such as 'repetition compulsion' and a 'death drive' can dominate a person's creativity, leading to self-destructive behavior. Phillida Rosnick, in the article <i>Mental Pain and Social Trauma,</i> posits a difference in the thoughts of individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain which corresponds to them having thoughts and feelings which are not reflections of their true selves. There is enough correlation between this altered state of mind and criminality to suggest causation.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sander_Gilman" title="Sander Gilman">Sander Gilman</a>, in the article <i>Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis</i>, looks for evidence in the physical mechanisms of the human <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> and suggests there is a direct link between an unconscious desire for pain or punishment and the impulse to commit crime or deviant acts.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolic_interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Symbolic interactionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></div> <p>Symbolic interactionism draws on the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)" title="Phenomenology (psychology)">phenomenology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">subcultural theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This school of thought focused on the relationship between state, media, and conservative-ruling elite and other less powerful groups. The powerful groups had the ability to become the "significant other" in the less powerful groups' processes of generating <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a>. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter; therefore they were able to "label" minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take the label on board, indulge in crime more readily, and become <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">actors</a> in the "<a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophecy</a>" of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by <a href="/wiki/Howard_S._Becker" title="Howard S. Becker">Howard Becker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Lemert" title="Edwin Lemert">Edwin Lemert</a>, in the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(sociologist)" title="Stanley Cohen (sociologist)">Stanley Cohen</a> developed the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panic</a>" describing the societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena (e.g. post-World War 2 youth cultures like the <a href="/wiki/Mods_and_Rockers" class="mw-redirect" title="Mods and Rockers">Mods and Rockers</a> in the UK in 1964, <a href="/wiki/AIDS_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS epidemic">AIDS epidemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Football_hooliganism" title="Football hooliganism">football hooliganism</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labeling_theory">Labeling theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Labeling theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></div> <p>Labeling theory refers to an individual who is labeled by others in a particular way. The theory was studied in great detail by Becker.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was originally derived from sociology, but is regularly used in criminological studies. When someone is given the label of a criminal they may reject or accept it and continue to commit crime. Even those who initially reject the label can eventually accept it as the label becomes more well known, particularly among their peers. This stigma can become even more profound when the labels are about deviancy, and it is thought that this stigmatization can lead to <a href="/wiki/Deviancy_amplification_spiral" title="Deviancy amplification spiral">deviancy amplification</a>. <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_W._Klein" title="Malcolm W. Klein">Malcolm Klein</a> conducted a test which showed that labeling theory affected some youth offenders but not others.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traitor_theory">Traitor theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Traitor theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the other side of the spectrum, criminologist <a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Athens" title="Lonnie Athens">Lonnie Athens</a> developed a theory about how a process of brutalization by parents or peers that usually occurs in childhood results in violent crimes in adulthood. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Richard Rhodes</a>' <i>Why They Kill</i> describes Athens' observations about domestic and societal violence in the criminals' backgrounds. Both Athens and Rhodes reject the genetic inheritance theories.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rational_choice_theory">Rational choice theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rational choice theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice theory (criminology)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/180px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/270px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cesare_Beccaria.jpg/360px-Cesare_Beccaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Cesare Beccaria</figcaption></figure> <p>Rational choice theory is based on the <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a>, classical school philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Cesare Beccaria</a>, which were popularized by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In <i><a href="/wiki/Dei_delitti_e_delle_pene" class="mw-redirect" title="Dei delitti e delle pene">Dei delitti e delle pene</a></i> (On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a>. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime; thus, the judge was simply to confirm his or her sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>, and advocated against the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death penalty</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents. </p><p>This philosophy was replaced by the positivist and Chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of <a href="/wiki/James_Q._Wilson" title="James Q. Wilson">James Q. Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>'s 1965 article <i>Crime and Punishment</i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a>'s 1970 article <i>The Optimum Enforcement of Laws</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms.<sup id="cite_ref-cornish_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cornish-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational factors.<sup id="cite_ref-cornish_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cornish-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint but considered that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost, such as the probability of apprehension and conviction, severity of punishment, as well as their current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a>, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance. </p><p>With this perspective, <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">crime prevention</a> or reduction measures can be devised to increase the effort required to commit the crime, such as <a href="/wiki/Target_hardening" title="Target hardening">target hardening</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-clarke-1992_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarke-1992-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk and likelihood of being caught, through added surveillance, law enforcement presence, added street lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime.<sup id="cite_ref-clarke-1992_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarke-1992-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the main differences between this theory and Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the <a href="/wiki/Panopticon" title="Panopticon">panopticon</a>), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which the measures required would cost the supermarket so much that it would outweigh the benefits). This reveals that the goals of utilitarianism and <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a> have to be tempered and reduced to more modest proposals to be practically applicable. </p><p>Such rational choice theories, linked to <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>, have been at the basics of <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention_through_environmental_design" title="Crime prevention through environmental design">crime prevention through environmental design</a> and underpin the <a href="/wiki/Market_Reduction_Approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Market Reduction Approach">Market Reduction Approach</a> to theft <sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/Mike_Sutton_(criminologist)" title="Mike Sutton (criminologist)">Mike Sutton</a>, which is a systematic toolkit for those seeking to focus attention on "crime facilitators" by tackling the markets for stolen goods<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that provide motivation for thieves to supply them by theft.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Routine_activity_theory">Routine activity theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Routine activity theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Routine_activity_theory" title="Routine activity theory">Routine activity theory</a></div> <p>Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, draws upon control theories and explains crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including a motivated offender, suitable target or victim, and lack of a capable guardian.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to law enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-cohen_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cohen-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take <a href="/wiki/Nuisance" title="Nuisance">nuisance</a> abatement measures.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biosocial_theory">Biosocial theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Biosocial theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a> is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by sociological theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such as <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral genetics">behavioral genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Asghate2011_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asghate2011-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various theoretical frameworks such as <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroandrogenic_theory" title="Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory">evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory</a> have sought to explain trends in criminality through the lens of evolutionary biology. Specifically, they seek to explain why criminality is so much higher in men than in women and why young men are most likely to exhibit criminal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetics_of_aggression" title="Genetics of aggression">genetics of aggression</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressive behavior">Aggressive behavior</a> has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body: <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamine</a> systems, and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis</a>. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biosocial approaches remain very controversial within the scientific field.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marxist">Marxist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Marxist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist criminology</a></div> <p>In 1968, young British sociologists formed the <a href="/wiki/National_Deviancy_Symposium" title="National Deviancy Symposium">National Deviance Conference</a> (NDC) group. The group was restricted to academics and consisted of 300 members. <a href="/wiki/Ian_Taylor_(sociologist)" title="Ian Taylor (sociologist)">Ian Taylor</a>, Paul Walton and <a href="/wiki/Jock_Young" title="Jock Young">Jock Young</a> – members of the NDC – rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance. Thus, they decided to pursue a new Marxist criminological approach.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>The New Criminology</i>, they argued against the biological "positivism" perspective represented by Lombroso, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a> and Gordon Trasler.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Marxist perspective on crime, "defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved ... in assuring their human diversity." Thus Marxists criminologists argued in support of society in which the facts of human diversity, be it social or personal, would not be criminalized.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts, but rather to the material basis of a given society.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State crime</a> is a distinct field of crimes that is studied by <a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist criminology</a>, which considers these crimes to be some of the most costly to society in terms of overall harm/injury. In a Marxist framework, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one's fellow man, but are crimes of power. They continue systems of control and hegemony which allow state crime and <a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">state-corporate crime</a>, along with state-corporate non-profit criminals, to continue governing people.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convict">Convict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Convict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Convict criminology is a school of thought in the realm of criminology. Convict criminologists have been directly affected by the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal justice system">criminal justice system</a>, oftentimes having spent years inside the prison system. Researchers in the field of convict criminology such as John Irwin and Stephan Richards argue that traditional criminology can better be understood by those who lived in the walls of a prison.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martin Leyva argues that "prisonization" oftentimes begins before prison, in the home, community, and schools.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Rod Earle, Convict Criminology started in the United States after the major expansion of prisons in the 1970s, and the U.S. still remains the main focus for those who study convict criminology.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Queer">Queer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Queer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Queer criminology is a field of study that focuses on <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBT</a> individuals and their interactions with the criminal justice system. The goals of this field of study are as follows: </p> <ul><li>To better understand the history of LGBT individuals and the laws put against the community</li> <li>Why LGBT citizens are incarcerated and if or why they are arrested at higher rates than heterosexual and <a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">cisgender</a> individuals</li> <li>How queer activists have fought against oppressive laws that criminalized LGBT individuals</li> <li>To conduct research and use it as a form of activism through education</li></ul> <p>Legitimacy of Queer criminology: </p><p>The value of pursuing criminology from a queer theorist perspective is contested; some believe that it is not worth researching and not relevant to the field as a whole, and as a result is a subject that lacks a wide berth of research available. On the other hand, it could be argued that this subject is highly valuable in highlighting how LGBT individuals are affected by the criminal justice system. This research also has the opportunity to "queer" the curriculum of criminology in educational institutions by shifting the focus from controlling and monitoring LGBT communities to liberating and protecting them.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As more and more people identify as something other than heterosexual, queer criminology continues to grow in relevance. At the same time, in jurisdictions such as Russia, Uganda, and Ghana, governments have become even more punitive through laws that expand the criminalisation of LGBTQ+ conduct, relationships, and organising.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Digiqueer criminology' has emerged as a sub discipline of queer criminology and aims to deepen understanding of the relationship between digital technology, LGBTQ+ identity, and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural">Cultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Cultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals, control agents, media producers, and others to construct the meaning of crime.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes; village, city street, and media, in which males can be geographically influenced by society's views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The village is where one engages in available social activities. Linking the history of an individual to a location can help determine <a href="/wiki/Social_dynamics" title="Social dynamics">social dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area. This is full of those affected by poverty, poor health and crime, and large buildings that impact the city but not neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass media gives an all-around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was later that Naegler and Salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a>, sexual attraction and sexuality, and intersectional themes.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naegler and Salman believed that Ferrell's mold was limited and that they could add to the understanding of cultural criminology by studying women and those who do not fit Ferrell's mold.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hayward would later add that not only feminist theory, but green theory as well, played a role in the cultural criminology theory through the lens of adrenaline, the soft city, the transgressive subject, and the attentive gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adrenaline lens deals with rational choice and what causes a person to have their own terms of availability, opportunity, and low levels of social control.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soft city lens deals with reality outside of the city and the imaginary sense of reality: the world where transgression occurs, where rigidity is slanted, and where rules are bent.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transgressive subject refers to a person who is attracted to rule-breaking and is attempting to be themselves in a world where everyone is against them.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attentive gaze is when someone, mainly an <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographer</a>, is immersed into the culture and interested in lifestyle(s) and the symbolic, aesthetic, and visual aspects. When examined, they are left with the knowledge that they are not all the same, but come to a settlement of living together in the same space.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_81-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through it all, sociological perspective on cultural criminology theory attempts to understand how the environment an individual is in determines their criminal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relative_deprivation">Relative deprivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Relative deprivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Relative_deprivation" title="Relative deprivation">Relative deprivation</a> involves the process where an individual measures his or her own well-being and materialistic worth against that of other people and perceive that they are worse off in comparison.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When humans fail to obtain what they believe they are owed, they can experience anger or jealousy over the notion that they have been wrongly disadvantaged. </p><p>Relative deprivation was originally utilized in the field of sociology by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Stouffer" title="Samuel A. Stouffer">Samuel A. Stouffer</a>, who was a pioneer of this theory. Stouffer revealed that soldiers fighting in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> measured their personal success by the experience in their units rather than by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Standard" title="United States Military Standard">standards</a> set by the military.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative deprivation can be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on <a href="/wiki/Absolute_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute poverty">absolute poverty</a>, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rural">Rural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Rural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Rural crime" redirects here. For illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, see <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a>.</div> <p>Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the trends involving narcotics.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social disorganization leads to narcotic use in rural areas because of low educational opportunities and high unemployment rates. Routine activity theory is used to examine all low-level street crimes such as theft.<sup id="cite_ref-Stallwitz,_A._2014_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stallwitz,_A._2014-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the crime in rural areas is explained through routine activity theory because there is often a lack of capable guardians in rural areas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public">Public</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Public"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public criminology</a> is a strand within criminology closely tied to ideas associated with "<a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a>", focused on disseminating criminological insights to a broader audience than academia. Advocates of public criminology argue that criminologists should be "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its goal is for academics and researchers in criminology to provide their research to the public in order to inform public decisions and policymaking. This allows criminologists to avoid the constraints of traditional criminological research.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In doing so, public criminology takes on many forms, including media and policy advising as well as activism, civic-oriented education, community outreach, expert testimony, and knowledge co-production.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_definitions_of_crime">Types and definitions of crime</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Types and definitions of crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both the positivist and classical schools take a consensus view of crime: that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural laws</a> are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutes</a> are enacted by legislatures and reflect current cultural <a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">mores</a>, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a> use and gambling. Marxist criminology, conflict criminology, and critical criminology claim that most relationships between <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> and citizen are non-consensual and, as such, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a> is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling</a> or dominant class. The more right-wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> between state and citizen.</li></ul> <p>There have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move away from <a href="/wiki/Liberal_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal pluralism">liberal pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">culturalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> by introducing the universal term "harm" into the criminological debate as a replacement for the legal term "crime".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subtopics">Subtopics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Subtopics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Areas of study in criminology include: </p> <ul><li>Comparative criminology, which is the study of the social phenomenon of crime across cultures, to identify differences and similarities in crime patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">Crime prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li>Criminal behavior</li> <li>Criminal careers and desistance</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviant behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaluation" title="Evaluation">Evaluation</a> of criminal justice agencies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_crime" title="Fear of crime">Fear of crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Crime_Victims_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Crime Victims Survey">The International Crime Victims Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile delinquency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index of criminology articles</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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href="/wiki/Crime_science" title="Crime science">Crime science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_crime-related_publications" title="List of crime-related publications">List of crime-related publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">List of criminologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">Social cohesion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mask_of_Sanity" title="The Mask of Sanity">The Mask of Sanity</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">Taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research_in_criminology" title="Qualitative research in criminology">Qualitative research in criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_methods_in_criminology" title="Quantitative methods in criminology">Quantitative methods in criminology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawyersnjurists.com/article/etymology-of-criminology/">"Etymology of Criminology"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymology+of+Criminology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawyersnjurists.com%2Farticle%2Fetymology-of-criminology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson,_M._S._1982-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_M._S._1982_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson,_M._S._1982_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibson, M. S. (1982). The 'female offender' and the Italian school of criminal anthropology. <i>Journal of European Studies</i>, 12(47), 155-165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeflem,_Mathieu2006" class="citation book cs1">Deflem, Mathieu, ed. (2006). <i>Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States</i>. Elsevier. p. 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7623-1322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7623-1322-8"><bdi>978-0-7623-1322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociological+Theory+and+Criminological+Research%3A+Views+from+Europe+and+the+United+States&rft.pages=279&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7623-1322-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite2000" class="citation journal cs1">Braithwaite, J. (1 March 2000). "The New Regulatory State and the Transformation of Criminology". <i>British Journal of Criminology</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 222–238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjc%2F40.2.222">10.1093/bjc/40.2.222</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0955">0007-0955</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144144251">144144251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=The+New+Regulatory+State+and+the+Transformation+of+Criminology&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222-238&rft.date=2000-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144144251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0007-0955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbjc%2F40.2.222&rft.aulast=Braithwaite&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bentham/#PenLawPun">"Jeremy Bentham"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5047%26context%3Djclc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-siegel-p7-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-siegel-p7_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2003" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Larry J. 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Routledge. p. 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02755-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02755-7"><bdi>978-0-415-02755-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Society%3A+Readings+in+History+and+Theory&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02755-7&rft.au=McLennan%2C+Gregor&rft.au=Jennie+Pawson&rft.au=Mike+Fitzgerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-siegel-p139-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-siegel-p139_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2003" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Larry J. (2003). <i>Criminology, 8th edition</i>. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminology%2C+8th+edition&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Thomson-Wadsworth&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Larry+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2015" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Larry J. (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=djB-BAAAQBAJ"><i>Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies</i></a> (12 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2015). p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781305446090" title="Special:BookSources/9781305446090"><bdi>9781305446090</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2015</span>. <q>The work of Lombroso and his contemporaries is regarded today as a historical curiosity, not scientific fact. Strict <a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">biological determinism</a> is no longer taken seriously (later in his career even Lombroso recognized that not all criminals were biological throwbacks). 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The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75125-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75125-2"><bdi>978-0-226-75125-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Juvenile+Delinquency+and+Urban+Areas&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1942&rft.isbn=978-0-226-75125-2&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Clifford+R.&rft.au=McKay%2C+Henry+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bursik-1988-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bursik-1988_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBursik1988" class="citation journal cs1">Bursik, Robert J. 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Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-921130-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-921130-4"><bdi>978-0-02-921130-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Theory+and+Social+Structure&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-02-921130-4&rft.au=Merton%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_Albert1955" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Albert (1955). <i>Delinquent Boys</i>. 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"Labeling Theory and Delinquency Policy: An Experimental Test". <i>Criminal Justice and Behavior</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 47–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0093854886013001004">10.1177/0093854886013001004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145574605">145574605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criminal+Justice+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=Labeling+Theory+and+Delinquency+Policy%3A+An+Experimental+Test&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-79&rft.date=1986-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0093854886013001004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145574605%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kelin&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes2000" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, Richard (2000). <i>Why They Kill: The Discoveries of a Maverick Criminologist</i>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40249-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40249-4"><bdi>978-0-375-40249-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+They+Kill%3A+The+Discoveries+of+a+Maverick+Criminologist&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-375-40249-4&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>, "Crime and Punishment", in <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Political_Economy" title="Journal of Political Economy">Journal of Political Economy</a></i>, vol. 76 (2), March–April 1968, p.196-217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a>, "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws", in <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Political_Economy" title="Journal of Political Economy">Journal of Political Economy</a></i>, vol.78 (3), May–June 1970, p. 526–536</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cornish-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cornish_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cornish_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornish,_DerekRonald_V._Clarke1986" class="citation book cs1">Cornish, Derek; Ronald V. Clarke (1986). <i>The Reasoning Criminal</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-96272-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-96272-6"><bdi>978-0-387-96272-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reasoning+Criminal&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-387-96272-6&rft.au=Cornish%2C+Derek&rft.au=Ronald+V.+Clarke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clarke-1992-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-clarke-1992_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-clarke-1992_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1992" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Ronald V. (1992). <i>Situational Crime Prevention</i>. Harrow and Heston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881798-68-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881798-68-2"><bdi>978-1-881798-68-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Situational+Crime+Prevention&rft.pub=Harrow+and+Heston&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-881798-68-2&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Ronald+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sutton, M. Schneider, J. and Hetherington, S. (2001) Tackling Theft with the Market Reduction Approach. Crime Reduction Research Series paper 8. Home Office. London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101208172156/http%3A//rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/crrs08.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/crrs08.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frds.homeoffice.gov.uk%2Frds%2Fprgpdfs%2Fcrrs08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sutton, M. (2010) Stolen Goods Markets. U.S. Department of Justice. Centre for Problem Oriented Policing, COPS Office. Guide No 57. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popcenter.org/problems/stolen_goods/">"Stolen Goods Markets | Center for Problem-Oriented Policing"</a>. January 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100621212022/http://www.popcenter.org/problems/stolen_goods/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stolen+Goods+Markets+%26%23124%3B+Center+for+Problem-Oriented+Policing&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popcenter.org%2Fproblems%2Fstolen_goods%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Home Office Crime Reduction Website. Tackling Burglary: Market Reduction Approach. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crimereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk/burglary/burglaryminisite07.htm">"Crime prevention – GOV.UK"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091212014555/http://www.crimereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk/burglary/burglaryminisite07.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crime+prevention+%E2%80%93+GOV.UK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crimereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk%2Fburglary%2Fburglaryminisite07.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelson,_Marcus1994" class="citation book cs1">Felson, Marcus (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crimeeverydaylif0000fels_u5u3"><i>Crime and Everyday Life</i></a></span>. Pine Forge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-9029-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-9029-6"><bdi>978-0-8039-9029-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Everyday+Life&rft.pub=Pine+Forge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8039-9029-6&rft.au=Felson%2C+Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrimeeverydaylif0000fels_u5u3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cohen-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cohen_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohen_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_LawrenceMarcus_Felson1979" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Lawrence; Marcus Felson (1979). "Social Change and Crime Rate Trends". <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>44</b> (4): 588–608. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.476.3696">10.1.1.476.3696</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2094589">10.2307/2094589</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2094589">2094589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Social+Change+and+Crime+Rate+Trends&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=588-608&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.476.3696%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2094589%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2094589&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Lawrence&rft.au=Marcus+Felson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEck,_JohnJulie_Wartell1997" class="citation book cs1">Eck, John; Julie Wartell (1997). <i>Reducing Crime and Drug Dealing by Improving Place Management: A Randomized Experiment</i>. National Institute of Justice.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reducing+Crime+and+Drug+Dealing+by+Improving+Place+Management%3A+A+Randomized+Experiment&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Justice&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Eck%2C+John&rft.au=Julie+Wartell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Asghate2011-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Asghate2011_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevin M. Beaver and Anthony Walsh. 2011. Biosocial Criminology. Chapter 1 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime. 2011. Ashgate.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ellis, Lee (2005). "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality". <i>European Journal of Criminology</i>. <b>2</b> (3): 287–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477370805054098">10.1177/1477370805054098</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-3708">1477-3708</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53587552">53587552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=A+Theory+Explaining+Biological+Correlates+of+Criminality&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=287-315&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53587552%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1477-3708&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1477370805054098&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltonLevitsky2003" class="citation journal cs1">Walton, K. G.; Levitsky, D. K. (2003). "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with aggression and crime". <i>Journal of Offender Rehabilitation</i>. <b>36</b> (1–4): 67–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ076v36n01_04">10.1300/J076v36n01_04</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144374302">144374302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Offender+Rehabilitation&rft.atitle=Effects+of+the+Transcendental+Meditation+program+on+neuroendocrine+abnormalities+associated+with+aggression+and+crime&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=67-87&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2FJ076v36n01_04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144374302%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=K.+G.&rft.au=Levitsky%2C+D.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollins2021" class="citation book cs1">Rollins, Oliver (2021). <i>Conviction: the making and unmaking of the violent brain</i>. 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Taylor and Francis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Criminology+and+Criminal+Justice%3B+Epilogue%3A+Toward+a+public+criminology+of+state+crime&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kramer%2C+Michalowski%2C+J.+Chambliss&rft.aufirst=Ronald+C.%2C+Raymond%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenneShah2020" class="citation book cs1">Henne, Kathryn E.; Shah, Rita (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1121441683"><i>Routledge handbook of public criminologies</i></a>. New York, NY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-06610-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-06610-5"><bdi>978-1-351-06610-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1121441683">1121441683</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+handbook+of+public+criminologies&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1121441683&rft.isbn=978-1-351-06610-5&rft.aulast=Henne&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+E.&rft.au=Shah%2C+Rita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1121441683&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillyard, P., Pantazis, C., Tombs, S., & Gordon, D. (2004). Beyond Criminology: Taking Harm Seriously. London: Pluto</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFclear2010" class="citation journal cs1">clear, todd (6 October 2010). "editorial introduction to public criminologies". <i>Criminology & Public Policy</i>. <b>9</b> (4): 721–724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-9133.2010.00665.x">10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00665.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criminology+%26+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=editorial+introduction+to+public+criminologies&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=721-724&rft.date=2010-10-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1745-9133.2010.00665.x&rft.aulast=clear&rft.aufirst=todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarak-Glantz,_I.L.,_E.H._Johnson1983" class="citation book cs1">Barak-Glantz, I.L., E.H. Johnson (1983). <i>Comparative criminology</i>. Sage.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+criminology&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Barak-Glantz%2C+I.L.%2C+E.H.+Johnson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriminology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Agnew_(criminologist)" title="Robert Agnew (criminologist)">Agnew, Robert</a> (2005). <i>Why Do Criminals Offend? A General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.</i> New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Barak, Gregg (ed.). (1998). <i>Integrative criminology</i> (International Library of Criminology, Criminal Justice & Penology.). Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84014-008-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84014-008-9">1-84014-008-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria, Cesare</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dei_delitti_e_delle_pene" class="mw-redirect" title="Dei delitti e delle pene">Dei delitti e delle pene</a></i> (1763–1764).</li> <li>Blatier, Catherine (1998), "The Specialized Jurisdiction: A Better Chance for Minors". <i>International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family</i>. pp. 115–127.</li> <li>Bouchard, Jean-Pierre, "Can criminology be considered as a discipline in its own right?" <i>L'Evolution Psychiatrique 78</i> (2013) 343–349.</li> <li>Briar, S., & Piliavin, I. (1966). Delinquency, Situational Inducements, and Commitment to Conformity. <i>Social Problems</i>, 13 (3).</li> <li>Clear, T. R. (2009). <i>Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Cohen, A. K. (1965). The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond. <i>American Sociological Review</i>, 30.</li> <li>Horning, A. et al. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329875237_Risky_Business_Harlem_Pimps%27_Work_Decisions_and_Economic_Returns">"Risky Business: Harlem Pimps' Work Decisions and Economic Returns"</a>, <i>Deviant Behavior, 21</i>(2): 160–185.</li> <li>Jaishankar, K., & Ronel, N. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Global-Criminology-Crime-and-Victimization-in-a-Globalized-Era/Jaishankar-Ronel/p/book/9781439892497"><i>Global Criminology: Crime and Victimization in a Globalized Era</i></a>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439892497" title="Special:BookSources/9781439892497">9781439892497</a>.</li> <li>Katz, J. (1988). <i>Seductions of crime: Moral and sensual attractions in doing evil.</i> New York: Basic Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit, Philip</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Braithwaite_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Braithwaite (academic)">Braithwaite, John</a> (1990). <i>Not Just Deserts. A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice.</i> New York: Oxford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824056-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824056-3">978-0-19-824056-3</a> (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3053994">Republican Criminology and Victim Advocacy: Comment</a> for article concerning the book in <i><a href="/wiki/Law_%26_Society_Review" title="Law & Society Review">Law & Society Review</a></i>, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 765–776).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Pontell" title="Henry Pontell">Pontell, Henry</a>, Black, W. K., & Geis, G. (2014). "Too big to fail, too powerful to jail? On the absence of criminal prosecutions after the 2008 financial meltdown." <i>Crime, Law and Social Change, 61</i>(1), 1–13.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Sampson" title="Robert J. Sampson">Sampson, Robert J.</a> (2012), <i>Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect.</i> Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/en:Introduction_to_Sociology" class="extiw" title="b:en:Introduction to Sociology">Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology</a></li> <li>Wolff, Kevin & Baglivio, M. T. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0011128715627469">Adverse childhood experiences, negative emotionality, and pathways to juvenile recidivism</a>. <i>Crime & Delinquency, 63</i>(12), 1495–1521.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output 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