Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en-US" class="no-js no-svg"> <head>  <script src="https://cmp.osano.com/AzyzptTmRlqVd2LRf/35dc3c72-774a-4891-b1e8-4acff9c285e9/osano.js"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cookie-consent.ieee.org/ieee-cookie-banner.css" type="text/css"/>  <meta charset="UTF-8"><script type="text/javascript">(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={licenseKey:"054b97878e",applicationID:"19376273"};;/*! For license information please see nr-loader-rum-1.274.0.min.js.LICENSE.txt */ (()=>{var e,t,r={8122:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{a:()=>i});var n=r(944);function i(e,t){try{if(!e||"object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.R)(3);if(!t||"object"!=typeof t)return(0,n.R)(4);const r=Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(t),Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(t)),o=0===Object.keys(r).length?e:r;for(let a in o)if(void 0!==e[a])try{if(null===e[a]){r[a]=null;continue}Array.isArray(e[a])&&Array.isArray(t[a])?r[a]=Array.from(new Set([...e[a],...t[a]])):"object"==typeof e[a]&&"object"==typeof t[a]?r[a]=i(e[a],t[a]):r[a]=e[a]}catch(e){(0,n.R)(1,e)}return r}catch(e){(0,n.R)(2,e)}}},2555:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Vp:()=>c,fn:()=>s,x1:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8122);const o={beacon:n.NT.beacon,errorBeacon:n.NT.errorBeacon,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,sa:void 0,queueTime:void 0,applicationTime:void 0,ttGuid:void 0,user:void 0,account:void 0,product:void 0,extra:void 0,jsAttributes:{},userAttributes:void 0,atts:void 0,transactionName:void 0,tNamePlain:void 0},a={};function s(e){try{const t=c(e);return!!t.licenseKey&&!!t.errorBeacon&&!!t.applicationID}catch(e){return!1}}function c(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("Info for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function u(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.a)(t,o);const r=(0,n.nY)(e);r&&(r.info=a[e])}},9417:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{D0:()=>g,gD:()=>h,xN:()=>p});var n=r(993);const i=e=>{if(!e||"string"!=typeof e)return!1;try{document.createDocumentFragment().querySelector(e)}catch{return!1}return!0};var o=r(2614),a=r(944),s=r(384),c=r(8122);const u="[data-nr-mask]",d=()=>{const e={mask_selector:"*",block_selector:"[data-nr-block]",mask_input_options:{color:!1,date:!1,"datetime-local":!1,email:!1,month:!1,number:!1,range:!1,search:!1,tel:!1,text:!1,time:!1,url:!1,week:!1,textarea:!1,select:!1,password:!0}};return{ajax:{deny_list:void 0,block_internal:!0,enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},distributed_tracing:{enabled:void 0,exclude_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_tracecontext_headers:void 0,allowed_origins:void 0},feature_flags:[],generic_events:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30,autoStart:!0},harvest:{tooManyRequestsDelay:60},jserrors:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},logging:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0,level:n.p_.INFO},metrics:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},obfuscate:void 0,page_action:{enabled:!0},page_view_event:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},page_view_timing:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30,autoStart:!0},performance:{capture_marks:!1,capture_measures:!1},privacy:{cookies_enabled:!0},proxy:{assets:void 0,beacon:void 0},session:{expiresMs:o.wk,inactiveMs:o.BB},session_replay:{autoStart:!0,enabled:!1,harvestTimeSeconds:60,preload:!1,sampling_rate:10,error_sampling_rate:100,collect_fonts:!1,inline_images:!1,fix_stylesheets:!0,mask_all_inputs:!0,get mask_text_selector(){return e.mask_selector},set mask_text_selector(t){i(t)?e.mask_selector="".concat(t,",").concat(u):""===t||null===t?e.mask_selector=u:(0,a.R)(5,t)},get block_class(){return"nr-block"},get ignore_class(){return"nr-ignore"},get mask_text_class(){return"nr-mask"},get block_selector(){return e.block_selector},set block_selector(t){i(t)?e.block_selector+=",".concat(t):""!==t&&(0,a.R)(6,t)},get mask_input_options(){return e.mask_input_options},set mask_input_options(t){t&&"object"==typeof t?e.mask_input_options={...t,password:!0}:(0,a.R)(7,t)}},session_trace:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},soft_navigations:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},spa:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},ssl:void 0,user_actions:{enabled:!0}}},l={},f="All configuration objects require an agent identifier!";function g(e){if(!e)throw new Error(f);if(!l[e])throw new Error("Configuration for ".concat(e," was never set"));return l[e]}function p(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);l[e]=(0,c.a)(t,d());const r=(0,s.nY)(e);r&&(r.init=l[e])}function h(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);var r=g(e);if(r){for(var n=t.split("."),i=0;i<n.length-1;i++)if("object"!=typeof(r=r[n[i]]))return;r=r[n[n.length-1]]}return r}},3371:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{V:()=>f,f:()=>l});var n=r(8122),i=r(384),o=r(6154),a=r(9324);let s=0;const c={buildEnv:a.F3,distMethod:a.Xs,version:a.xv,originTime:o.WN},u={customTransaction:void 0,disabled:!1,isolatedBacklog:!1,loaderType:void 0,maxBytes:3e4,onerror:void 0,ptid:void 0,releaseIds:{},appMetadata:{},session:void 0,denyList:void 0,timeKeeper:void 0,obfuscator:void 0},d={};function l(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");if(!d[e])throw new Error("Runtime for ".concat(e," was never set"));return d[e]}function f(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");d[e]={...(0,n.a)(t,u),...c},Object.hasOwnProperty.call(d[e],"harvestCount")||Object.defineProperty(d[e],"harvestCount",{get:()=>++s});const r=(0,i.nY)(e);r&&(r.runtime=d[e])}},9324:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{F3:()=>i,Xs:()=>o,xv:()=>n});const n="1.274.0",i="PROD",o="CDN"},6154:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{OF:()=>c,RI:()=>i,WN:()=>d,bv:()=>o,gm:()=>a,mw:()=>s,sb:()=>u});var n=r(1863);const i="undefined"!=typeof window&&!!window.document,o="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator),a=i?window:"undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis),s=Boolean("hidden"===a?.document?.visibilityState),c=/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(a.navigator?.userAgent),u=c&&"undefined"==typeof SharedWorker,d=((()=>{const e=a.navigator?.userAgent?.match(/Firefox[/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);Array.isArray(e)&&e.length>=2&&e[1]})(),Date.now()-(0,n.t)())},1687:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Ak:()=>c,Ze:()=>l,x3:()=>u});var n=r(7836),i=r(3606),o=r(860),a=r(2646);const s={};function c(e,t){const r={staged:!1,priority:o.P3[t]||0};d(e),s[e].get(t)||s[e].set(t,r)}function u(e,t){e&&s[e]&&(s[e].get(t)&&s[e].delete(t),g(e,t,!1),s[e].size&&f(e))}function d(e){if(!e)throw new Error("agentIdentifier required");s[e]||(s[e]=new Map)}function l(e="",t="feature",r=!1){if(d(e),!e||!s[e].get(t)||r)return g(e,t);s[e].get(t).staged=!0,f(e)}function f(e){const t=Array.from(s[e]);t.every((([e,t])=>t.staged))&&(t.sort(((e,t)=>e[1].priority-t[1].priority)),t.forEach((([t])=>{s[e].delete(t),g(e,t)})))}function g(e,t,r=!0){const o=e?n.ee.get(e):n.ee,s=i.i.handlers;if(!o.aborted&&o.backlog&&s){if(r){const e=o.backlog[t],r=s[t];if(r){for(let t=0;e&&t<e.length;++t)p(e[t],r);Object.entries(r).forEach((([e,t])=>{Object.values(t||{}).forEach((t=>{t[0]?.on&&t[0]?.context()instanceof a.y&&t[0].on(e,t[1])}))}))}}o.isolatedBacklog||delete s[t],o.backlog[t]=null,o.emit("drain-"+t,[])}}function p(e,t){var r=e[1];Object.values(t[r]||{}).forEach((t=>{var r=e[0];if(t[0]===r){var n=t[1],i=e[3],o=e[2];n.apply(i,o)}}))}},7836:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{P:()=>c,ee:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8990),o=r(3371),a=r(2646),s=r(5607);const c="nr@context:".concat(s.W),u=function e(t,r){var n={},s={},d={},l=!1;try{l=16===r.length&&(0,o.f)(r).isolatedBacklog}catch(e){}var f={on:p,addEventListener:p,removeEventListener:function(e,t){var r=n[e];if(!r)return;for(var i=0;i<r.length;i++)r[i]===t&&r.splice(i,1)},emit:function(e,r,n,i,o){!1!==o&&(o=!0);if(u.aborted&&!i)return;t&&o&&t.emit(e,r,n);for(var a=g(n),c=h(e),d=c.length,l=0;l<d;l++)c[l].apply(a,r);var p=m()[s[e]];p&&p.push([f,e,r,a]);return a},get:v,listeners:h,context:g,buffer:function(e,t){const r=m();if(t=t||"feature",f.aborted)return;Object.entries(e||{}).forEach((([e,n])=>{s[n]=t,t in r||(r[t]=[])}))},abort:function(){f._aborted=!0,Object.keys(f.backlog).forEach((e=>{delete f.backlog[e]}))},isBuffering:function(e){return!!m()[s[e]]},debugId:r,backlog:l?{}:t&&"object"==typeof t.backlog?t.backlog:{},isolatedBacklog:l};return Object.defineProperty(f,"aborted",{get:()=>{let e=f._aborted||!1;return e||(t&&(e=t.aborted),e)}}),f;function g(e){return e&&e instanceof a.y?e:e?(0,i.I)(e,c,(()=>new a.y(c))):new a.y(c)}function p(e,t){n[e]=h(e).concat(t)}function h(e){return n[e]||[]}function v(t){return d[t]=d[t]||e(f,t)}function m(){return f.backlog}}(void 0,"globalEE"),d=(0,n.Zm)();d.ee||(d.ee=u)},2646:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{y:()=>n});class n{constructor(e){this.contextId=e}}},9908:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{d:()=>n,p:()=>i});var n=r(7836).ee.get("handle");function i(e,t,r,i,o){o?(o.buffer([e],i),o.emit(e,t,r)):(n.buffer([e],i),n.emit(e,t,r))}},3606:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{i:()=>o});var n=r(9908);o.on=a;var i=o.handlers={};function o(e,t,r,o){a(o||n.d,i,e,t,r)}function a(e,t,r,i,o){o||(o="feature"),e||(e=n.d);var a=t[o]=t[o]||{};(a[r]=a[r]||[]).push([e,i])}},3878:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){return{capture:e,passive:!1,signal:t}}function i(e,t,r=!1,i){window.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}function o(e,t,r=!1,i){document.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}r.d(t,{DD:()=>o,jT:()=>n,sp:()=>i})},5607:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>n});const n=(0,r(9566).bz)()},9566:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{LA:()=>s,bz:()=>a});var n=r(6154);const i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx";function o(e,t){return e?15&e[t]:16*Math.random()|0}function a(){const e=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let t,r=0;return e&&e.getRandomValues&&(t=e.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(30))),i.split("").map((e=>"x"===e?o(t,r++).toString(16):"y"===e?(3&o()|8).toString(16):e)).join("")}function s(e){const t=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let r,i=0;t&&t.getRandomValues&&(r=t.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(e)));const a=[];for(var s=0;s<e;s++)a.push(o(r,i++).toString(16));return a.join("")}},2614:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{BB:()=>a,H3:()=>n,g:()=>u,iL:()=>c,tS:()=>s,uh:()=>i,wk:()=>o});const n="NRBA",i="SESSION",o=144e5,a=18e5,s={STARTED:"session-started",PAUSE:"session-pause",RESET:"session-reset",RESUME:"session-resume",UPDATE:"session-update"},c={SAME_TAB:"same-tab",CROSS_TAB:"cross-tab"},u={OFF:0,FULL:1,ERROR:2}},1863:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(){return Math.floor(performance.now())}r.d(t,{t:()=>n})},944:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){"function"==typeof console.debug&&console.debug("New Relic Warning: https://github.com/newrelic/newrelic-browser-agent/blob/main/docs/warning-codes.md#".concat(e),t)}r.d(t,{R:()=>n})},5284:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{t:()=>c,B:()=>s});var n=r(7836),i=r(6154);const o="newrelic";const a=new Set,s={};function c(e,t){const r=n.ee.get(t);s[t]??={},e&&"object"==typeof e&&(a.has(t)||(r.emit("rumresp",[e]),s[t]=e,a.add(t),function(e={}){try{i.gm.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent(o,{detail:e}))}catch(e){}}({loaded:!0})))}},8990:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{I:()=>i});var n=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;function i(e,t,r){if(n.call(e,t))return e[t];var i=r();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,t,{value:i,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),i}catch(e){}return e[t]=i,i}},6389:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t=500,r={}){const n=r?.leading||!1;let i;return(...r)=>{n&&void 0===i&&(e.apply(this,r),i=setTimeout((()=>{i=clearTimeout(i)}),t)),n||(clearTimeout(i),i=setTimeout((()=>{e.apply(this,r)}),t))}}function i(e){let t=!1;return(...r)=>{t||(t=!0,e.apply(this,r))}}r.d(t,{J:()=>i,s:()=>n})},5289:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{GG:()=>o,sB:()=>a});var n=r(3878);function i(){return"undefined"==typeof document||"complete"===document.readyState}function o(e,t){if(i())return e();(0,n.sp)("load",e,t)}function a(e){if(i())return e();(0,n.DD)("DOMContentLoaded",e)}},384:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{NT:()=>o,US:()=>d,Zm:()=>a,bQ:()=>c,dV:()=>s,nY:()=>u,pV:()=>l});var n=r(6154),i=r(1863);const o={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net"};function a(){return n.gm.NREUM||(n.gm.NREUM={}),void 0===n.gm.newrelic&&(n.gm.newrelic=n.gm.NREUM),n.gm.NREUM}function s(){let e=a();return e.o||(e.o={ST:n.gm.setTimeout,SI:n.gm.setImmediate,CT:n.gm.clearTimeout,XHR:n.gm.XMLHttpRequest,REQ:n.gm.Request,EV:n.gm.Event,PR:n.gm.Promise,MO:n.gm.MutationObserver,FETCH:n.gm.fetch,WS:n.gm.WebSocket}),e}function c(e,t){let r=a();r.initializedAgents??={},t.initializedAt={ms:(0,i.t)(),date:new Date},r.initializedAgents[e]=t}function u(e){let t=a();return t.initializedAgents?.[e]}function d(e,t){a()[e]=t}function l(){return function(){let e=a();const t=e.info||{};e.info={beacon:o.beacon,errorBeacon:o.errorBeacon,...t}}(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.init||{};e.init={...t}}(),s(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.loader_config||{};e.loader_config={...t}}(),a()}},2843:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{u:()=>i});var n=r(3878);function i(e,t=!1,r,i){(0,n.DD)("visibilitychange",(function(){if(t)return void("hidden"===document.visibilityState&&e());e(document.visibilityState)}),r,i)}},3434:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{YM:()=>c});var n=r(7836),i=r(5607);const o="nr@original:".concat(i.W);var a=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,s=!1;function c(e,t){return e||(e=n.ee),r.inPlace=function(e,t,n,i,o){n||(n="");const a="-"===n.charAt(0);for(let s=0;s<t.length;s++){const c=t[s],u=e[c];d(u)||(e[c]=r(u,a?c+n:n,i,c,o))}},r.flag=o,r;function r(t,r,n,s,c){return d(t)?t:(r||(r=""),nrWrapper[o]=t,function(e,t,r){if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.keys(e).forEach((function(r){Object.defineProperty(t,r,{get:function(){return e[r]},set:function(t){return e[r]=t,t}})})),t}catch(e){u([e],r)}for(var n in e)a.call(e,n)&&(t[n]=e[n])}(t,nrWrapper,e),nrWrapper);function nrWrapper(){var o,a,d,l;try{a=this,o=[...arguments],d="function"==typeof n?n(o,a):n||{}}catch(t){u([t,"",[o,a,s],d],e)}i(r+"start",[o,a,s],d,c);try{return l=t.apply(a,o)}catch(e){throw i(r+"err",[o,a,e],d,c),e}finally{i(r+"end",[o,a,l],d,c)}}}function i(r,n,i,o){if(!s||t){var a=s;s=!0;try{e.emit(r,n,i,t,o)}catch(t){u([t,r,n,i],e)}s=a}}}function u(e,t){t||(t=n.ee);try{t.emit("internal-error",e)}catch(e){}}function d(e){return!(e&&"function"==typeof e&&e.apply&&!e[o])}},993:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{ET:()=>o,p_:()=>i});var n=r(860);const i={ERROR:"ERROR",WARN:"WARN",INFO:"INFO",DEBUG:"DEBUG",TRACE:"TRACE"},o="log";n.K7.logging},3969:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{TZ:()=>n,XG:()=>s,rs:()=>i,xV:()=>a,z_:()=>o});const n=r(860).K7.metrics,i="sm",o="cm",a="storeSupportabilityMetrics",s="storeEventMetrics"},6630:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewEvent},782:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewTiming},6344:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{G4:()=>i});var n=r(2614);r(860).K7.sessionReplay;const i={RECORD:"recordReplay",PAUSE:"pauseReplay",REPLAY_RUNNING:"replayRunning",ERROR_DURING_REPLAY:"errorDuringReplay"};n.g.ERROR,n.g.FULL,n.g.OFF},4234:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>o});var n=r(7836),i=r(1687);class o{constructor(e,t){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.ee=n.ee.get(e),this.featureName=t,this.blocked=!1}deregisterDrain(){(0,i.x3)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName)}}},7603:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{j:()=>P});var n=r(860),i=r(2555),o=r(3371),a=r(9908),s=r(7836),c=r(1687),u=r(5289),d=r(6154),l=r(944),f=r(3969),g=r(384),p=r(6344);const h=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease","addPageAction","setCurrentRouteName","setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","interaction","noticeError","setUserId","setApplicationVersion","start",p.G4.RECORD,p.G4.PAUSE,"log","wrapLogger"],v=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease"];var m=r(1863),b=r(2614),y=r(993);var w=r(2646),A=r(3434);function R(e,t,r,n){if("object"!=typeof t||!t||"string"!=typeof r||!r||"function"!=typeof t[r])return(0,l.R)(29);const i=function(e){return(e||s.ee).get("logger")}(e),o=(0,A.YM)(i),a=new w.y(s.P);return a.level=n.level,a.customAttributes=n.customAttributes,o.inPlace(t,[r],"wrap-logger-",a),i}function E(){const e=(0,g.pV)();h.forEach((t=>{e[t]=(...r)=>function(t,...r){let n=[];return Object.values(e.initializedAgents).forEach((e=>{e&&e.api?e.exposed&&e.api[t]&&n.push(e.api[t](...r)):(0,l.R)(38,t)})),n.length>1?n:n[0]}(t,...r)}))}const x={};function _(e,t,g=!1){t||(0,c.Ak)(e,"api");const h={};var w=s.ee.get(e),A=w.get("tracer");x[e]=b.g.OFF,w.on(p.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(t=>{x[e]=t}));var E="api-",_=E+"ixn-";function N(t,r,n,o){const a=(0,i.Vp)(e);return null===r?delete a.jsAttributes[t]:(0,i.x1)(e,{...a,jsAttributes:{...a.jsAttributes,[t]:r}}),j(E,n,!0,o||null===r?"session":void 0)(t,r)}function T(){}h.log=function(e,{customAttributes:t={},level:r=y.p_.INFO}={}){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/log/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),function(e,t,r={},i=y.p_.INFO){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/logging/".concat(i.toLowerCase(),"/called")],void 0,n.K7.metrics,e),(0,a.p)(y.ET,[(0,m.t)(),t,r,i],void 0,n.K7.logging,e)}(w,e,t,r)},h.wrapLogger=(e,t,{customAttributes:r={},level:i=y.p_.INFO}={})=>{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/wrapLogger/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),R(w,e,t,{customAttributes:r,level:i})},v.forEach((e=>{h[e]=j(E,e,!0,"api")})),h.addPageAction=j(E,"addPageAction",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),h.setPageViewName=function(t,r){if("string"==typeof t)return"/"!==t.charAt(0)&&(t="/"+t),(0,o.f)(e).customTransaction=(r||"http://custom.transaction")+t,j(E,"setPageViewName",!0)()},h.setCustomAttribute=function(e,t,r=!1){if("string"==typeof e){if(["string","number","boolean"].includes(typeof t)||null===t)return N(e,t,"setCustomAttribute",r);(0,l.R)(40,typeof t)}else(0,l.R)(39,typeof e)},h.setUserId=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("enduser.id",e,"setUserId",!0);(0,l.R)(41,typeof e)},h.setApplicationVersion=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("application.version",e,"setApplicationVersion",!1);(0,l.R)(42,typeof e)},h.start=()=>{try{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/start/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),w.emit("manual-start-all")}catch(e){(0,l.R)(23,e)}},h[p.G4.RECORD]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/recordReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.RECORD,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},h[p.G4.PAUSE]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/pauseReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.PAUSE,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},h.interaction=function(e){return(new T).get("object"==typeof e?e:{})};const S=T.prototype={createTracer:function(e,t){var r={},i=this,o="function"==typeof t;return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/createTracer/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),g||(0,a.p)(_+"tracer",[(0,m.t)(),e,r],i,n.K7.spa,w),function(){if(A.emit((o?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[(0,m.t)(),i,o],r),o)try{return t.apply(this,arguments)}catch(e){const t="string"==typeof e?new Error(e):e;throw A.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,t],r),t}finally{A.emit("fn-end",[(0,m.t)()],r)}}}};function j(e,t,r,i){return function(){return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/"+t+"/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),i&&(0,a.p)(e+t,[(0,m.t)(),...arguments],r?null:this,i,w),r?void 0:this}}function k(){r.e(296).then(r.bind(r,8778)).then((({setAPI:t})=>{t(e),(0,c.Ze)(e,"api")})).catch((e=>{(0,l.R)(27,e),w.abort()}))}return["actionText","setName","setAttribute","save","ignore","onEnd","getContext","end","get"].forEach((e=>{S[e]=j(_,e,void 0,g?n.K7.softNav:n.K7.spa)})),h.setCurrentRouteName=g?j(_,"routeName",void 0,n.K7.softNav):j(E,"routeName",!0,n.K7.spa),h.noticeError=function(t,r){"string"==typeof t&&(t=new Error(t)),(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/noticeError/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)("err",[t,(0,m.t)(),!1,r,!!x[e]],void 0,n.K7.jserrors,w)},d.RI?(0,u.GG)((()=>k()),!0):k(),h}var N=r(9417),T=r(8122);const S={accountID:void 0,trustKey:void 0,agentID:void 0,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,xpid:void 0},j={};var k=r(5284);const I=e=>{const t=e.startsWith("http");e+="/",r.p=t?e:"https://"+e};let O=!1;function P(e,t={},r,n){let{init:a,info:c,loader_config:u,runtime:l={},exposed:f=!0}=t;l.loaderType=r;const p=(0,g.pV)();c||(a=p.init,c=p.info,u=p.loader_config),(0,N.xN)(e.agentIdentifier,a||{}),function(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All loader-config objects require an agent identifier!");j[e]=(0,T.a)(t,S);const r=(0,g.nY)(e);r&&(r.loader_config=j[e])}(e.agentIdentifier,u||{}),c.jsAttributes??={},d.bv&&(c.jsAttributes.isWorker=!0),(0,i.x1)(e.agentIdentifier,c);const h=(0,N.D0)(e.agentIdentifier),v=[c.beacon,c.errorBeacon];O||(h.proxy.assets&&(I(h.proxy.assets),v.push(h.proxy.assets)),h.proxy.beacon&&v.push(h.proxy.beacon),E(),(0,g.US)("activatedFeatures",k.B),e.runSoftNavOverSpa&&=!0===h.soft_navigations.enabled&&h.feature_flags.includes("soft_nav")),l.denyList=[...h.ajax.deny_list||[],...h.ajax.block_internal?v:[]],l.ptid=e.agentIdentifier,(0,o.V)(e.agentIdentifier,l),e.ee=s.ee.get(e.agentIdentifier),void 0===e.api&&(e.api=_(e.agentIdentifier,n,e.runSoftNavOverSpa)),void 0===e.exposed&&(e.exposed=f),O=!0}},8374:(e,t,r)=>{r.nc=(()=>{try{return document?.currentScript?.nonce}catch(e){}return""})()},860:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$J:()=>o,K7:()=>n,P3:()=>i});const n={ajax:"ajax",genericEvents:"generic_events",jserrors:"jserrors",logging:"logging",metrics:"metrics",pageAction:"page_action",pageViewEvent:"page_view_event",pageViewTiming:"page_view_timing",sessionReplay:"session_replay",sessionTrace:"session_trace",softNav:"soft_navigations",spa:"spa"},i={[n.pageViewEvent]:1,[n.pageViewTiming]:2,[n.metrics]:3,[n.jserrors]:4,[n.spa]:5,[n.ajax]:6,[n.sessionTrace]:7,[n.softNav]:8,[n.sessionReplay]:9,[n.logging]:10,[n.genericEvents]:11},o={[n.pageViewTiming]:"events",[n.ajax]:"events",[n.spa]:"events",[n.softNav]:"events",[n.metrics]:"jserrors",[n.jserrors]:"jserrors",[n.sessionTrace]:"browser/blobs",[n.sessionReplay]:"browser/blobs",[n.logging]:"browser/logs",[n.genericEvents]:"ins"}}},n={};function i(e){var t=n[e];if(void 0!==t)return t.exports;var o=n[e]={exports:{}};return r[e](o,o.exports,i),o.exports}i.m=r,i.d=(e,t)=>{for(var r in t)i.o(t,r)&&!i.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:t[r]})},i.f={},i.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(i.f).reduce(((t,r)=>(i.f[r](e,t),t)),[])),i.u=e=>"nr-rum-1.274.0.min.js",i.o=(e,t)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,t),e={},t="NRBA-1.274.0.PROD:",i.l=(r,n,o,a)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(n);else{var s,c;if(void 0!==o)for(var u=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),d=0;d<u.length;d++){var l=u[d];if(l.getAttribute("src")==r||l.getAttribute("data-webpack")==t+o){s=l;break}}if(!s){c=!0;var f={296:"sha512-gkYkZDAwQ9PwaDXs2YM+rNIdRej1Ac1mupWobRJ8eahQcXz6/sunGZCKklrzi5kWxhOGRZr2tn0rEKuLTXzfAA=="};(s=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",s.timeout=120,i.nc&&s.setAttribute("nonce",i.nc),s.setAttribute("data-webpack",t+o),s.src=r,0!==s.src.indexOf(window.location.origin+"/")&&(s.crossOrigin="anonymous"),f[a]&&(s.integrity=f[a])}e[r]=[n];var g=(t,n)=>{s.onerror=s.onload=null,clearTimeout(p);var i=e[r];if(delete e[r],s.parentNode&&s.parentNode.removeChild(s),i&&i.forEach((e=>e(n))),t)return t(n)},p=setTimeout(g.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:s}),12e4);s.onerror=g.bind(null,s.onerror),s.onload=g.bind(null,s.onload),c&&document.head.appendChild(s)}},i.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},i.p="https://js-agent.newrelic.com/",(()=>{var e={840:0,374:0};i.f.j=(t,r)=>{var n=i.o(e,t)?e[t]:void 0;if(0!==n)if(n)r.push(n[2]);else{var o=new Promise(((r,i)=>n=e[t]=[r,i]));r.push(n[2]=o);var a=i.p+i.u(t),s=new Error;i.l(a,(r=>{if(i.o(e,t)&&(0!==(n=e[t])&&(e[t]=void 0),n)){var o=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),a=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;s.message="Loading chunk "+t+" failed.\n("+o+": "+a+")",s.name="ChunkLoadError",s.type=o,s.request=a,n[1](s)}}),"chunk-"+t,t)}};var t=(t,r)=>{var n,o,[a,s,c]=r,u=0;if(a.some((t=>0!==e[t]))){for(n in s)i.o(s,n)&&(i.m[n]=s[n]);if(c)c(i)}for(t&&t(r);u<a.length;u++)o=a[u],i.o(e,o)&&e[o]&&e[o][0](),e[o]=0},r=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.274.0.PROD"]=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.274.0.PROD"]||[];r.forEach(t.bind(null,0)),r.push=t.bind(null,r.push.bind(r))})(),(()=>{"use strict";i(8374);var e=i(944),t=i(6344),r=i(9566);class n{agentIdentifier;constructor(e=(0,r.LA)(16)){this.agentIdentifier=e}#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}addPageAction(e,t){return this.#e("addPageAction",e,t)}setPageViewName(e,t){return this.#e("setPageViewName",e,t)}setCustomAttribute(e,t,r){return this.#e("setCustomAttribute",e,t,r)}noticeError(e,t){return this.#e("noticeError",e,t)}setUserId(e){return this.#e("setUserId",e)}setApplicationVersion(e){return this.#e("setApplicationVersion",e)}setErrorHandler(e){return this.#e("setErrorHandler",e)}addRelease(e,t){return this.#e("addRelease",e,t)}log(e,t){return this.#e("log",e,t)}}class o extends n{#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}start(){return this.#e("start")}finished(e){return this.#e("finished",e)}recordReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.RECORD)}pauseReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.PAUSE)}addToTrace(e){return this.#e("addToTrace",e)}setCurrentRouteName(e){return this.#e("setCurrentRouteName",e)}interaction(){return this.#e("interaction")}wrapLogger(e,t,r){return this.#e("wrapLogger",e,t,r)}}var a=i(860),s=i(9417);const c=Object.values(a.K7);function u(e){const t={};return c.forEach((r=>{t[r]=function(e,t){return!0===(0,s.gD)(t,"".concat(e,".enabled"))}(r,e)})),t}var d=i(7603);var l=i(1687),f=i(4234),g=i(5289),p=i(6154),h=i(384);const v=e=>p.RI&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"privacy.cookies_enabled");function m(e){return!!(0,h.dV)().o.MO&&v(e)&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"session_trace.enabled")}var b=i(6389);class y extends f.W{constructor(e,t,r=!0){super(e.agentIdentifier,t),this.auto=r,this.abortHandler=void 0,this.featAggregate=void 0,this.onAggregateImported=void 0,!1===e.init[this.featureName].autoStart&&(this.auto=!1),this.auto?(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,t):this.ee.on("manual-start-all",(0,b.J)((()=>{(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),this.auto=!0,this.importAggregator(e)})))}importAggregator(t,r={}){if(this.featAggregate||!this.auto)return;let n;this.onAggregateImported=new Promise((e=>{n=e}));const o=async()=>{let o;try{if(v(this.agentIdentifier)){const{setupAgentSession:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,3861));o=e(t)}}catch(t){(0,e.R)(20,t),this.ee.emit("internal-error",[t]),this.featureName===a.K7.sessionReplay&&this.abortHandler?.()}try{if(t.sharedAggregator)await t.sharedAggregator;else{t.sharedAggregator=i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,9337));const{EventAggregator:e}=await t.sharedAggregator;t.sharedAggregator=new e}if(!this.#t(this.featureName,o))return(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),void n(!1);const{lazyFeatureLoader:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,6103)),{Aggregate:a}=await e(this.featureName,"aggregate");this.featAggregate=new a(t,r),n(!0)}catch(t){(0,e.R)(34,t),this.abortHandler?.(),(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName,!0),n(!1),this.ee&&this.ee.abort()}};p.RI?(0,g.GG)((()=>o()),!0):o()}#t(e,t){switch(e){case a.K7.sessionReplay:return m(this.agentIdentifier)&&!!t;case a.K7.sessionTrace:return!!t;default:return!0}}}var w=i(6630);class A extends y{static featureName=w.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,w.T,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}var R=i(9908),E=i(2843),x=i(3878),_=i(782),N=i(1863);class T extends y{static featureName=_.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,_.T,t),p.RI&&((0,E.u)((()=>(0,R.p)("docHidden",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,_.T,this.ee)),!0),(0,x.sp)("pagehide",(()=>(0,R.p)("winPagehide",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,_.T,this.ee))),this.importAggregator(e))}}var S=i(3969);class j extends y{static featureName=S.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,S.TZ,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}new class extends o{constructor(t,r){super(r),p.gm?(this.features={},(0,h.bQ)(this.agentIdentifier,this),this.desiredFeatures=new Set(t.features||[]),this.desiredFeatures.add(A),this.runSoftNavOverSpa=[...this.desiredFeatures].some((e=>e.featureName===a.K7.softNav)),(0,d.j)(this,t,t.loaderType||"agent"),this.run()):(0,e.R)(21)}get config(){return{info:this.info,init:this.init,loader_config:this.loader_config,runtime:this.runtime}}run(){try{const t=u(this.agentIdentifier),r=[...this.desiredFeatures];r.sort(((e,t)=>a.P3[e.featureName]-a.P3[t.featureName])),r.forEach((r=>{if(!t[r.featureName]&&r.featureName!==a.K7.pageViewEvent)return;if(this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.spa)return;if(!this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.softNav)return;const n=function(e){switch(e){case a.K7.ajax:return[a.K7.jserrors];case a.K7.sessionTrace:return[a.K7.ajax,a.K7.pageViewEvent];case a.K7.sessionReplay:return[a.K7.sessionTrace];case a.K7.pageViewTiming:return[a.K7.pageViewEvent];default:return[]}}(r.featureName).filter((e=>!(e in this.features)));n.length>0&&(0,e.R)(36,{targetFeature:r.featureName,missingDependencies:n}),this.features[r.featureName]=new r(this)}))}catch(t){(0,e.R)(22,t);for(const e in this.features)this.features[e].abortHandler?.();const r=(0,h.Zm)();delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.api,delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.features,delete this.sharedAggregator;return r.ee.get(this.agentIdentifier).abort(),!1}}}({features:[A,T,j],loaderType:"lite"})})()})();</script> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11"> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/favicon.ico"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/ieee-favicon-android-192x192.png" sizes="192x192"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" type="image/png" href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/ieee-favicon-apple-180x180.png" sizes="180x180"/>  <script> 'use strict' !(function (a, e) { if (!a.aap) { a.aap = function (e) { ;(a.acuityAdsEventQueue = a.acuityAdsEventQueue || []).push(e) } var t = 'script' var i = e.createElement(t) i.async = true i.src = 'https://origin.acuityplatform.com/event/v2/pixel.js' var c = e.getElementsByTagName(t)[0] c.parentNode.insertBefore(i, c) a.acuityPiggybackCallback = function (e) { a.acuityParseResponse(e) } } })(window, document) aap({pixelKey: '5420214933852395407'}) </script>   <script>(function (w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({ 'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js' }); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.async = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); })(window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-T7JRHVG');</script>  <script>(function(html){html.className = html.className.replace(/\bno-js\b/,'js')})(document.documentElement);</script> <meta name='robots' content='index, follow, max-image-preview:large, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1' /> <script type="text/javascript" id="wpp-js" src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/wordpress-popular-posts/assets/js/wpp.min.js?ver=7.1.0" data-sampling="0" data-sampling-rate="100" data-api-url="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-json/wordpress-popular-posts" data-post-id="10990" data-token="118e16ba3c" data-lang="en" data-debug="0"></script>  <title>Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos - IEEE Transmitter</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_US" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="IEEE Transmitter" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2019-08-15T12:03:20+00:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2019-08-15T12:03:40+00:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/share.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="630" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/png" /> <meta name="author" content="IEEEadmin" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:label1" content="Written by" /> <meta name="twitter:data1" content="IEEEadmin" /> <script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/","url":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/","name":"Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos - IEEE Transmitter","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/#website"},"datePublished":"2019-08-15T12:03:20+00:00","dateModified":"2019-08-15T12:03:40+00:00","author":{"@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/#/schema/person/d10aa100e1222a56762d96c2d6c46e7b"},"breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/"]}]},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/#website","url":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/","name":"IEEE Transmitter","description":"","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-US"},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/#/schema/person/d10aa100e1222a56762d96c2d6c46e7b","name":"IEEEadmin","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/#/schema/person/image/","url":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/248f246f374c26ea2b30afad85865936?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/248f246f374c26ea2b30afad85865936?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"IEEEadmin"},"url":"https://transmitter.ieee.org/author/ieeeadmin/"}]}</script>  <script> var MP3jPLAYLISTS = []; var MP3jPLAYERS = []; </script> <meta property="og:image" content="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cosmos-1200x630.jpg"/><meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"/><meta property="og:image:height" content="630"/><meta property="og:description" content="Mankind’s desire to explore has resulted in some of our greatest technological accomplishments, and few pursuits have produced a larger [...]"/> <script> var addthis_share = { templates: { twitter: 'Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos - {{url}}' }, url_transforms : { shorten: { twitter: 'bitly' } }, shorteners : { bitly : {} } }; </script> <link rel='stylesheet' id='easy_load_more-frontend-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-load-more/assets/css/frontend.css?ver=1.0.0' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <style id='easy_load_more-frontend-inline-css' type='text/css'> .elm-button { background: #009FDA; color: #FFFFFF; } .elm-button:hover, .elm-button:active, .elm-button:focus { background: #33b2e1; } .elm-loading-icon { fill: #FFFFFF; stroke: #FFFFFF; } </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='sb_instagram_styles-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/instagram-feed-pro/css/sb-instagram.css?ver=4.0.6' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wordpress-popular-posts-css-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/wordpress-popular-posts/assets/css/wpp.css?ver=7.1.0' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='ieee-style-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/style.css?ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='ieee-styles-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/css/site.min.css?ver=1732244362' type='text/css' media='all' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='ieee-ionicons-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/css/ionicons.css?ver=1732244362' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='fancybox-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-fancybox/fancybox/1.5.4/jquery.fancybox.min.css?ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="screen"' /> <style id='fancybox-inline-css' type='text/css'> #fancybox-content{border-color:#ffffff;}#fancybox-title,#fancybox-title-float-main{color:#fff} </style> <link rel='stylesheet' id='mp3-jplayer-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/mp3-jplayer/css/dark.css?ver=2.7.3' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wpss-style-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/wordpress-simple-survey/assets/build/css/wpss-pkg.css?ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wpss-custom-db-style-css' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/?wpss-routing=custom-css&ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188' type='text/css' media='none' onload='this.media="all"' /> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/js/libs.min.js?ver=1732244366" id="ieee-libs-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/js/site.min.js?ver=1732244366" id="ieee-site-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/wordpress-simple-survey/assets/build/js/wpss-pkg.js?ver=3.0.0" id="wpss-pkg-js"></script> <link rel='shortlink' href='https://transmitter.ieee.org/?p=10990' /> <style id="wpp-loading-animation-styles">@-webkit-keyframes bgslide{from{background-position-x:0}to{background-position-x:-200%}}@keyframes bgslide{from{background-position-x:0}to{background-position-x:-200%}}.wpp-widget-block-placeholder,.wpp-shortcode-placeholder{margin:0 auto;width:60px;height:3px;background:#dd3737;background:linear-gradient(90deg,#dd3737 0%,#571313 10%,#dd3737 100%);background-size:200% auto;border-radius:3px;-webkit-animation:bgslide 1s infinite linear;animation:bgslide 1s infinite linear}</style> <script> if (typeof __gaTracker == 'undefined') { (function (i, s, o, g, r, a, m) { i['GoogleAnalyticsObject'] = r; i[r] = i[r] || function () { (i[r].q = i[r].q || []).push(arguments) }, i[r].l = 1 * new Date(); a = s.createElement(o), m = s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0]; a.async = 1; a.src = g; m.parentNode.insertBefore(a, m) })(window, document, 'script', 'https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js', 'ga'); if (ga && !window.ga) { window.ga = ga; } ga('create', 'UA-65663325-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); } </script> <style> .parallax-window { min-height: 400px; background: transparent; } </style> </head> <body class="post-template-default single single-post postid-10990 single-format-standard navigation-2023" >  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-T7JRHVG" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>   <div class="main-container">  <div class="page-wrap ">  <header class="site-header nav-2021">  <div class="top-bar">  <div class="mobile-nav"> <a href="#" class="button"><i class="fa fa-navicon"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Open Navigation</span></a> </div> <p class="util-links"> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/" target="_blank">IEEE.org</a> <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/" target="_blank">IEEE <em>Xplore</em> Digital Library</a> <a href="http://standards.ieee.org/" target="_blank">IEEE Standards</a> <a href="http://spectrum.ieee.org/" target="_blank">IEEE Spectrum</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/sitemap.html" target="_blank">More Sites</a> </p> <p class="top-social"> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/" class="mobile-pad"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/ieee-logo-white.png" width="118" height="35" alt="IEEE Transmitter"/></a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/IEEE.org/"><i class="fa fa-facebook"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Facebook</span></a> <a href="https://twitter.com/ieeeorg"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Twitter</span></a> <a href="https://www.instagram.com/ieeeorg/?hl=en"><i class="fa fa-instagram"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Instagram</span></a> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/ieee"><i class="fa fa-linkedin"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">LinkedIn</span> </a> </p>  <div class="main-search-area"> <a href="#" class="src-btn"><i class="fa fa-search"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Open Search</span></a> </div> </div>   <div class="navigation">  <div class="mobile-nav"><a href="#" class="button"><i class="fa fa-navicon"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Open Navigation</span></a></div>  <div class="logo"><a href="/"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/logo-2017.svg" width="342" height="30" alt="IEEE Transmitter"/></a></div>  <div class="social"> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/ieee-logo.png" width="118" height="35" alt="IEEE Transmitter"/></a> </div>  <form action="/" class="main-search" reposition-element-large-appendTo=".navigation .main-search-area" reposition-element-medium-insertBefore=".navigation .main-search-area" reposition-element-small-insertBefore=".navigation .main-search-area" reposition-element> <label for="search" class="screen-reader-text">Site Search</label> <input name="s" placeholder="Search" id="search" type="text"> <input class="submit" value="&#xf00d" type="button"> </form> <div class="main-search-area"> <ul id="menu-main" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-13608" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13608"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/artificial-intelligence-ai/">Artificial Intelligence</a></li> <li id="menu-item-16103" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-16103"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/green-technology/">Green Tech</a></li> <li id="menu-item-13609" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13609"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/infrastructure/">Infrastructure</a></li> <li id="menu-item-13618" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13618"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/networked-devices/">Networked Devices</a></li> <li id="menu-item-13611" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13611"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/stem/">STEM</a></li> <li id="menu-item-13619" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13619"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/travel-technology/">Travel Technology</a></li> <li id="menu-item-13613" class="creators-nav menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-13613"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-creators/">Impact Creators</a></li> </ul> <a href="#" class="src-btn"><i class="fa fa-search"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Open Search</span></a> </div> </div> </header>  <section class="content "> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="content-social social-after-title show-desktop"> <div class="sticky"> <p>Share This:</p> <div class="social"> <p><a href="#" class="social-share facebook"><i class="fa fa-facebook"></i><span><br/>Facebook</span></a></p> <p><a href="#" class="social-share twitter"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i><span><br/>Twitter</span></a></p> <p><a href="#" class="social-share linkedin"><i class="fa fa-linkedin"></i><span><br/>LinkedIn</span></a></p> <p><a href="mailto:?subject=Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos&body=https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/"><i class="fa fa-envelope"></i><span><br/>Email</span></a></p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content-l column-center"> <div class="banner-inside"> <div class=""><div class="img-location"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cosmos-620x290.jpg" width="620" height="290" alt="" /></div></div> <div class="blurb"> <h2>Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos</h2> </div> <div class="content-social social-after-title show-mobile"> <div class="sticky"> <p>Share This:</p> <div class="social"> <p><a href="#" class="social-share facebook"><i class="fa fa-facebook"></i><span><br/>Facebook</span></a></p> <p><a href="#" class="social-share twitter"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i><span><br/>Twitter</span></a></p> <p><a href="#" class="social-share linkedin"><i class="fa fa-linkedin"></i><span><br/>LinkedIn</span></a></p> <p><a href="mailto:?subject=Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos&body=https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-1-milestones-and-technologies-born-from-exploring-the-cosmos/"><i class="fa fa-envelope"></i><span><br/>Email</span></a></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <p class="by"> August 15, 2019 </p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Mankind’s desire to explore has resulted in some of our greatest technological accomplishments, and few pursuits have produced a larger impact than our exploration of space. </span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Whether impressive ends in themselves, or for their spillover effects into the consumer technologies we use today, the innovations that were part of the following missions are deserving of recognition.</span></p> <p><b>Simulations and Integrated Circuits</b></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The world has been abuzz for the past couple of months remembering the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing. For the purposes of this article, two key things stand out: simulation software and integrated circuits.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">While simulation today is standard for testing aircraft before they’re built, that wasn’t the case with the early Apollo missions. IEEE Life Fellow George Schmidt was on the Apollo technical staff: “We didn’t have the computer tools at the beginning to do simulations of systems – it was all pencil and paper, and the proof in the pudding was to build some prototype hardware and see what happened.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">“What’s happened since then, and Apollo was one of the instigators of this,” says Schmidt, “was that simulation became the real design tool for engineers. With digital simulation, you could vary the parameters of the system design that you were using and very rapidly hone in on something that seemed to work.”</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Another technology accelerated by the Apollo missions was the integrated circuit. Schmidt again: “When we first started, the notion was that the onboard computer for the Apollo command module and lunar module would be transistor-based. But it was rapidly determined that if you tried to build a computer that had all the programs and controls, it would take up the whole spacecraft.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">“In those days, integrated circuits had just been invented, and were undergoing testing. There was a major decision made to use integrated circuits, which would cut down the requirements for space to one cubic foot of computer in the command module.” The engineers were successful, and today, integrated circuits are ubiquitous.</span></p> <p><b>Radar Astronomy</b></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Though it has much less name recognition than Apollo, Project Diana was a pivotal program in its own right. Constructed as an array of antennae at Camp Evans in New Jersey, it did something in 1946 that had never been done before. </span><a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-institute/ieee-history/project-diana-honored-with-an-ieee-milestone"><span style="font-weight: 400;">According to a recent article in The Institute</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, Project Diana “sent a radar pulse toward the moon as it rose above the horizon. Just 2.5 seconds later, the signal had bounced off the lunar surface, its echo appearing clearly on an oscilloscope.”</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Project Diana was dedicated as an IEEE Milestone this past May for initiating the fields of radar astronomy and space communications. What is radar astronomy, exactly? “The basic technique of bouncing radio signals off distant bodies that was developed for the project has been used to gather data about the geological and dynamic properties of many of the solar system’s planets and other heavenly bodies,” according to </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">The Institute</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">. “Additionally, the technique has been used to determine the distance from the earth to the sun and the scale of the solar system itself.” Pretty transformative results for a project over 70 years ago.</span></p> <p><b>Breaking Distance Records</b></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">While no one could’ve predicted how far or for how long Voyager 1 would last when it was launched in 1973, it has become the benchmark for distance in man-made spacecraft. As of this writing, Voyager 1 is a whopping 21.9 million km away from Earth. More on its history can be found </span><a href="https://ethw.org/Pioneer_and_Voyager_Missions"><span style="font-weight: 400;">here</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, which contains this defining quote: “Voyager 1 is now the most distant man-made object in the universe.”</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">After 40 years, </span><a href="https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">NASA says</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> it continues to communicate with the spacecraft daily.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">This is, of course, only a brief sampling of space exploration-related technologies and the broad effects they’ve had. To learn more about their impact and where things are headed in the future, take a look at our initiative </span><a href="https://dev-ieee-transmitter.pantheonsite.io/natural-capital-2019/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Space Exploration, Technology and Our Lives</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span></p> </div> <div class="content-r"> <div class="related" reposition-element-large-appendTo=".content-r" reposition-element-medium-appendTo=".content-l" reposition-element-small-appendTo=".content-l" reposition-element> <div class="callout-content-creator"> <p class="logo"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ieee-impact-creators-logo-color-sanitized.svg" width="167" height="83" alt="" /></p> <div class="bio-callout"> <p class="bio-pic"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/author/george-schmidt/"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/george-schmidt-200x200.jpg" width="92" height="92" alt="George Schmidt"></a> </p> <div class="bio-details"> <h3><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/author/george-schmidt/">George Schmidt</a></h3> IEEE Life Fellow, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society </div> </div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/author/george-schmidt/" class="button small">SEE MORE FROM THIS IMPACT CREATOR</a></p> </div> <h3>Related Stories</h3> <div class="callouts"> <div class="callout"> <p class="img-location"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/what-do-oceans-reveal-about-marine-health-earths-resources-and-space-travel/" class=""><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Untitled-4-310x150.jpg" class="lazyload" width="310" height="150" alt="Read more about What Do Oceans Reveal about Marine Health, Earth’s Resources, and Space Travel?"/></a></p> <h4><span><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/impact-theme/sustainable-natural-capital/">Natural Capital</a> </span> | 5 years ago </h4> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/what-do-oceans-reveal-about-marine-health-earths-resources-and-space-travel/">What Do Oceans Reveal about Marine Health, Earth’s Resources, and Space Travel?</a></p> </div> <div class="callout"> <p class="img-location"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-2-new-frontiers-and-technologies-powering-space-innovation/" class=""><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/mars-310x150.jpg" class="lazyload" width="310" height="150" alt="Read more about Space Exploration, Part 2: New Frontiers and Technologies Powering Space Innovation"/></a></p> <h4><span><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/impact-theme/sustainable-natural-capital/">Natural Capital</a> </span> | 5 years ago </h4> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-exploration-part-2-new-frontiers-and-technologies-powering-space-innovation/">Space Exploration, Part 2: New Frontiers and Technologies Powering Space Innovation</a></p> </div> <div class="callout"> <p class="img-location"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/how-better-weather-data-will-improve-safety-and-energy-efficiency/" class=""><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/forecast-310x150.jpg" class="lazyload" width="310" height="150" alt="Read more about How Better Weather Data Will Improve Safety and Energy Efficiency"/></a></p> <h4><span><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/impact-theme/sustainable-natural-capital/">Natural Capital</a> </span> | 5 years ago </h4> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/how-better-weather-data-will-improve-safety-and-energy-efficiency/">How Better Weather Data Will Improve Safety and Energy Efficiency</a></p> </div> <div class="callout"> <p class="img-location"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/how-new-satellites-are-measuring-a-changing-planet/" class=""><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Untitled-2-310x150.jpg" class="lazyload" width="310" height="150" alt="Read more about How New Satellites Are Measuring a Changing Planet"/></a></p> <h4><span><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/impact-theme/sustainable-natural-capital/">Natural Capital</a> </span> | 5 years ago </h4> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/how-new-satellites-are-measuring-a-changing-planet/">How New Satellites Are Measuring a Changing Planet</a></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="experiences"><div class="wrapper"> <h3><span>INTERACTIVE EXPERIENCES</span></h3> <div class="interactive"> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/quantum-ai/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/IEEE-Quantum-AI-390x260-1.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Quantum and AI: Safeguards or Threats to Cybersecurity?"/> Quantum and AI: Safeguards or Threats to Cybersecurity?</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/ai-2024/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/36982-24-IEEE-Impact-Theme-Banner-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Why AI Can't Live Without Us"/> Why AI Can't Live Without Us</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/infrastructure-2024/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/28600-IEEE-Impact-Theme-2024-Homepage-Banners-390X260.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Bits, Bytes, Buildings and Bridges: Digital-Driven Infrastructure"/> Bits, Bytes, Buildings and Bridges: Digital-Driven Infrastructure</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-of-technology-2024/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/28591-IEEE-Impact-of-Tech-in-2024-Homepage-Banners-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Impact of Technology in 2024"/> Impact of Technology in 2024</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/cybersecurity-2023/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/28589-IEEE-2023-Cybersecurity-Impact-Theme-Homepage-Banners-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Emerging AI Cybersecurity Challenges and Solutions"/> Emerging AI Cybersecurity Challenges and Solutions</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/space-tech-impact-2023/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/28589-IEEE-2023-Space-Tech-Impact-Theme-Homepage-Banners-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about The Skies are Unlimited"/> The Skies are Unlimited</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/infrastructure-2023/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/28588-IEEE-2023-Infrastructure-Impact-Theme-Homepage-Banners-390x260-2.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Smart Cities 2030: How Tech is Reshaping Urbanscapes"/> Smart Cities 2030: How Tech is Reshaping Urbanscapes</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-of-technology-2023/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/22583-IEEE-Impact-Theme-Impact-of-Tech-in-2023-Banners-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Impact of Technology 2023"/> Impact of Technology 2023</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/cybersecurity-2022/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/22581-IEEE-2022-Impact-Theme-Cybersecurity-Banner-390x260-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Cybersecurity for Life-Changing Innovations"/> Cybersecurity for Life-Changing Innovations</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/health-wellness-2022/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/21042-IEEE-Smarter-Wearables-390x260-01jc.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Smarter Wearables Healthier Life"/> Smarter Wearables Healthier Life</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/infrastructure-2022/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/infrastructure-thumbnail.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Infrastructure In Motion banner"/> Infrastructure In Motion</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-of-technology-2022/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Tech-2022-thumb1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Impact of Tech in 2022 Banner"/> The Impact of Tech in 2022 and Beyond</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/cybersecurity-2021/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/16832-IEEE-Impact-Theme-Cybersecurity-Landing-Page-Banner-Thumbnail-390x260-01jc.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Cybersecurity 2021"/> Cybersecurity, Technology and Protecting Our World</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/health-wellness-2021/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/slider-thumb-HW2021.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about How Technology Helps us Understand Our Health and Wellness"/> How Technology Helps us Understand Our Health and Wellness</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/infrastructure-2021/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/slider-thumb-Inf2021.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about The Resilience of Humanity"/> The Resilience of Humanity</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/impact-theme/sustainable-natural-capital/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/slider-thumb-NatCap-2020-1.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Harnessing and Sustaining our Natural Resources"/> Harnessing and Sustaining our Natural Resources</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/health-wellness-2020/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/slider-thumb-HW-2020.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Creating Healthy Spaces Through Technology"/> Creating Healthy Spaces Through Technology</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/infrastructure-2020" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Thumb-2020-Inf.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Exceptional Infrastructure Challenges, Technology and Humanity"/> Exceptional Infrastructure Challenges, Technology and Humanity</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/802-standards/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/hero-802-standardsedit.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about The Global Impact of IEEE's 802 Standards"/> The Global Impact of IEEE's 802 Standards</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/privacy-and-security-2020/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/slider-thumb-PS-2020@2x.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Scenes of our Cyber Lives: The Security Threats and Technology Solutions Protecting Us"/> Scenes of our Cyber Lives: The Security Threats and Technology Solutions Protecting Us</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/health-2019/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Slider-health2019-thmb-2.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about How Millennial Parents are Embracing Health and Wellness Technologies for Their Generation Alpha Kids"/> How Millennial Parents are Embracing Health and Wellness Technologies for Their Generation Alpha Kids</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/natural-capital-2019/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Bnr-NC-thmb.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Space Exploration, Technology and Our Lives"/> Space Exploration, Technology and Our Lives</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/environment/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Bnr-impact-thmb.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Global Innovation and the Environment"/> Global Innovation and the Environment</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/privacy-and-security-2019/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/impact-PrivacySecurity2019@2x.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about How Technology, Privacy and Security are Changing Each Other (And Us)"/> How Technology, Privacy and Security are Changing Each Other (And Us)</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/ces/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Ht-CES2019.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Find us in booth 31506, LVCC South Hall 3 and experience the Technology Moon Walk"/> Find us in booth 31506, LVCC South Hall 3 and experience the Technology Moon Walk</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/interactive-experiences/vr-mr-2018/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Bnr-hottopic-thm-ARMR2018.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Virtual and Mixed Reality"/> Virtual and Mixed Reality</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/robotics/ " target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Bnr-hottopic-thm-Robotics2018-1.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about How Robots are Improving our Health"/> How Robots are Improving our Health</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/interactive-experiences/robotics-2017/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/robotics-2017.jpg" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about IEEE Experts and the Robots They are Teaching"/> IEEE Experts and the Robots They are Teaching</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/ai/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Bnr-hottopic-thm-GenAI2018.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Generation AI 2018"/> See how millennial parents around the world see AI impacting the lives of their tech-infused offspring</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/iot-2018/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/ht-IOT-2018@2x-1.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Take the journey from farm to table and learn how IoT will help us reach the rising demand for food production"/> Take the journey from farm to table and learn how IoT will help us reach the rising demand for food production</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/category/cybersecurity/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Bnr-hottopic-slider-Cybersec2018-1.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Watch technical experts discuss the latest cyber threats"/> Watch technical experts discuss the latest cyber threats</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/arvr-2017" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/2017-11-14.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Explore how researchers, teachers, explorers, healthcare and medical professionals use immersive technologies"/> Explore how researchers, teachers, explorers, healthcare and medical professionals use immersive technologies</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/ai-2017/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/ht-GenAI.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Follow the timeline to see how Generation AI will be impacted by technology"/> Follow the timeline to see how Generation AI will be impacted by technology</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/iot-2017/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/ht-iot-bigdata-2017.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="IoT and Big Data"/> Learn how your IoT data can be used by experiencing a day in a connected life</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/ieee-cyber-security/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-cybersecurity-.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Listen to technical experts discuss the biggest security threats today"/> Listen to technical experts discuss the biggest security threats today</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/summergames/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-games.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about See how tech has influenced and evolved with the Games"/> See how tech has influenced and evolved with the Games</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/iot-2016/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-iot-smarthome.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Enter our virtual home to explore the IoT (Internet of Things) technologies"/> Enter our virtual home to explore the IoT (Internet of Things) technologies</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/robotics-2016/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-robotics.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Explore an interactive map showcasing exciting innovations in robotics"/> Explore an interactive map showcasing exciting innovations in robotics</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="http://transmitter.ieee.org/ai-2016/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-ai.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Interactively explore A.I. in recent Hollywood movies"/> Interactively explore A.I. in recent Hollywood movies</a></p> </div> <div> <p><a href="/health-tech/" target="_blank"><img data-src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ht-healthtech.png" width="197" height="131" class="lazyload" alt="Read more about Get immersed in technologies that will improve patients' lives"/> Get immersed in technologies that will improve patients' lives</a></p> </div> </div> </div></div> </section>  </div>  <footer class="site-footer"> <div class="wrapper"> <p class="nav"> <a href="/">Home</a>  <a href="http://www.ieee.org/sitemap.html" target="_blank" >Sitemap</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/about/contact_center/index.html" target="_blank" >Contact & Support</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/accessibility_statement.html" target="_blank" >Accessibility</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/p9-26.html" target="_blank" >Nondiscrimination</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/security_privacy.html" target="_blank" >Policy Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies</a> <a href="http://www.ieee.org/about/feedback_ieee_site.html" target="_blank" >Feedback</a> </p> <p>© Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this website signifies your agreement to the <a href="http://www.ieee.org/site_terms_conditions.html">IEEE Terms and Conditions</a>. <br />A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. </p> </div> </footer> </div>   <div class="mobile-overlayer"></div> <div class="global-mobile-nav"> <div class="global-mobile-bg"> <p class="mobile-logo"><a href="/"><img src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/themes/wp_IEEE_v2/images/logo-2017.svg" width="342" height="30" alt="IEEE Transmitter" /></a></p> <form action="/"> <label for="mobile-search" class="screen-reader-text">Mobile Search</label> <input type="text" placeholder="Search" name="s" id="mobile-search" /><input type="submit" value="" /> </form> <ul id="menu-main-1" class="list"><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13608"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/artificial-intelligence-ai/">Artificial Intelligence</a></li> <li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-16103"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/green-technology/">Green Tech</a></li> <li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13609"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/infrastructure/">Infrastructure</a></li> <li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13618"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/networked-devices/">Networked Devices</a></li> <li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13611"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/stem/">STEM</a></li> <li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-13619"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/category/travel-technology/">Travel Technology</a></li> <li class="creators-nav menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-13613"><a href="https://transmitter.ieee.org/impact-creators/">Impact Creators</a></li> </ul> <a href="#" class="x"><i class="ion ion-close"></i><span class="screen-reader-text">Close Navigation</span></a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var elm_button_vars = { wrapper: '.posts-list' }; </script>  <script type="module"> var sbiajaxurl = "https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php"; </script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-load-more/assets/js/frontend.min.js?ver=1.0.0" id="easy_load_more-frontend-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-includes/js/underscore.min.js?ver=1.13.4" id="underscore-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-includes/js/backbone.min.js?ver=1.5.0" id="backbone-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-fancybox/vendor/purify.min.js?ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188" id="fancybox-purify-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-fancybox/fancybox/1.5.4/jquery.fancybox.min.js?ver=9399867ce1de053ba3582685f4dea188" id="jquery-fancybox-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" id="jquery-fancybox-js-after"> /* <![CDATA[ */ var fb_timeout, fb_opts={'autoScale':true,'showCloseButton':true,'width':560,'height':340,'margin':20,'pixelRatio':'false','padding':10,'centerOnScroll':false,'enableEscapeButton':true,'speedIn':300,'speedOut':300,'overlayShow':true,'hideOnOverlayClick':true,'overlayColor':'#000','overlayOpacity':0.6,'minViewportWidth':320,'minVpHeight':320,'disableCoreLightbox':'true','enableBlockControls':'true','fancybox_openBlockControls':'true' }; if(typeof easy_fancybox_handler==='undefined'){ var easy_fancybox_handler=function(){ jQuery([".nolightbox","a.wp-block-file__button","a.pin-it-button","a[href*='pinterest.com\/pin\/create']","a[href*='facebook.com\/share']","a[href*='twitter.com\/share']"].join(',')).addClass('nofancybox'); jQuery('a.fancybox-close').on('click',function(e){e.preventDefault();jQuery.fancybox.close()}); /* YouTube */ jQuery('a.fancybox-youtube,area.fancybox-youtube,.fancybox-youtube>a').each(function(){jQuery(this).fancybox(jQuery.extend(true,{},fb_opts,{'type':'iframe','width':1200,'height':675,'padding':0,'keepRatio':1,'aspectRatio':1,'titleShow':false,'titlePosition':'float','titleFromAlt':true,'onStart':function(a,i,o){var splitOn=a[i].href.indexOf("?");var urlParms=(splitOn>-1)?a[i].href.substring(splitOn):"";o.allowfullscreen=(urlParms.indexOf("fs=0")>-1)?false:true;o.href=a[i].href.replace(/https?:\/\/(?:www\.)?youtu(?:\.be\/([^\?]+)\??|be\.com\/watch\?(.*(?=v=))v=([^&]+))(.*)/gi,"https://www.youtube.com/embed/$1$3?$2$4&autoplay=1");}}))}); /* Vimeo */ jQuery('a.fancybox-vimeo,area.fancybox-vimeo,.fancybox-vimeo>a').each(function(){jQuery(this).fancybox(jQuery.extend(true,{},fb_opts,{'type':'iframe','width':1200,'height':675,'padding':0,'keepRatio':1,'aspectRatio':1,'titleShow':false,'titlePosition':'float','titleFromAlt':true,'onStart':function(a,i,o){var splitOn=a[i].href.indexOf("?");var urlParms=(splitOn>-1)?a[i].href.substring(splitOn):"";o.allowfullscreen=(urlParms.indexOf("fullscreen=0")>-1)?false:true;o.href=a[i].href.replace(/https?:\/\/(?:www\.)?vimeo\.com\/([0-9]+)\??(.*)/gi,"https://player.vimeo.com/video/$1?$2&autoplay=1");}}))}); };}; jQuery(easy_fancybox_handler);jQuery(document).on('post-load',easy_fancybox_handler); /* ]]> */ </script> <script type="text/javascript" defer='defer' src="https://transmitter.ieee.org/wp-content/plugins/easy-fancybox/vendor/jquery.mousewheel.min.js?ver=3.1.13" id="jquery-mousewheel-js"></script> <script type="module"> var elm_button_vars = { wrapper: '.posts-list' }; </script> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Assistant:400,700&display=swap" type='text/css' media="none" onload="this.media='all'" rel="stylesheet"> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Quicksand:400,700&display=swap" type='text/css' media="none" onload="this.media='all'" rel="stylesheet"> <link href='https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Source+Sans+Pro%3A400%2C600%2C700%2C900%7CRajdhani%3A400%2C600%2C700&ver=5.5.3&display=swap' type='text/css' media="none" onload="this.media='all'" rel='stylesheet' /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/cookieconsent2/3.0.3/cookieconsent.min.css" /> <script type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info={"beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"054b97878e","applicationID":"19376273","transactionName":"NVdaNRRUDxAAUURYWQwdeQISXA4NTkFZX1EOVw==","queueTime":0,"applicationTime":1478,"atts":"GRBZQ1xOHB4=","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","agent":""}</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Space Exploration, Part 1: Milestones and Technologies Born from Exploring the Cosmos - IEEE Transmitter