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id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Cold War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1948_Arab–Israeli_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1948_Arab–Israeli_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>1948 Arab–Israeli War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1948_Arab–Israeli_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>International law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioterrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioterrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bioterrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioterrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entomology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entomology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Entomology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entomology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_target" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_target"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>By target</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_target-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By target subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_target-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Anti-personnel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Anti-agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Anti-livestock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defensive_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defensive_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Defensive operations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Defensive_operations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Defensive operations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Defensive_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical_countermeasures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_countermeasures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Medical countermeasures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_countermeasures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_and_disease_surveillance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_and_disease_surveillance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Public health and disease surveillance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_and_disease_surveillance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_epidemiological_warnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_epidemiological_warnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Common epidemiological warnings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_epidemiological_warnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioweapon_identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioweapon_identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Bioweapon identification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioweapon_identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_programs,_projects_and_sites_by_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_programs,_projects_and_sites_by_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>List of programs, projects and sites by country</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_programs,_projects_and_sites_by_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of programs, projects and sites by country subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_programs,_projects_and_sites_by_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union_and_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union_and_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Soviet Union and Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union_and_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Iraq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhodesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhodesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Rhodesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhodesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_associated_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_associated_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>List of associated people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_associated_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiese_oorlogvoering" title="Biologiese oorlogvoering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Biologiese oorlogvoering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حرب بيولوجية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب بيولوجية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9" title="জৈবিক যুদ্ধবিগ্রহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জৈবিক যুদ্ধবিগ্রহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_biol%C3%B2gica" title="Guerra biològica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra biològica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologick%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Biologická válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biologická válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Βιολογικός πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιολογικός πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Guerra biológica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra biológica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerra_biologiko" title="Gerra biologiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gerra biologiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جنگ بیولوژیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ بیولوژیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_biologique" title="Guerre biologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre biologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coga%C3%ADocht_bhitheola%C3%ADoch" title="Cogaíocht bhitheolaíoch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogaíocht bhitheolaíoch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%EC%A0%84" title="생물전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Կենսաբանական պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաբանական պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="जैविक युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैविक युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolo%C5%A1ko_ratovanje" title="Biološko ratovanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Biološko ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologiala_milito" title="Biologiala milito – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Biologiala milito" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peperangan_biologis" title="Peperangan biologis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peperangan biologis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_tossicologica" title="Guerra tossicologica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra tossicologica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לוחמה ביולוגית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוחמה ביולוגית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7" title="ಜೈವಿಕ ಯುದ್ಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೈವಿಕ ಯುದ್ಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Биолошко војување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биолошко војување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="ജൈവായുധപ്രയോഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൈവായുധപ്രയോഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_biologi" title="Perang biologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang biologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologische_oorlogvoering" title="Biologische oorlogvoering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Biologische oorlogvoering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="生物戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisk_krigf%C3%B8ring" title="Biologisk krigføring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Biologisk krigføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologisk_krigf%C3%B8ring" title="Biologisk krigføring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Biologisk krigføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="حیاتیاتی جنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="حیاتیاتی جنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A%DA%A9%D9%8A_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="بیولوژيکي جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بیولوژيکي جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_biologiczna" title="Wojna biologiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna biologiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_biol%C3%B3gica" title="Guerra biológica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra biológica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboi_biologic" title="Război biologic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Război biologic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_biologjike" title="Lufta biologjike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta biologjike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Biological warfare" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="شەڕی بیۆلۆژیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی بیۆلۆژیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Биолошко ратовање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биолошко ратовање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolo%C5%A1ko_ratovanje" title="Biološko ratovanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Biološko ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="உயிரியல் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரியல் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolojik_sava%C5%9F" title="Biyolojik savaş – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyolojik savaş" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="حیاتیاتی جنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیاتیاتی جنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Chiến tranh sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh sinh học" 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For the use of <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological agents</a> by terrorists, see <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bioattack_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bioattack (disambiguation)">Bioattack</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Germ Warfare" redirects here. For the <i>M*A*S*H</i> episode, see <a href="/wiki/Germ_Warfare_(M*A*S*H)" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ Warfare (M*A*S*H)">Germ Warfare (M*A*S*H)</a>. For the <i>Dexter's Laboratory</i> episode, see <a href="/wiki/Germ_Warfare_(Dexter%27s_Laboratory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ Warfare (Dexter's Laboratory)">Germ Warfare (Dexter's Laboratory)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Biological_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Biological warfare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:WMD_world_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/220px-WMD_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/330px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/440px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="601" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> By type</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_by_country" title="List of weapons of mass destruction by country">By country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Albania and weapons of mass destruction">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Algeria and weapons of mass destruction">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Argentina and weapons of mass destruction">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Australia and weapons of mass destruction">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Brazil and weapons of mass destruction">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Canada and weapons of mass destruction">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Egypt and weapons of mass destruction">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Germany and weapons of mass destruction">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iran and weapons of mass destruction">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Israel and weapons of mass destruction">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Italian nuclear weapons program">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Japan and weapons of mass destruction">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Libya and weapons of mass destruction">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Mexico and weapons of mass destruction">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Myanmar and weapons of mass destruction">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Philippines and weapons of mass destruction">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Poland and weapons of mass destruction">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Romania and weapons of mass destruction">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet Union</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Saudi Arabia and weapons of mass destruction">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Korea and weapons of mass destruction">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Islero" title="Project Islero">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Sweden and weapons of mass destruction">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Switzerland and weapons of mass destruction">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Yugoslavia and weapons of mass destruction">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Proliferation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_proliferation" title="Chemical weapon proliferation">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">Missiles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">List of treaties</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of parties to weapons of mass destruction treaties">treaty parties</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:2px solid lightsteelblue;padding:0.2em 0.1em 0.35em;border-bottom:2px solid lightsteelblue;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Category:Weapons of mass destruction">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template talk:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Biological warfare</b>, also known as <b>germ warfare</b>, is the use of <a href="/wiki/Toxin#Biotoxins" title="Toxin">biological toxins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">infectious agents</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological weapons</a> (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> or replicating entities (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, which are not universally considered "alive"). <a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological (insect) warfare</a> is a subtype of biological warfare. </p><p>Biological warfare is subject to a forceful <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">normative</a> prohibition.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Offensive biological warfare in international armed conflicts is a <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crime</a> under the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> and several <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">international humanitarian law</a> <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the 1972 <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a> (BWC) bans the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-:09_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:09-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Biodefense" title="Biodefense">defensive biological research</a> for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes is not prohibited by the BWC.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biological warfare is distinct from warfare involving other types of <a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a> (WMD), including <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">radiological warfare</a>. None of these are considered <a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional weapons">conventional weapons</a>, which are deployed primarily for their <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary</a> potential. </p><p>Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or <a href="/wiki/Tactic_(method)" title="Tactic (method)">tactical</a> advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical weapons</a>, biological weapons may also be useful as <a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">area denial weapons</a>. These agents may be lethal or <a href="/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon" title="Non-lethal weapon">non-lethal</a>, and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. They may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a> or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">clandestinely</a>, it may also be considered <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wheelis_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wheelis-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biological warfare and chemical warfare overlap to an extent, as the use of <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> produced by some living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the BWC and the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a>. Toxins and <a href="/wiki/Psychochemical_warfare" title="Psychochemical warfare">psychochemical weapons</a> are often referred to as <i>midspectrum agents</i>. Unlike bioweapons, these midspectrum agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A biological attack could conceivably result in large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Civilian_casualties" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilian casualties">civilian casualties</a> and cause severe disruption to <a href="/wiki/Economic" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic">economic</a> and societal infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms under which other nations or groups interact with it. When indexed to weapon mass and cost of development and storage, biological weapons possess destructive potential and loss of life far in excess of nuclear, chemical or conventional weapons. Accordingly, biological agents are potentially useful as strategic deterrents, in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a tactical weapon for military use, a significant problem with biological warfare is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force. Some biological agents (<a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">pneumonic plague</a>) have the capability of person-to-person <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmission</a> via <a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">aerosolized</a> <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet" title="Respiratory droplet">respiratory droplets</a>. This feature can be undesirable, as the agent(s) may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. Worse still, such a weapon could "escape" the laboratory where it was developed, even if there was no intent to use it – for example by infecting a researcher who then transmits it to the outside world before realizing that they were infected. Several cases are known of researchers becoming infected and dying of <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which they had been working with in the lab (though nobody else was infected in those cases) – while there is no evidence that their work was directed towards biological warfare, it demonstrates the potential for accidental infection even of careful researchers fully aware of the dangers. While containment of biological warfare is less of a concern for certain criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military and civilian populations of virtually all nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_biological_warfare" title="History of biological warfare">History of biological warfare</a></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity_and_Middle_Ages">Antiquity and Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Antiquity and Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rudimentary forms of biological warfare have been practiced since antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> texts of 1500–1200 BCE, in which victims of an <a href="/wiki/Hittite_plague" title="Hittite plague">unknown plague</a> (possibly <a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a>) were driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17499936_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17499936-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus <a href="/wiki/Ergot" title="Ergot">ergot</a>, though with unknown results. <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian</a> archers dipped their arrows and Roman soldiers their swords into excrements and cadavers – victims were commonly infected by <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> as result.<sup id="cite_ref-croodybook_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-croodybook-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1346, the bodies of <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> warriors of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> who had died of <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> were thrown over the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caffa" title="Siege of Caffa">besieged Crimean city of Kaffa</a>. Specialists disagree about whether this operation was responsible for the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> into Europe, Near East and North Africa, resulting in the deaths of approximately 25 million Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biological agents were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or powder spread on the war front as well as poisoning of horses and water supply of the enemy forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton2002_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton2002-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OlayemiAkinwumi_1995_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OlayemiAkinwumi_1995-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, <a href="/wiki/Hypnosis" title="Hypnosis">hypnotize</a>, make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the poison of the enemy as well. The creation of biologicals was reserved for a specific and professional class of medicine-men.<sup id="cite_ref-OlayemiAkinwumi_1995_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OlayemiAkinwumi_1995-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_to_19th_century">18th to 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 18th to 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>, in June 1763 a group of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> laid <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Pitt" title="Siege of Fort Pitt">siege</a> to British-held <a href="/wiki/Fort_Pitt_(Pennsylvania)" title="Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania)">Fort Pitt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following instructions of his superior, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bouquet" title="Henry Bouquet">Henry Bouquet</a>, the commander of Fort Pitt, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Swiss-born</a> Captain Simeon Ecuyer, ordered his men to take smallpox-infested blankets from the infirmary and give it to a Lenape delegation during the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A reported outbreak that began the spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Country" title="Ohio Country">Ohio Country</a> from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the <a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Delaware people</a> as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the delegates were met again later and seemingly had not contracted smallpox.<sup id="cite_ref-ranlet_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ranlet-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> officer <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> mentioned to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> that he had heard a rumor from a sailor that his opponent during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Boston" title="Siege of Boston">Siege of Boston</a>, General <a href="/wiki/William_Howe,_5th_Viscount_Howe" title="William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe">William Howe</a>, had deliberately sent civilians out of the city in the hopes of spreading the <a href="/wiki/1775%E2%80%931782_North_American_smallpox_epidemic" title="1775–1782 North American smallpox epidemic">ongoing smallpox epidemic</a> to American lines; Washington, remaining unconvinced, wrote that he "could hardly give credit to" the claim. Washington had already inoculated his soldiers, diminishing the effect of the epidemic.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians have claimed that a detachment of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Corps of Royal Marines</a> stationed in <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, Australia, deliberately used <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> there in 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dr Seth Carus states: "Ultimately, we have a strong circumstantial case supporting the theory that someone deliberately introduced smallpox in the Aboriginal population."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1900 the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a> and advances in <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a> brought a new level of sophistication to the techniques for possible use of <a href="/wiki/Bio-agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-agent">bio-agents</a> in war. Biological sabotage in the form of <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a> was undertaken on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Imperial German</a> government during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918), with indifferent results.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> of 1925 prohibited the first use of chemical and biological weapons against enemy nationals in international armed conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the onset of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Supply" title="Ministry of Supply">Ministry of Supply</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> established a biological warfare program at <a href="/wiki/Porton_Down" title="Porton Down">Porton Down</a>, headed by the microbiologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a>. The research was championed by <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> and soon <a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthrax disease">anthrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a> toxins had been effectively weaponized. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Gruinard_Island" title="Gruinard Island">Gruinard Island</a> in Scotland, was contaminated with anthrax during a series of extensive tests for the next 56 years. Although the UK never offensively used the biological weapons it developed, its program was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of deadly pathogens and bring them into industrial production.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other nations, notably France and Japan, had begun their own biological weapons programs.<sup id="cite_ref-garrett_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garrett-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the United States entered the war, Allied resources were pooled at the request of the British. The U.S. then established a large research program and industrial complex at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Detrick, Maryland">Fort Detrick, Maryland</a>, in 1942 under the direction of <a href="/wiki/George_W._Merck" title="George W. Merck">George W. Merck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the <a href="/wiki/Dugway_Proving_Grounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugway Proving Grounds">Dugway Proving Grounds</a> in <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>. Soon there were facilities for the mass production of anthrax spores, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a> toxins, although the war was over before these weapons could be of much operational use.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiro-ishii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/170px-Shiro-ishii.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/255px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/340px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1082" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shiro_Ishii" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiro Ishii">Shiro Ishii</a>, commander of <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a>, which performed human <a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisections</a> and other biological experimentation</figcaption></figure> <p>The most notorious program of the period was run by the secret <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_War_(1937%E2%80%931945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)">war</a>, based at <a href="/wiki/Pingfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingfan">Pingfan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> and commanded by Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>. This biological warfare research unit conducted often fatal <a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation">human experiments</a> on prisoners, and produced biological weapons for combat use.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1989_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1989-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Japanese effort lacked the technological sophistication of the American or British programs, it far outstripped them in its widespread application and indiscriminate brutality. Biological weapons were used against Chinese soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague.<sup id="cite_ref-Barenblatt2004_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barenblatt2004-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1989_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1989-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although up to 400,000 people may have died.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign</a> in 1942, around 1,700 Japanese troops died out of a total 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with disease when their own biological weapons attack rebounded on their own forces.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Cherry_Blossoms_at_Night" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night">Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night</a>. The plan was set to launch on 22 September 1945, but it was not executed because of <a href="/wiki/Japan%27s_surrender" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan's surrender">Japan's surrender</a> on 15 August 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Britain, the 1950s saw the weaponization of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern equine encephalitis virus">equine encephalomyelitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaccinia" title="Vaccinia">vaccinia</a> viruses, but the programme was unilaterally cancelled in 1956. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" title="United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories</a> weaponized <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">tularemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">brucellosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q-fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Q-fever">Q-fever</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1969, US President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> decided to <a href="/wiki/Statement_on_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Policies_and_Programs" title="Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs">unilaterally terminate</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_weapons_program" title="United States biological weapons program">offensive biological weapons program of the US</a>, allowing only scientific research for defensive measures.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision increased the momentum of the negotiations for a ban on biological warfare, which took place from 1969 to 1972 in the United Nation's <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_the_Committee_on_Disarmament" title="Conference of the Committee on Disarmament">Conference of the Committee on Disarmament</a> in Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These negotiations resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a>, which was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975 after its ratification by 22 states.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite being a party and depositary to the BWC, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> continued and expanded its massive <a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">offensive biological weapons program</a>, under the leadership of the allegedly civilian institution <a href="/wiki/Biopreparat" title="Biopreparat">Biopreparat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alibek_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alibek-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union attracted international suspicion after the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leak" title="Sverdlovsk anthrax leak">Sverdlovsk anthrax leak</a> killed approximately 65 to 100 people.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1948_Arab–Israeli_War"><span id="1948_Arab.E2.80.93Israeli_War"></span>1948 Arab–Israeli War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1948 Arab–Israeli War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to historians <a href="/wiki/Benny_Morris" title="Benny Morris">Benny Morris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Kedar" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Kedar">Benjamin Kedar</a>, Israel conducted a biological warfare operation codenamed "Cast Thy Bread" during the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a>. The Haganah initially used typhoid bacteria to contaminate water wells in newly cleared Arab villages to prevent the population including militiamen from returning. Later, the biological warfare campaign expanded to include Jewish settlements that were in imminent danger of being captured by Arab troops and inhabited Arab towns not slated for capture. There was also plans to expand the biological warfare campaign into other Arab states including Egypt, Lebanon and Syria, but they were not carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_law">International law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: International law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png/220px-Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png/330px-Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png/440px-Biological_Weapons_Convention_original_document.png 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="1985" /></a><figcaption>The Biological Weapons Convention<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>International restrictions on biological warfare began with the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a>, which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of biological and chemical weapons in international armed conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries made <a href="/wiki/Reservation_(law)" title="Reservation (law)">reservations</a> regarding its applicability and use in retaliation.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to these reservations, it was in practice a "<a href="/wiki/No_first_use" title="No first use">no-first-use</a>" agreement only.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1972 <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a> (BWC) supplements the Geneva Protocol by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-:09_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:09-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-:09_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:09-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of March 2021, <a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="List of parties to the Biological Weapons Convention">183 states have become party to the treaty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is reflected in the treaty's preamble, stating that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BWC's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1985, the <a href="/wiki/Australia_Group" title="Australia Group">Australia Group</a> was established, a multilateral export control regime of 43 countries aiming to prevent the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> passed <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1540" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540">Resolution 1540</a>, which obligates all UN Member States to develop and enforce appropriate legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical</a>, biological, <a href="/wiki/Radiological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiological weapon">radiological</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and their means of delivery, in particular, to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction to <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bioterrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></div> <p>Biological weapons are difficult to detect, economical and easy to use, making them appealing to terrorists. The cost of a biological weapon is estimated to be about 0.05 percent the cost of a conventional weapon in order to produce similar numbers of mass casualties per kilometer square.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, their production is very easy as common technology can be used to produce biological warfare agents, like that used in production of vaccines, foods, spray devices, beverages and antibiotics. A major factor in biological warfare that attracts terrorists is that they can easily escape before the government agencies or secret agencies have even started their investigation. This is because the potential organism has an incubation period of 3 to 7 days, after which the results begin to appear, thereby giving terrorists a lead. </p><p>A technique called Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short Palindromic Repeat (<a href="/wiki/CRISPR-Cas9" class="mw-redirect" title="CRISPR-Cas9">CRISPR-Cas9</a>) is now so cheap and widely available that scientists fear that amateurs will start experimenting with them. In this technique, a DNA sequence is cut off and replaced with a new sequence, e.g. one that codes for a particular protein, with the intent of modifying an organism's traits. Concerns have emerged regarding do-it-yourself biology research organizations due to their associated risk that a rogue amateur DIY researcher could attempt to develop dangerous bioweapons using genome editing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, when CNN went through Al-Qaeda's (AQ's) experiments with crude poisons, they found out that AQ had begun planning ricin and cyanide attacks with the help of a loose association of terrorist cells.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The associates had infiltrated many countries like Turkey, Italy, Spain, France and others. In 2015, to combat the threat of bioterrorism, a National Blueprint for Biodefense was issued by the Blue-Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, 233 potential exposures of select biological agents outside of the primary barriers of the biocontainment in the US were described by the annual report of the Federal Select Agent Program.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though a verification system can reduce bioterrorism, an employee, or a lone terrorist having adequate knowledge of a bio-technology company's facilities, can cause potential danger by utilizing, without proper oversight and supervision, that company's resources. Moreover, it has been found that about 95% of accidents that have occurred due to low security have been done by employees or those who had a security clearance.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Entomology">Entomology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Entomology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></div> <p>Entomological warfare (EW) is a type of biological warfare that uses insects to attack the enemy. The concept has existed for centuries and research and development have continued into the modern era. EW has been used in battle by Japan and several other nations have developed and been accused of using an entomological warfare program. EW may employ insects in a direct attack or as vectors to deliver a <a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">biological agent</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>. Essentially, EW exists in three varieties. One type of EW involves infecting insects with a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> and then dispersing the insects over target areas.<sup id="cite_ref-sunshine_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sunshine-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insects then act as a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>, infecting any person or animal they might bite. Another type of EW is a direct insect attack against crops; the insect may not be infected with any pathogen but instead represents a threat to agriculture. The final method uses uninfected insects, such as bees or wasps, to directly attack the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theoretically, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology could be used in the future to design novel types of biological warfare agents.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective;</li> <li>Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents;</li> <li>Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent;</li> <li>Would increase the transmissibility of a pathogen;</li> <li>Would alter the host range of a pathogen;</li> <li>Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools;</li> <li>Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin.</li></ol> <p>Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in the lab.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, the <a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR/Cas system</a> has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as "the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-:09_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:09-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in the biohacking space.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_target">By target</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: By target"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-personnel">Anti-personnel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Anti-personnel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biohazard_symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Biohazard_symbol.svg/170px-Biohazard_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Biohazard_symbol.svg/255px-Biohazard_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Biohazard_symbol.svg/340px-Biohazard_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The international <a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">biological hazard</a> symbol</figcaption></figure> <p>Ideal characteristics of a biological agent to be used as a weapon against humans are high <a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">infectivity</a>, high <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>, non-availability of <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> and availability of an effective and efficient <a href="/wiki/Delivery_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Delivery system">delivery system</a>. Stability of the weaponized agent (the ability of the agent to retain its infectivity and virulence after a prolonged period of storage) may also be desirable, particularly for military applications, and the ease of creating one is often considered. Control of the spread of the agent may be another desired characteristic. </p><p>The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent, as many biological agents used in weapons can be manufactured relatively quickly, cheaply and easily. Rather, it is the weaponization, storage, and delivery in an effective vehicle to a vulnerable target that pose significant problems. </p><p>For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a></i> is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, this organism is not considered transmissible from person to person, and thus rarely if ever causes secondary infections. A pulmonary anthrax infection starts with ordinary <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>-like symptoms and progresses to a lethal <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhagic">hemorrhagic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mediastinitis" title="Mediastinitis">mediastinitis</a> within 3–7 days, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher in untreated patients.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, friendly personnel and civilians can be protected with suitable <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>. </p><p>Agents considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized, include bacteria such as <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Brucella" title="Brucella">Brucella</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_mallei" title="Burkholderia mallei">Burkholderia mallei</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_pseudomallei" title="Burkholderia pseudomallei">Burkholderia pseudomallei</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydophila_psittaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila psittaci">Chlamydophila psittaci</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Coxiella_burnetii" title="Coxiella burnetii">Coxiella burnetii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Francisella_tularensis" title="Francisella tularensis">Francisella tularensis</a></i>, some of the <a href="/wiki/Rickettsiaceae" title="Rickettsiaceae">Rickettsiaceae</a> (especially <i><a href="/wiki/Rickettsia_prowazekii" title="Rickettsia prowazekii">Rickettsia prowazekii</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Rickettsia_rickettsii" title="Rickettsia rickettsii">Rickettsia rickettsii</a></i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Shigella" title="Shigella">Shigella</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a></i>. Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized, including some of the <a href="/wiki/Bunyaviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunyaviridae">Bunyaviridae</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever virus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebolavirus</a>, many of the <a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis virus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bolivian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Bolivian hemorrhagic fever">Machupo virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronaviruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronaviruses">Coronaviruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">Marburg virus</a>, Variola virus, and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever virus</a>. Fungal agents that have been studied include <i><a href="/wiki/Coccidioides" title="Coccidioides">Coccidioides</a></i> spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Alibek_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alibek-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Toxins that can be used as weapons include <a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcal_Enterotoxin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B">staphylococcal enterotoxin B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">botulinum toxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">saxitoxin</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a>. These toxins and the organisms that produce them are sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Select_agent" title="Select agent">select agents</a>. In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>'s Select Agent Program. </p><p>The former <a href="/wiki/US_biological_warfare_program" class="mw-redirect" title="US biological warfare program">US biological warfare program</a> categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either <b>Lethal Agents</b> (<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, <i>Francisella tularensis</i>, Botulinum toxin) or <b>Incapacitating Agents</b> (<i>Brucella suis</i>, <i>Coxiella burnetii</i>, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-agriculture">Anti-agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Anti-agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries"><span id="Anti-crop.2Fanti-vegetation.2Fanti-fisheries"></span>Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_herbicidal_warfare_research" title="United States herbicidal warfare research">United States herbicidal warfare research</a></div> <p>The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> that used plant diseases (<a href="/wiki/Bioherbicide" title="Bioherbicide">bioherbicides</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Mycoherbicide" title="Mycoherbicide">mycoherbicides</a>) for destroying enemy agriculture. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. It was believed that the destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_relations" title="Sino-Soviet relations">Sino-Soviet</a> aggression in a general war. Diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Wheat_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Wheat blast">wheat blast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rice_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice blast">rice blast</a> were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotic (epidemics among plants). On the other hand, some sources report that these agents were <i>stockpiled</i> but never <i>weaponized</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bellamy-Freedman-2001_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellamy-Freedman-2001-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. </p><p>Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in a similar manner as <a href="/wiki/Biotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotoxin">biotoxins</a> or bioregulators. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for the transport of all chemical, biological, radiological (nuclear) materials. </p><p>Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>) during the Second World War, which were then used by the UK in the counterinsurgency operations of the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a>. Inspired by the use in Malaysia, the US military effort in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> included a <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ranch_Hand" title="Operation Ranch Hand">mass dispersal</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Herbicides" title="Rainbow Herbicides">variety of herbicides</a>, famously <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>, with the aim of destroying farmland and defoliating forests used as cover by the <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sri Lanka deployed military defoliants in its prosecution of the <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Sri Lankan civil war">Eelam War</a> against Tamil insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-livestock">Anti-livestock</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Anti-livestock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During World War I, German saboteurs used <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a> to sicken cavalry horses in U.S. and France, sheep in Romania, and livestock in Argentina intended for the <a href="/wiki/Entente_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Entente forces">Entente forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fasantiagri_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fasantiagri-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these German saboteurs was <a href="/wiki/Anton_Dilger" title="Anton Dilger">Anton Dilger</a>. Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks – horses bound for Germany were infected with <a href="/wiki/Burkholderia" title="Burkholderia">Burkholderia</a> by French operatives in Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-croodybook2_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-croodybook2-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During World War II, the U.S. and Canada secretly investigated the use of <a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">rinderpest</a>, a highly lethal disease of cattle, as a bioweapon.<sup id="cite_ref-fasantiagri_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fasantiagri-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of <a href="/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease" title="Foot-and-mouth disease">foot-and-mouth disease</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">rinderpest</a> against cows, <a href="/wiki/African_swine_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="African swine fever">African swine fever</a> for pigs, and <a href="/wiki/Psittacosis" title="Psittacosis">psittacosis</a> for chickens. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology".<sup id="cite_ref-Alibek_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alibek-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Mau Mau Uprising">Mau Mau Uprising</a> in 1952, the poisonous <a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">latex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Euphorbia_grantii" title="Euphorbia grantii">African milk bush</a> was used to kill cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-Biological_warfare_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biological_warfare-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defensive_operations">Defensive operations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Defensive operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodefense" title="Biodefense">Biodefense</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_countermeasures">Medical countermeasures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Medical countermeasures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 2010 at The Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_epidemiological_reconnaissance" title="Sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance">sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance</a> was suggested as well-tested means for enhancing the monitoring of infections and parasitic agents, for the practical implementation of the <a href="/wiki/International_Health_Regulations" title="International Health Regulations">International Health Regulations</a> (2005). The aim was to prevent and minimize the consequences of natural outbreaks of dangerous infectious diseases as well as the threat of alleged use of biological weapons against BTWC States Parties. </p><p>Many countries require their active-duty <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> personnel to get vaccinated for certain diseases that may potentially be used as a bioweapon such as anthrax, smallpox, and various other vaccines depending on the Area of Operations of the individual military units and commands.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_and_disease_surveillance">Public health and disease surveillance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Public health and disease surveillance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most classical and modern biological weapons' pathogens can be obtained from a plant or an animal which is naturally infected.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the largest biological weapons accident known—the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Yekaterinburg</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1979—sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city and still off-limits to visitors today, (see <a href="/wiki/Sverdlovsk_Anthrax_leak" class="mw-redirect" title="Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak">Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24–36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with the compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique <a href="/wiki/Chest_X-ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest X-ray">chest X-ray</a> finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports).<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkening_D_2015_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkening_D_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The incubation period for humans is estimated to be about 11.8 days to 12.1 days. This suggested period is the first model that is independently consistent with data from the largest known human outbreak. These projections refine previous estimates of the distribution of early-onset cases after a release and support a recommended 60-day course of prophylactic antibiotic treatment for individuals exposed to low doses of anthrax.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24058320_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24058320-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkening_D_2015_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkening_D_2015-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_epidemiological_warnings">Common epidemiological warnings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Common epidemiological warnings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From most specific to least specific:<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Single cause of a certain disease caused by an uncommon agent, with lack of an epidemiological explanation.</li> <li>Unusual, rare, genetically engineered strain of an agent.</li> <li>High morbidity and mortality rates in regards to patients with the same or similar symptoms.</li> <li>Unusual presentation of the disease.</li> <li>Unusual geographic or seasonal distribution.</li> <li>Stable endemic disease, but with an unexplained increase in relevance.</li> <li>Rare transmission (aerosols, food, water).</li> <li>No illness presented in people who were/are not exposed to "common ventilation systems (have separate closed ventilation systems) when illness is seen in persons in close proximity who have a common ventilation system."</li> <li>Different and unexplained diseases coexisting in the same patient without any other explanation.</li> <li>Rare illness that affects a large, disparate population (respiratory disease might suggest the pathogen or agent was inhaled).</li> <li>Illness is unusual for a certain population or age-group in which it takes presence.</li> <li>Unusual trends of death and/or illness in animal populations, previous to or accompanying illness in humans.</li> <li>Many affected reaching out for treatment at the same time.</li> <li>Similar genetic makeup of agents in affected individuals.</li> <li>Simultaneous collections of similar illness in non-contiguous areas, domestic, or foreign.</li> <li>An abundance of cases of unexplained diseases and deaths.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioweapon_identification">Bioweapon identification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bioweapon identification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The goal of <a href="/wiki/Biodefense" title="Biodefense">biodefense</a> is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapon attacks. During the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">first Gulf War</a> the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team, <a href="/wiki/Task_Force_Scorpio" title="Task Force Scorpio">Task Force Scorpio</a>, to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. </p><p>The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. </p><p>The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> are attached to silver and gold nanowires.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, the company <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Organisation_for_Applied_Scientific_Research" title="Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research">TNO</a> has designed <a href="/w/index.php?title=BiosparQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BiosparQ (page does not exist)">Bioaerosol Single Particle Recognition eQuipment</a> (BiosparQ). This system would be implemented into the national response plan for bioweapon attacks in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers at <a href="/wiki/Ben_Gurion_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Gurion University">Ben Gurion University</a> in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen", which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the <a href="/wiki/ELISA" title="ELISA">ELISA</a>, a similar widely employed immunological technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_programs,_projects_and_sites_by_country"><span id="List_of_programs.2C_projects_and_sites_by_country"></span>List of programs, projects and sites by country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: List of programs, projects and sites by country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_biological_weapons_program" title="United States biological weapons program">United States biological weapons program</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Detrick" title="Fort Detrick">Fort Detrick</a>, Maryland<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-w-scientists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/B-w-scientists.jpg/250px-B-w-scientists.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/B-w-scientists.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Researchers working in <a href="/wiki/Biosafety_level" title="Biosafety level">Class III cabinets</a> at the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camp_Detrick" class="mw-redirect" title="Camp Detrick">Camp Detrick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> (1940s).</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Biological_Warfare_Laboratories" title="United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories">U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories</a> (1943–69) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_470" title="Building 470">Building 470</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Million-Liter_Test_Sphere" title="One-Million-Liter Test Sphere">One-Million-Liter Test Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea-Spray" title="Operation Sea-Spray">Operation Sea-Spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a> (1954–73)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare#United_States" title="Entomological warfare">U.S. entomological warfare program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Itch" title="Operation Big Itch">Operation Big Itch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Big_Buzz" title="Operation Big Buzz">Operation Big Buzz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Drop_Kick" title="Operation Drop Kick">Operation Drop Kick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_May_Day" title="Operation May Day">Operation May Day</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Bacchus" title="Project Bacchus">Project Bacchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Clear_Vision" title="Project Clear Vision">Project Clear Vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_SHAD" title="Project SHAD">Project SHAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_Island_Testing_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Horn Island Testing Station">Horn Island Testing Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Terry" title="Fort Terry">Fort Terry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite_Peak_Installation" title="Granite Peak Installation">Granite Peak Installation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigo_Ordnance_Plant" title="Vigo Ordnance Plant">Vigo Ordnance Plant</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Biological_weapons" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction § Biological weapons</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porton_Down" title="Porton Down">Porton Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruinard_Island" title="Gruinard Island">Gruinard Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RRH_Portreath" title="RRH Portreath">Nancekuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vegetarian" title="Operation Vegetarian">Operation Vegetarian</a> (1942–1944)</li> <li><b>Open-air field tests:</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harness_(UK_biological_warfare)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Harness (UK biological warfare)">Operation Harness</a> off <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a>, 1948–1950.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cauldron" title="Operation Cauldron">Operation Cauldron</a> off <a href="/wiki/Stornoway,_Outer_Hebrides" class="mw-redirect" title="Stornoway, Outer Hebrides">Stornoway</a>, 1952.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Hesperus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Hesperus (page does not exist)">Operation Hesperus</a> off <a href="/wiki/Stornoway" title="Stornoway">Stornoway</a>, 1953.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Ozone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Ozone (page does not exist)">Operation Ozone</a> off <a href="/wiki/Nassau,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nassau, Bahamas">Nassau</a>, 1954.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Negation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Negation (page does not exist)">Operation Negation</a> off Nassau, 1954–5.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union_and_Russia">Soviet Union and Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Soviet Union and Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet biological weapons program</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopreparat" title="Biopreparat">Biopreparat</a> (18 labs and production centers) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepnogorsk_Scientific_and_Technical_Institute_for_Microbiology" title="Stepnogorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology">Stepnogorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stepnogorsk" title="Stepnogorsk">Stepnogorsk</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Pasechnik" title="Vladimir Pasechnik">Institute of Ultra Pure Biochemical Preparations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a>, a weaponized plague center</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_State_Research_Center_of_Virology_and_Biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology">Vector State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology</a> (VECTOR), a weaponized smallpox center</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Applied_Biochemistry" title="Institute of Applied Biochemistry">Institute of Applied Biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omutninsk" title="Omutninsk">Omutninsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirov_bioweapons_production_facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirov bioweapons production facility">Kirov bioweapons production facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirov,_Kirov_Oblast" title="Kirov, Kirov Oblast">Kirov, Kirov Oblast</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zagorsk_smallpox_production_facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zagorsk smallpox production facility (page does not exist)">Zagorsk smallpox production facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zagorsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagorsk">Zagorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berdsk_bioweapons_production_facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Berdsk bioweapons production facility (page does not exist)">Berdsk bioweapons production facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berdsk" title="Berdsk">Berdsk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioweapons_research_facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioweapons research facility (page does not exist)">Bioweapons research facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obolenskoye,_Zhukovsky_District,_Kaluga_Oblast" title="Obolenskoye, Zhukovsky District, Kaluga Oblast">Obolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdlovsk_Anthrax_leak" class="mw-redirect" title="Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak">Sverdlovsk bioweapons production facility</a> (Military Compound 19), <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Sverdlovsk</a>, a weaponized anthrax center</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Virus_Preparations" title="Institute of Virus Preparations">Institute of Virus Preparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poison_laboratory_of_the_Soviet_secret_services" title="Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services">Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vozrozhdeniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vozrozhdeniya">Vozrozhdeniya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Project_Bonfire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Project Bonfire (page does not exist)">Project Bonfire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Project_Factor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Project Factor (page does not exist)">Project Factor</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Special_Research_Units" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Research Units">Special Research Units</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unit_731_victim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/220px-Unit_731_victim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/330px-Unit_731_victim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Unit_731_victim.jpg/440px-Unit_731_victim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>U.S. authorities granted <a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a> officials immunity from prosecution in return for access to their research.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongma_Fortress" title="Zhongma Fortress">Zhongma Fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Khabarovsk War Crime Trials">Khabarovsk War Crime Trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" title="Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department">Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq">Iraq</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Iraq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_biological_weapons_program" title="Iraqi biological weapons program">Iraqi biological weapons program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraq and weapons of mass destruction</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al_Hakum_(Iraq)" title="Al Hakum (Iraq)">Al Hakum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salman_Pak_facility" title="Salman Pak facility">Salman Pak facility</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al_Manal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al Manal (page does not exist)">Al Manal</a> facility</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Biological_and_chemical_weapons" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa and weapons of mass destruction § Biological and chemical weapons</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Coast" title="Project Coast">Project Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_G_Scientific_Company" title="Delta G Scientific Company">Delta G Scientific Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roodeplaat_Research_Laboratories" title="Roodeplaat Research Laboratories">Roodeplaat Research Laboratories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protechnik" title="Protechnik">Protechnik</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Rhodesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction">Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grosse_Isle,_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="Grosse Isle, Quebec">Grosse Isle, Quebec</a>, site (1939–45) of research into anthrax and other agents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DRDC_Suffield" title="DRDC Suffield">DRDC Suffield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffield,_Alberta" title="Suffield, Alberta">Suffield, Alberta</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_associated_people">List of associated people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: List of associated people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><b>Bioweaponeers:</b></i> </p> <dl><dd><i>Includes scientists and administrators</i></dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li>Shyh-Ching Lo<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanatjan_Alibekov" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanatjan Alibekov">Kanatjan Alibekov</a>, known as Ken Alibek<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Baldwin" title="Ira Baldwin">Ira Baldwin</a><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wouter_Basson" title="Wouter Basson">Wouter Basson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Blome" title="Kurt Blome">Kurt Blome</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Eugen von Haagen<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Dilger" title="Anton Dilger">Anton Dilger</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Galston" title="Arthur Galston">Arthur Galston</a> (unwittingly)</li> <li>Kurt Gutzeit<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riley_D._Housewright" title="Riley D. Housewright">Riley D. Housewright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiro_Ishii" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiro Ishii">Shiro Ishii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Merck" title="George W. Merck">George W. Merck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Olson" title="Frank Olson">Frank Olson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Pasechnik" title="Vladimir Pasechnik">Vladimir Pasechnik</a><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Patrick_III" title="William C. Patrick III">William C. Patrick III</a><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Popov_(bioweaponeer)" title="Sergei Popov (bioweaponeer)">Sergei Popov</a><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Rosebury" title="Theodor Rosebury">Theodor Rosebury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihab_Rashid_Taha" class="mw-redirect" title="Rihab Rashid Taha">Rihab Rashid Taha</a><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Tsuneyoshi_Takeda" title="Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda">Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nassir_al-Hindawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nassir al-Hindawi (page does not exist)">Nassir al-Hindawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Traub" title="Erich Traub">Erich Traub</a><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Auguste_Trillat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auguste Trillat (page does not exist)">Auguste Trillat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baron_Otto_von_Rosen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baron Otto von Rosen (page does not exist)">Baron Otto von Rosen</a><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yujiro_Wakamatsu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yujiro Wakamatsu (page does not exist)">Yujiro Wakamatsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazid_Sufaat" title="Yazid Sufaat">Yazid Sufaat</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> </div> <p><i><b>Writers and activists:</b></i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Barenblatt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Barenblatt (page does not exist)">Daniel Barenblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_A._Cole" title="Leonard A. Cole">Leonard A. Cole</a></li> <li>Stephen Endicott</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Galston" title="Arthur Galston">Arthur Galston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Guillemin" title="Jeanne Guillemin">Jeanne Guillemin</a><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hagerman" title="Edward Hagerman">Edward Hagerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheldon_H._Harris" title="Sheldon H. Harris">Sheldon H. Harris</a><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_D._Kristof" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas D. Kristof">Nicholas D. Kristof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Preston" title="Richard Preston">Richard Preston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Regis_(author)" title="Ed Regis (author)">Ed Regis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Wheelis" title="Mark Wheelis">Mark Wheelis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Willman" title="David Willman">David Willman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aaron_Henderson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aaron Henderson (page does not exist)">Aaron Henderson</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare_in_popular_culture" title="Biological warfare in popular culture">Biological warfare in popular culture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal-borne_bomb_attacks" title="Animal-borne bomb attacks">Animal-borne bomb attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Island" title="Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological contamination">Biological contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">Biological pest control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discredited_AIDS_origins_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Discredited AIDS origins theories">Discredited AIDS origins theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin" title="Enterotoxin">Enterotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_plague" title="Hittite plague">Hittite plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation in the United States">Human experimentation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Powell" title="John W. Powell">John W. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_System" title="Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System">Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_CBRN_warfare_forces" title="List of CBRN warfare forces">List of CBRN warfare forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNeill%27s_law" title="McNeill's law">McNeill's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_animal" title="Military animal">Military animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Island_Animal_Disease_Center" title="Plum Island Animal Disease Center">Plum Island Animal Disease Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_112" title="Project 112">Project 112</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_AGILE" title="Project AGILE">Project AGILE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_SHAD" title="Project SHAD">Project SHAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction">Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichothecene" title="Trichothecene">Trichothecene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning" title="Well poisoning">Well poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBergerEisenkraftBar-HaimKassirer2016" class="citation journal cs1">Berger, Tamar; Eisenkraft, Arik; Bar-Haim, Erez; Kassirer, Michael; Aran, Adi Avniel; Fogel, Itay (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5330008">"Toxins as biological weapons for terror-characteristics, challenges and medical countermeasures: a mini-review"</a>. <i>Disaster and Military Medicine</i>. <b>2</b>: 7 MI. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40696-016-0017-4">10.1186/s40696-016-0017-4</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2054-314X">2054-314X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5330008">5330008</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28265441">28265441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Disaster+and+Military+Medicine&rft.atitle=Toxins+as+biological+weapons+for+terror-characteristics%2C+challenges+and+medical+countermeasures%3A+a+mini-review&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=7+MI&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5330008%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2054-314X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28265441&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40696-016-0017-4&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Tamar&rft.au=Eisenkraft%2C+Arik&rft.au=Bar-Haim%2C+Erez&rft.au=Kassirer%2C+Michael&rft.au=Aran%2C+Adi+Avniel&rft.au=Fogel%2C+Itay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5330008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentley2024" class="citation book cs1">Bentley, Michelle (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOvXEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Biological Weapons Taboo</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-889215-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-889215-1"><bdi>978-0-19-889215-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biological+Weapons+Taboo&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-19-889215-1&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOvXEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentley2023" class="citation web cs1">Bentley, Michelle (18 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warontherocks.com/2023/10/the-biological-weapons-taboo/">"The Biological Weapons Taboo"</a>. <i>War on the Rocks</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=War+on+the+Rocks&rft.atitle=The+Biological+Weapons+Taboo&rft.date=2023-10-18&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarontherocks.com%2F2023%2F10%2Fthe-biological-weapons-taboo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule73">Rule 73. The use of biological weapons is prohibited.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170412143836/https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule73">Archived</a> 12 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Customary IHL Database</i>, <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> (ICRC)/<a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Customary Internal Humanitarian Law, Vol. II: Practice</i>, Part 1 (eds. Jean-Marie Henckaerts & Louise Doswald-Beck: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 1607–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:09-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:09_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:09_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:09_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:09_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/">"Biological Weapons Convention"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Disarmament_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs">United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210215200800/https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Office+for+Disarmament+Affairs&rft.atitle=Biological+Weapons+Convention&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fdisarmament%2Fbiological-weapons%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Schwarz, "War Crimes" in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=boWuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1317">The Law of Armed Conflict and the Use of Force: The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170412144548/https://books.google.com/books?id=boWuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1317">Archived</a> 12 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) (eds. Frauke Lachenmann & Rüdiger Wolfrum: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 1317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article I, Biological Weapons Convention. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention#Article_I" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Biological Weapons Convention">Wikisource</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wheelis-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wheelis_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelisRózsaDando2006" class="citation book cs1">Wheelis M, Rózsa L, Dando M (2006). <i>Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons Since 1945</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 284–293, 301–303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01699-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01699-6"><bdi>978-0-674-01699-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deadly+Cultures%3A+Biological+Weapons+Since+1945&rft.pages=284-293%2C+301-303&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01699-6&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=R%C3%B3zsa%2C+Lajos&rft.au=Dando%2C+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray2007" class="citation book cs1">Gray C (2007). <i>Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare</i>. 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Harvard University Press. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674013056" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674013056"><bdi>978-0674013056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rationalizing+Epidemics&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0674013056&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnel1997" class="citation book cs1">McConnel MN (1997). <i>A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774</i>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Country+Between%3A+The+Upper+Ohio+Valley+and+Its+Peoples%2C+1724-1774&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McConnel&rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2016" class="citation book cs1">King, J. C. H. (2016). <i>Blood and Land: The Story of Native North America</i>. Penguin UK. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846148088" title="Special:BookSources/9781846148088"><bdi>9781846148088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+and+Land%3A+The+Story+of+Native+North+America&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781846148088&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=J.+C.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ranlet-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ranlet_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanlet2000" class="citation journal cs1">Ranlet, P (2000). "The British, the Indians, and smallpox: what actually happened at Fort Pitt in 1763?". <i>Pennsylvania History</i>. <b>67</b> (3): 427–441. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17216901">17216901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+History&rft.atitle=The+British%2C+the+Indians%2C+and+smallpox%3A+what+actually+happened+at+Fort+Pitt+in+1763%3F&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=427-441&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17216901&rft.aulast=Ranlet&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrasGreub2014" class="citation journal cs1">Barras V, Greub G (June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-0691.12706">"History of biological warfare and bioterrorism"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology and Infection</i>. <b>20</b> (6): 497–502. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1469-0691.12706">10.1111/1469-0691.12706</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24894605">24894605</a>. <q>However, in the light of contemporary knowledge, it remains doubtful whether his hopes were fulfilled, given the fact that the transmission of smallpox through this kind of vector is much less efficient than respiratory transmission, and that Native Americans had been in contact with smallpox >200 years before Ecuyer's trickery, notably during Pizarro's conquest of South America in the 16th century. As a whole, the analysis of the various 'pre-microbiological" attempts at biological warfare illustrate the difficulty of differentiating attempted biological attack from naturally occurring epidemics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+and+Infection&rft.atitle=History+of+biological+warfare+and+bioterrorism&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=497-502&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1469-0691.12706&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24894605&rft.aulast=Barras&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Greub%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252F1469-0691.12706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nm_AVg4hmJQC&pg=PA3"><i>Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare</i></a>. Government Printing Office. 2007. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-087238-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-087238-9"><bdi>978-0-16-087238-9</bdi></a>. <q>In retrospect, it is difficult to evaluate the tactical success of Captain Ecuyer's biological attack because smallpox may have been transmitted after other contacts with colonists, as had previously happened in New England and the South. Although scabs from smallpox patients are thought to be of low infectivity as a result of binding of the virus in fibrin metric, and transmission by fomites has been considered inefficient compared with respiratory droplet transmission.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Aspects+of+Biological+Warfare&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-16-087238-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnm_AVg4hmJQC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_V._Thompson" class="citation web cs1">Mary V. Thompson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/smallpox/">"Smallpox"</a>. Mount Vernon Estate and Gardens.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Smallpox&rft.pub=Mount+Vernon+Estate+and+Gardens&rft.au=Mary+V.+Thompson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountvernon.org%2Flibrary%2Fdigitalhistory%2Fdigital-encyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fsmallpox%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/eyewitness/html.php?section=4">"Gen. George Washington - A Threat of Bioterrorism, 1775"</a>. <i>Eyewitness -- American Originals from the National Archives</i>. US National Archives.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eyewitness+--+American+Originals+from+the+National+Archives&rft.atitle=Gen.+George+Washington+-+A+Threat+of+Bioterrorism%2C+1775&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Feyewitness%2Fhtml.php%3Fsection%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher2013" class="citation journal cs1">Christopher W (2013). "Smallpox at Sydney Cove – Who, When, Why". <i>Journal of Australian Studies</i>. <b>38</b>: 68–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14443058.2013.849750">10.1080/14443058.2013.849750</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143644513">143644513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Australian+Studies&rft.atitle=Smallpox+at+Sydney+Cove+%E2%80%93+Who%2C+When%2C+Why&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=68-86&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14443058.2013.849750&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143644513%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Christopher&rft.aufirst=Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span> See also <a href="/wiki/History_of_biological_warfare#New_South_Wales" title="History of biological warfare">History of biological warfare#New South Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet#First_Fleet_smallpox" title="First Fleet">First Fleet#First Fleet smallpox</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars#Controversy_over_smallpox_in_Australia" title="Australian history wars">History wars#Controversy over smallpox in Australia</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Distinguished Research Fellow, Center for the Study of WMD, National Defense University, Ft. McNair, Washington.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarus2015" class="citation journal cs1">Carus WS (August 2015). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Legal+Aspects+of+the+Geneva+Protocol+of+1925&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=853-879&rft.date=2017-03-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147499122%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2198921%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2198921&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rft.au=Buergenthal%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Famerican-journal-of-international-law%2Farticle%2Flegal-aspects-of-the-geneva-protocol-of-1925%2F26453DA22053FCBB08BB4A520FFE9964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasad2009" class="citation book cs1">Prasad SK (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SoDwO-dl-i0C"><i>Biological Agents, Volume 2</i></a>. Discovery Publishing House. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788183563819" title="Special:BookSources/9788183563819"><bdi>9788183563819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Agents%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Discovery+Publishing+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788183563819&rft.aulast=Prasad&rft.aufirst=SK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSoDwO-dl-i0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-garrett-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-garrett_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett2003" class="citation book cs1">Garrett L (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=teMYnJoVolkC&pg=PA340"><i>Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 340–341. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198526834" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198526834"><bdi>978-0198526834</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Betrayal+of+Trust%3A+The+Collapse+of+Global+Public+Health&rft.pages=340-341&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0198526834&rft.aulast=Garrett&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DteMYnJoVolkC%26pg%3DPA340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCovert2000" class="citation book cs1">Covert NM (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120121062629/http://www.detrick.army.mil/cutting_edge/index.cfm?chapter=contents"><i>A History of Fort Detrick, Maryland</i></a> (4th ed.). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Fort+Detrick%2C+Maryland&rft.edition=4th&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Covert&rft.aufirst=Norman+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.detrick.army.mil%2Fcutting_edge%2Findex.cfm%3Fchapter%3Dcontents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Guillemin J (July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1490304">"Scientists and the history of biological weapons. 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HarperCollins. pp. 220–221.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plague+upon+Humanity&rft.pages=220-221&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Barenblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/weekly-standard/the-worlds-most-dangerous-weapon">"The World's Most Dangerous Weapon"</a>. <i>Washington Examiner</i>. 8 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC&pg=PA171">"Johnston Atoll"</a>. <i>The Implementation of Legally Binding Measures to Strengthen the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, held in Budapest, Hungary, 2001</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2096-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2096-4"><bdi>978-1-4020-2096-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Johnston+Atoll&rft.btitle=The+Implementation+of+Legally+Binding+Measures+to+Strengthen+the+Biological+and+Toxin+Weapons+Convention%2C+Proceedings+of+the+NATO+Advanced+Study+Institute%2C+held+in+Budapest%2C+Hungary%2C+2001&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2004-07&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2096-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZzlNgS70OHAC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroddyWirtz2005" class="citation book cs1">Croddy E, Wirtz JJ (2005). <i>Weapons of Mass Destruction</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shyh-Ching+Lo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.pr%2F%3Fgws_rd%3Dcr%2Cssl%23q%3DShyh-Ching%2BLo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5242820">"Pathogenic mycoplasma"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117034437/http://www.google.com/patents/US5242820">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pathogenic+mycoplasma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS5242820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plague/interviews/alibekov.html">"Interview: Dr Kanatjan Alibekov"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Frontline_(U.S._TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontline (U.S. TV series)">Frontline</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100608073922/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plague/interviews/alibekov.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Frontline&rft.atitle=Interview%3A+Dr+Kanatjan+Alibekov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fpages%2Ffrontline%2Fshows%2Fplague%2Finterviews%2Falibekov.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historynet.com/dr-ira-baldwin-biological-weapons-pioneer.htm">"Dr. Ira Baldwin: Biological Weapons Pioneer"</a>. American History. 12 June 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090410044336/http://www.historynet.com/dr-ira-baldwin-biological-weapons-pioneer.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+Ira+Baldwin%3A+Biological+Weapons+Pioneer&rft.pub=American+History&rft.date=2006-06-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historynet.com%2Fdr-ira-baldwin-biological-weapons-pioneer.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUte_Deichmann1996" class="citation book cs1">Ute Deichmann (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gPrtE4K0WC8C&pg=PA173"><i>Biologists Under Hitler</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07405-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07405-7"><bdi>978-0-674-07405-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biologists+Under+Hitler&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07405-7&rft.au=Ute+Deichmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgPrtE4K0WC8C%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeyendeckerKlapp1989" class="citation journal cs1">Leyendecker B, Klapp F (December 1989). "[Human hepatitis experiments in the 2d World War]". <i>Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Hygiene und Ihre Grenzgebiete</i>. <b>35</b> (12): 756–60. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2698560">2698560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+die+Gesamte+Hygiene+und+Ihre+Grenzgebiete&rft.atitle=%5BHuman+hepatitis+experiments+in+the+2d+World+War%5D&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=756-60&rft.date=1989-12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2698560&rft.aulast=Leyendecker&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Klapp%2C+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaksel2007" class="citation news cs1">Maksel R (14 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sfgate.com/books/article/An-American-waged-germ-warfare-against-U-S-in-WWI-2657341.php">"An American waged germ warfare against U.S. in WWI"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/SF_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="SF Gate">SF Gate</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511192855/http://articles.sfgate.com/2007-01-14/books/17227292_1_anton-dilger-german-great-war">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SF+Gate&rft.atitle=An+American+waged+germ+warfare+against+U.S.+in+WWI&rft.date=2007-01-14&rft.aulast=Maksel&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fbooks%2Farticle%2FAn-American-waged-germ-warfare-against-U-S-in-WWI-2657341.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauhan2004" class="citation book cs1">Chauhan SS (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MGZwgxoHxCAC&pg=PA194"><i>Biological Weapons</i></a>. APH Publishing. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7648-732-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7648-732-0"><bdi>978-81-7648-732-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Weapons&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=APH+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-7648-732-0&rft.aulast=Chauhan&rft.aufirst=Sharad+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMGZwgxoHxCAC%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Office of U.S. Chief of Counsel for the American Military Tribunals at Nurember, 1946. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mazal.org/NO-series/NO-0124-000.htm">http://www.mazal.org/NO-series/NO-0124-000.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501105128/http://www.mazal.org/NO-series/NO-0124-000.htm">Archived</a> 1 May 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1363752/Vladimir-Pasechnik.html">"Obituary: Vladimir Pasechnik"</a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. London. 29 November 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100303235824/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1363752/Vladimir-Pasechnik.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Vladimir+Pasechnik&rft.date=2001-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fobituaries%2F1363752%2FVladimir-Pasechnik.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/archive/1873368.stm">"Anthrax attacks"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Newsnight" title="Newsnight">Newsnight</a></i>. BBC. 14 March 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090407000929/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/archive/1873368.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsnight&rft.atitle=Anthrax+attacks&rft.date=2002-03-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fprogrammes%2Fnewsnight%2Farchive%2F1873368.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/biow_popov.html">"Interviews With Biowarriors: Sergei Popov"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170618153502/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/biow_popov.html">Archived</a> 18 June 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (2001) <i><a href="/wiki/Nova_(American_TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova (American TV series)">NOVA Online</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3021981.stm">"US welcomes 'Dr Germ' capture"</a>. BBC. 13 May 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061019042857/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3021981.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=US+welcomes+%27Dr+Germ%27+capture&rft.date=2003-05-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fmiddle_east%2F3021981.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonSiegel2005" class="citation book cs1">Jackson PJ, Siegel J (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3Q3_Ww-5SMC&pg=PA194"><i>Intelligence and Statecraft: The Use and Limits of Intelligence in International Society</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97295-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-97295-0"><bdi>978-0-275-97295-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+and+Statecraft%3A+The+Use+and+Limits+of+Intelligence+in+International+Society&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-275-97295-0&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Peter+J&rft.au=Siegel%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI3Q3_Ww-5SMC%26pg%3DPA194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthrax1916.weebly.com">"Jamie Bisher, "Baron von Rosen's 1916 Anthrax Mission," 2014"</a>. <i>Baron von Rosen's 1916 Anthrax Mission</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140413125850/http://anthrax1916.weebly.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Baron+von+Rosen%27s+1916+Anthrax+Mission&rft.atitle=Jamie+Bisher%2C+%22Baron+von+Rosen%27s+1916+Anthrax+Mission%2C%22+2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthrax1916.weebly.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/ssp/people/guillemin/fellow_guillemin.html">"MIT Security Studies Program (SSP): Jeanne Guillemin"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091128145354/http://web.mit.edu/ssp/people/guillemin/fellow_guillemin.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MIT+Security+Studies+Program+%28SSP%29%3A+Jeanne+Guillemin&rft.pub=MIT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fssp%2Fpeople%2Fguillemin%2Ffellow_guillemin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation news cs1">Lewis P (4 September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/04/us/sheldon-harris-74-historian-of-japan-s-biological-warfare.html">"Sheldon Harris, 74, Historian of Japan's Biological Warfare"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511113121/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/04/us/sheldon-harris-74-historian-of-japan-s-biological-warfare.html?pagewanted=1">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Sheldon+Harris%2C+74%2C+Historian+of+Japan%27s+Biological+Warfare&rft.date=2002-09-04&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F09%2F04%2Fus%2Fsheldon-harris-74-historian-of-japan-s-biological-warfare.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2001" class="citation book cs1">Miller J (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germsbiologicalw00mill/page/67"><i>Biological Weapons and America's Secret War</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germsbiologicalw00mill/page/67">67</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-87158-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-87158-5"><bdi>978-0-684-87158-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Weapons+and+America%27s+Secret+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-684-87158-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermsbiologicalw00mill%2Fpage%2F67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/experts/148/matthew_meselson.html">"Matthew Meselson – Harvard – Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs"</a>. Harvard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905075527/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/experts/148/matthew_meselson.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Matthew+Meselson+%E2%80%93+Harvard+%E2%80%93+Belfer+Center+for+Science+and+International+Affairs&rft.pub=Harvard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbelfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu%2Fexperts%2F148%2Fmatthew_meselson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Biological warfare</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Biological+warfare">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Biological+warfare&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlibekHandelman2000" class="citation book cs1">Alibek K, Handelman S (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biohazardchillin00alib_0"><i>Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it</i></a>. Delta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-33496-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-33496-9"><bdi>978-0-385-33496-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biohazard%3A+The+Chilling+True+Story+of+the+Largest+Covert+Biological+Weapons+Program+in+the+World+%E2%80%93+Told+from+Inside+by+the+Man+Who+Ran+it&rft.pub=Delta&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-385-33496-9&rft.aulast=Alibek&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Handelman%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiohazardchillin00alib_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmosara2010" class="citation web cs1">Almosara, Joel O. (1 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203082750/https://evesdrift.com/2015/03/09/biotechnology-genetically-engineered-pathogens/">"Biotechnology: Genetically Engineered Pathogens"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evesdrift.com/2015/03/09/biotechnology-genetically-engineered-pathogens/">the original</a> on 3 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biotechnology%3A+Genetically+Engineered+Pathogens&rft.date=2010-06-01&rft.aulast=Almosara&rft.aufirst=Joel+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fevesdrift.com%2F2015%2F03%2F09%2Fbiotechnology-genetically-engineered-pathogens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span> Counterproliferation Paper No. 53, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, USA.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppel2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_M._Appel" title="Jacob M. Appel">Appel JM</a> (July 2009). "Is all fair in biological warfare? The controversy over genetically engineered biological weapons". <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>35</b> (7): 429–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.2008.028944">10.1136/jme.2008.028944</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567692">19567692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1643086">1643086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=Is+all+fair+in+biological+warfare%3F+The+controversy+over+genetically+engineered+biological+weapons&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=429-32&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1643086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19567692&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.2008.028944&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAucouturier2020" class="citation book cs1">Aucouturier E (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://materiologiques.com/en/histoire-des-sciences-et-des-techniques/303-biological-warfare-the-french-conection-9782373612394.html"><i>Biological Warfare: Another French Connexion</i></a>. Matériologiques. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-37361-239-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-37361-239-4"><bdi>978-2-37361-239-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Warfare%3A+Another+French+Connexion&rft.pub=Mat%C3%A9riologiques&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-37361-239-4&rft.aulast=Aucouturier&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmateriologiques.com%2Fen%2Fhistoire-des-sciences-et-des-techniques%2F303-biological-warfare-the-french-conection-9782373612394.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarus2017" class="citation book cs1">Carus WS (2017). <i>A Short History of Biological Warfare: From Pre-History to the 21st Century</i>. US Defense Dept., National Defense University, Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160941481" title="Special:BookSources/9780160941481"><bdi>9780160941481</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Biological+Warfare%3A+From+Pre-History+to+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=US+Defense+Dept.%2C+National+Defense+University%2C+Center+for+the+Study+of+Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780160941481&rft.aulast=Carus&rft.aufirst=W.+Seth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaturvedi" class="citation web cs1">Chaturvedi, Alok. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://misrc.umn.edu/seminars/slides/2006/01272006_Seminar_Color.pdf">"Live and Computational Experimentation in Bio-terror Response"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. misrc.umn.edu Purdue Homeland Security Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://misrc.umn.edu/seminars/slides/2006/01272006_Seminar_Color.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Live+and+Computational+Experimentation+in+Bio-terror+Response&rft.pub=misrc.umn.edu+Purdue+Homeland+Security+Institute&rft.aulast=Chaturvedi&rft.aufirst=Alok&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmisrc.umn.edu%2Fseminars%2Fslides%2F2006%2F01272006_Seminar_Color.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChevrierChomiczewskiGarrigue2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chevrier MI, Chomiczewski K, Garrigue H, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lILltXBTo8oC"><i>The Implementation of Legally Binding Measures to Strengthen the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Held in Budapest, Hungary, 2001</i></a>. Vol. 150 of NATO science series: Mathematics, physics, and chemistry (illustrated ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402020971" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402020971"><bdi>978-1402020971</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Implementation+of+Legally+Binding+Measures+to+Strengthen+the+Biological+and+Toxin+Weapons+Convention%3A+Proceedings+of+the+NATO+Advanced+Study+Institute%2C+Held+in+Budapest%2C+Hungary%2C+2001&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1402020971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlILltXBTo8oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroddyWirtz2005" class="citation book cs1">Croddy E, Wirtz JJ, eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzlNgS70OHAC"><i>Weapons of Mass Destruction</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851094905" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851094905"><bdi>978-1851094905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1851094905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZzlNgS70OHAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby1986" class="citation book cs1">Crosby AW (1986). <i>Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900–1900</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+the+Threat+of+Genetically+Modified+Organisms+for+Biological+Warfare&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Defense+University&rft.date=2011-05&rft.aulast=Warner&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft.au=Ramsbotham%2C+James&rft.au=Tunia%2C+Ewelina&rft.au=Vadez%2C+James+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpurl.fdlp.gov%2FGPO%2Fgpo55844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wheelis, Mark (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa"</a>. <i>Emerging Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>8</b> (9): 971–975. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0809.010536">10.3201/eid0809.010536</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">2732530</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12194776">12194776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Biological+Warfare+at+the+1346+Siege+of+Caffa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=971-975&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12194776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0809.010536&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2005" class="citation book cs1">Woods JB, ed. (April 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609104204/http://www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebookpdf/USAMRIID%20BlueBook%206th%20Edition%20-%20Sep%202006.pdf"><i>USAMRIID's Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (6th ed.). Fort Detrick, Maryland: U.S. Army Medical Institute of Infectious Diseases. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebookpdf/USAMRIID%20BlueBook%206th%20Edition%20-%20Sep%202006.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=USAMRIID%27s+Medical+Management+of+Biological+Casualties+Handbook&rft.place=Fort+Detrick%2C+Maryland&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=U.S.+Army+Medical+Institute+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.date=2005-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usamriid.army.mil%2Feducation%2Fbluebookpdf%2FUSAMRIID%2520BlueBook%25206th%2520Edition%2520-%2520Sep%25202006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelicoffBellomo2005" class="citation book cs1">Zelicoff A, Bellomo M (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/microbeareweread00alan"><i>Microbe: Are we Ready for the Next Plague?</i></a>. AMACOM Books, New York, NY. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8144-0865-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8144-0865-0"><bdi>978-0-8144-0865-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microbe%3A+Are+we+Ready+for+the+Next+Plague%3F&rft.pub=AMACOM+Books%2C+New+York%2C+NY&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8144-0865-0&rft.aulast=Zelicoff&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Bellomo%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmicrobeareweread00alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biological_warfare&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/section_ihl_biological_weapons">Biological weapons and international humanitarian law</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100811062146/http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/section_ihl_biological_weapons">Archived</a> 11 August 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ICRC</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/39444/1/24039.pdf">WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170426234740/https://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro/biologicalwarfare.html">"Biological Warfare"</a>. National Library of Medicine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro/biologicalwarfare.html">the original</a> on 26 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biological+Warfare&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Medicine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsis.nlm.nih.gov%2Fenviro%2Fbiologicalwarfare.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiological+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usamriid.army.mil/">USAMRIID</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160605192439/http://www.usamriid.army.mil/">Archived</a> 5 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)—U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biological_warfare_and_bioterrorism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bioterrorism" title="Template:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bioterrorism" title="Template talk:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bioterrorism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biological_warfare_and_bioterrorism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biological warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731#Biological_warfare" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Rajneeshee_bioterror_attack" title="1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack">1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_California_medfly_attack" title="1989 California medfly attack">1989 California medfly attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks" title="2001 anthrax attacks">2001 anthrax attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_Green_ricin_plot" title="Wood Green ricin plot">Wood Green ricin plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_ricin_letters" title="2003 ricin letters">2003 ricin letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2013_ricin_letters" title="April 2013 ricin letters">2013 ricin letters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prevention<br />and response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Group" title="Australia Group">Australia Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Health_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Health Security">Center for Health Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Convention_on_the_Prevention_of_Terrorism" title="Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism">Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency" title="Defense Threat Reduction Agency">Defense Threat Reduction Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Security_Initiative" title="Global Health Security Initiative">Global Health Security Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Threat_Unit_(European_Commission)" class="mw-redirect" title="Health Threat Unit (European Commission)">Health Threat Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_Response_Network" title="Laboratory Response Network">Laboratory Response Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Biodefense_Analysis_and_Countermeasures_Center" title="National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center">National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Science_Advisory_Board_for_Biosecurity" title="National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity">National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Disarmament_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs">United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Research_Institute_of_Infectious_Diseases" title="United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases">United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">Anthrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_pseudomallei" title="Burkholderia pseudomallei">Burkholderia pseudomallei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydophila_psittaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila psittaci">Chlamydophila psittaci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coxiella_burnetii" title="Coxiella burnetii">Coxiella burnetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a></li> <li>Equine encephalitis <small>(<a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern equine encephalitis virus">Eastern</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">Western</a></small></li> <li><small><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">Glanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_disease" title="Legionnaires' disease">Legionnaires' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">Marburg virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">Mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmonella_enterica" title="Salmonella enterica">Salmonella enterica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">Salmonellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">Salmonella typhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">Typhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agro-terrorism" title="Agro-terrorism">Agro-terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrax_hoaxes" title="Anthrax hoaxes">Anthrax hoaxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychochemical_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychochemical weapon">Psychochemical weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocontainment" title="Biocontainment">Biocontainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare_in_popular_culture" title="Biological warfare in popular culture">Biological warfare in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_decontamination" title="Human decontamination">Decontamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infectious disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1540" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Bioterrorism">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bioterrorism">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Bioterrorism">Wikisource</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Toxicology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Toxicology" title="Template:Toxicology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Toxicology" title="Template talk:Toxicology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Toxicology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Toxicology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_toxicology" title="Occupational toxicology">Occupational toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomotoxicology" title="Entomotoxicology">Entomotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Medical toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_toxicology" title="In vitro toxicology">In vitro toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">Acute toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-dose_procedure" title="Fixed-dose procedure">Fixed-dose procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">Lethal dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_capacity" title="Toxic capacity">Toxic capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity_class" title="Toxicity class">Toxicity class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">Venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antidote" title="Antidote">Antidote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathartic" title="Cathartic">Cathartic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_lavage" title="Gastric lavage">Gastric lavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">Hemodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoperfusion" title="Hemoperfusion">Hemoperfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">Whole bowel irrigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">2007 pet food recalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niigata_Minamata_disease" title="Niigata Minamata disease">Niigata Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko" title="Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko">Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seveso_disaster" title="Seveso disaster">Seveso disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumption_of_Tide_Pods" title="Consumption of Tide Pods">Consumption of Tide Pods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visakhapatnam_gas_leak" title="Visakhapatnam gas leak">Visakhapatnam gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Aqaba_toxic_gas_leak" title="2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak">2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of poisonings">List of poisonings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">Hazard symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extremely hazardous substances">List of extremely hazardous substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">Mutagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tribulation_rapture" title="Post-tribulation rapture">Post-tribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_doomsday_devices" title="List of fictional doomsday devices">List of fictional doomsday devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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<span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8242560#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4145628-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85014201">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11958790j">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11958790j">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="biologická válka"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph200818&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Guerra biológica"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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