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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the term for a practician of intellect. For the process of developing intellect, see <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectualism</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Intellectual" title="Special:EditPage/Intellectual">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Intellectual%22">"Intellectual"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Intellectual%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Intellectual%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Intellectual%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Intellectual%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Intellectual%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> An intellectual is a person who engages in <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical thinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_self-reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Human self-reflection">reflection</a> about the <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> of society, and who proposes solutions for its <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> problems.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Coming from the world of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting, producing or extending an <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, and by defending a system of <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/165px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/248px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/330px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (c. 470 – 399 BC)</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/200px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/300px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/400px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2290"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erasmus_of_Rotterdam" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasmus of Rotterdam">Erasmus of Rotterdam</a> was one of the foremost intellectuals of his time.</figcaption></figure> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymological_background">1 Etymological background</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#%22Man_of_letters%22">1.1 "Man of letters"</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#%22Intellectual%22">1.2 "Intellectual"</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Historical_uses">2 Historical uses</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Public_intellectual">3 Public intellectual</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Public_engagement">3.1 Public engagement</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Public_policy">3.2 Public policy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Intellectual_status_class">4 Intellectual status class</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Latin_America">4.1 Latin America</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#United_States">4.2 United States</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Criticism">5 Criticism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References">6 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Bibliography">6.1 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#External_links">8 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Etymological_background">Etymological background</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymological background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='"Man_of_letters"'>"Man of letters"</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=2" title='Edit section: "Man of letters"' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The term "man of letters" derives from the French term <a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belletrist</a> or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic".<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> A "man of letters" was a literate man, able to read and write, and thus highly valued in the upper strata of society in a time when <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> was rare. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist(s) came to be applied to the literati: the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Letters" title="Republic of Letters">Republic of Letters</a>, which evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a>, a social institution, usually run by a hostess, meant for the edification, education, and cultural refinement of the participants. In the late 19th century, when literacy was relatively common in European countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the "Man of Letters" (littérateur)<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> denotation broadened to mean "specialized", a man who earned his living writing intellectually (not creatively) about literature: the <a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essayist</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalist</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Critic" title="Critic">critic</a>, et al. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a>. In the 20th century, such an approach was gradually superseded by the academic method, and the term "Man of Letters" became disused, replaced by the generic term "intellectual", describing the intellectual person. The archaic term is the basis of the names of several academic institutions which call themselves <a href="/wiki/College_of_Letters_and_Science_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="College of Letters and Science (disambiguation)">Colleges of Letters and Science</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='"Intellectual"'>"Intellectual"</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=3" title='Edit section: "Intellectual"' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, <a href="/wiki/Byron" class="mw-redirect" title="Byron">Byron</a> reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'.<a href="#cite_note-Collini-7">[7]</a>: 18 Over the course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun (intellectuels) formed from the adjective intellectuel appeared with higher frequency in the literature.<a href="#cite_note-Collini-7">[7]</a>: 20 Collini writes about this time that "[a]mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of 'intellectuals' as a plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions."<a href="#cite_note-Collini-7">[7]</a>: 20 In early 19th-century Britain, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> coined the term clerisy, the intellectual class responsible for upholding and maintaining the national culture, the secular equivalent of the Anglican clergy. Likewise, in <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsarist</a> Russia, there arose the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a> (1860s–1870s), who were the <a href="/wiki/Status_group" title="Status group">status class</a> of <a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">white-collar</a> workers. For Germany, the theologian <a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">Alister McGrath</a> said that "the emergence of a socially alienated, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologically</a> literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in the 1830s".<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>: 53 An intellectual class in Europe was socially important, especially to self-styled intellectuals, whose participation in society's arts, politics, journalism, and education—of either <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalist</a>, or ethnic sentiment—constitute "vocation of the intellectual". Moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities (the academy) being synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectualism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg/170px-J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2197"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg/170px-J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg/255px-J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg/340px-J%E2%80%99accuse.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The front page of <a href="/wiki/L%27Aurore" title="L'Aurore">L'Aurore</a> (13 January 1898) featured <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a>'s open letter <a href="/wiki/J%27Accuse%E2%80%A6!" class="mw-redirect" title="J'Accuse…!">J'Accuse…!</a> asking the French President <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Faure" title="Félix Faure">Félix Faure</a> to resolve the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a>.</figcaption></figure> In France, the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a> (1894–1906), an identity crisis of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> nationalism for the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> (1870–1940), marked the full emergence of the "intellectual in public life", especially <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Émile Zola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Octave_Mirbeau" title="Octave Mirbeau">Octave Mirbeau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">Anatole France</a> directly addressing the matter of French <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> to the public; thenceforward, "intellectual" became common, yet initially derogatory, usage; its French noun usage is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> in 1898. Nevertheless, by 1930 the term "intellectual" passed from its earlier pejorative associations and restricted usages to a widely accepted term and it was because of the Dreyfus Affair that the term also acquired generally accepted use in English.<a href="#cite_note-Collini-7">[7]</a>: 21 In the 20th century, the term intellectual acquired positive connotations of <a href="/wiki/Reputation" title="Reputation">social prestige</a>, derived from possessing <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>, especially when the intellectual's activities exerted positive consequences in the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a> and so increased the intellectual understanding of the public, by means of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> responsibility, <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">solidarity</a>, without resorting to the <a href="/wiki/Psychological_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological manipulation">manipulations</a> of <a href="/wiki/Demagoguery" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagoguery">demagoguery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">paternalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incivility" title="Incivility">incivility</a> (condescension).<a href="#cite_note-Williams1983-9">[9]</a>: 169 The sociologist <a href="/wiki/Frank_Furedi" title="Frank Furedi">Frank Furedi</a> said that "Intellectuals are not defined according to the jobs they do, but [by] the manner in which they act, the way they see themselves, and the [social and political] values that they uphold.<a href="#cite_note-Furedi2004-10">[10]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a>, as a descriptive term of person, personality, and profession, the word intellectual identifies three traits: <ol><li>Educated; erudition for developing theories;</li> <li>Productive; creates <a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a> in the fields of philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, law, medicine, and science, etc.; and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">Artistic</a>; creates art in <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musical_composition" title="Musical composition">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li></ol> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Historical_uses">Historical uses</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Historical uses" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> In <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin language</a>, at least starting from the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, intellectuals could be called litterati, a term which is sometimes applied today.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The word intellectual is found in Indian scripture <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> in the Bachelorette meeting (Swayamvara Sava) of <a href="/wiki/Draupadi" title="Draupadi">Draupadi</a>. Immediately after <a href="/wiki/Arjuna" title="Arjuna">Arjuna</a> and Raja-Maharaja (kings-emperors) came to the meeting, Nipuna Buddhijibina (perfect intellectuals) appeared at the meeting.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a> in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">Scholar-officials</a> ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a>, and were often also skilled <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> philosophers. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>: 22 </blockquote> In <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon Korea</a> (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as the <a href="/wiki/Chungin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chungin">chungin</a> (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a>, composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>: 73–4 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Public_intellectual">Public intellectual</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Public intellectual" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><noscript><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" data-alt="video icon" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?163104-1/role-intellectuals-public-life">"Role of Intellectuals in Public Life", panel featuring Michael Ignatieff, Russell Jacoby, Roger Kimball, Susie Linfield, Alex Star, Ellen Willis and Alan Wolfe, March 1, 2001</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the public-affairs <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> of society, in addition to an academic career.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Regardless of their <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academic</a> fields or <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">professional</a> expertise, public intellectuals address and respond to the <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> problems of society, and, as such, are expected to be impartial critics who can "rise above the partial preoccupation of one's own profession—and engage with the global issues of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, judgment, and <a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">taste</a> of the time".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Furedi2004-10">[10]</a>: 32 In Representations of the Intellectual (1994), <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Saïd</a> said that the "true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society".<a href="#cite_note-Jennings-16">[16]</a>: 1–2 Public intellectuals usually arise from the educated élite of a society, although the North American usage of the term intellectual includes the university academics.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The difference between intellectual and academic is participation in the realm of public affairs.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>' Structural Transformation of Public Sphere (1963) made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private and public. Controversial, in the same year, was <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</a>'s definition: "As the court-<a href="/wiki/Jester" title="Jester">jesters</a> of modern society, all intellectuals have the duty to doubt everything that is obvious, to make relative all authority, to ask all those questions that no one else dares to ask".<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>: 51 An intellectual usually is associated with an <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> or with a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The Czech intellectual <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a> said that politics and intellectuals can be linked, but that moral responsibility for the intellectual's ideas, even when advocated by a politician, remains with the intellectual. Therefore, it is best to avoid <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopian</a> intellectuals who offer 'universal insights' to resolve the problems of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> with <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policies</a> that might harm and that have harmed civil society; that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights and ideas; and should be heard as social critics of <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jennings-16">[16]</a>: 13 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_engagement">Public engagement</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Public engagement" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The determining factor for a "thinker" (historian, philosopher, scientist, writer, artist) to be considered a public intellectual is the degree to which the individual is <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">implicated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">engaged</a> with the vital reality of the contemporary world, i.e. participation in the public affairs of society. Consequently, being designated as a public intellectual is determined by the degree of influence of the designator's <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivations</a>, opinions, and options of action (social, political, ideological), and by affinity with the given thinker.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After the failure of the large-scale <a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a> movement in France, intellectuals within the country were often maligned for having specific areas of expertise while discussing general subjects like democracy. Intellectuals increasingly claimed to be within marginalized groups rather than their spokespeople, and centered their activism on the social problems relevant to their areas of expertise (such as gender relations in the case of psychologists). A similar shift occurred in China after the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests">Tiananmen Square Massacre</a> from the "universal intellectual" (who plans better futures from within academia) to minjian ("grassroots") intellectuals, the latter group represented by such figures as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xiaobo" title="Wang Xiaobo">Wang Xiaobo</a>, social scientist <a href="/wiki/Yu_Jianrong" title="Yu Jianrong">Yu Jianrong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yanhuang_Chunqiu" title="Yanhuang Chunqiu">Yanhuang Chunqiu</a> editor Ding Dong (丁東).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_policy">Public policy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Public policy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the matters of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">public policy</a>, the public intellectual connects scholarly research to the practical matters of solving societal problems. The British sociologist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Michael Burawoy</a>, an exponent of <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a>, said that professional sociology has failed by giving insufficient attention to resolving social problems, and that a dialogue between the academic and the layman would bridge the gap.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] An example is how <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chilean</a> intellectuals worked to reestablish <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right-wing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberal</a> governments of the <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_of_Chile_(1973%E2%80%9390)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90)">military dictatorship of 1973–1990</a>, the Pinochet régime allowed professional opportunities for some liberal and left-wing social scientists to work as politicians and as consultants in effort to realize the theoretical economics of the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Boys" title="Chicago Boys">Chicago Boys</a>, but their access to <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> was contingent upon political <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a>, abandoning the political neutrality of the academic intellectual.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Sociological_Imagination" title="The Sociological Imagination">The Sociological Imagination</a> (1959), <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">C. Wright Mills</a> said that academics had become ill-equipped for participating in public discourse, and that journalists usually are "more politically alert and knowledgeable than sociologists, economists, and especially ... political scientists".<a href="#cite_note-Mills-24">[24]</a>: 99 That, because the universities of the U.S. are bureaucratic, private businesses, they "do not teach <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical reasoning</a> to the student", who then does not know "how to gauge what is going on in the general struggle for power in modern society".<a href="#cite_note-Mills-24">[24]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> criticized the quality of participation of intellectuals in public discourse as an example of the "civic irresponsibility of <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellect</a>, especially academic intellect".<a href="#cite_note-Bender-25">[25]</a>: 142 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><noscript><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" data-alt="video icon" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?169625-1/public-intellectuals">Booknotes interview with Posner on Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline, June 2, 2002</a>, <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The American legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a> said that the participation of academic public intellectuals in the public life of society is characterized by logically untidy and politically biased statements of the kind that would be unacceptable to academia. He concluded that there are few ideologically and politically independent public intellectuals, and disapproved public intellectuals who limit themselves to practical matters of public policy, and not with <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">values</a> or <a href="/wiki/Public_philosophy" title="Public philosophy">public philosophy</a>, or public <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Public_theology" title="Public theology">public theology</a>, nor with matters of moral and spiritual outrage. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Intellectual_status_class">Intellectual status class</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intellectual status class" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">Intelligentsia</a></div> Socially, intellectuals constitute the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Status_group" title="Status group">status class</a> organised either by <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">revolutionary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>), or by nationality (American intellectuals, French intellectuals, Ibero–American intellectuals, et al.). The term intelligentsiya originated from <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Tsarist Russia</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1860s–1870s), where it denotes the <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratum</a> of those possessing intellectual formation (schooling, education), and who were Russian society's counterpart to the German <a href="/wiki/Bildungsb%C3%BCrgertum" title="Bildungsbürgertum">Bildungsbürgertum</a> and to the French bourgeoisie éclairée, the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">enlightened middle classes</a> of those realms.<a href="#cite_note-Williams1983-9">[9]</a>: 169–71 In <a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxist philosophy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> function of the intellectuals (the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>) is to be the source of progressive ideas for the transformation of society: providing advice and counsel to the political leaders, interpreting the country's politics to the mass of the population (urban workers and peasants). In the pamphlet <a href="/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F" title="What Is to Be Done?">What Is to Be Done?</a> (1902), <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> (1870–1924) said that <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">vanguard-party revolution</a> required the participation of the intellectuals to explain the complexities of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> ideology to the uneducated <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> and the urban industrial workers in order to integrate them to the revolution because "the history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own efforts, is able to develop only <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade-union</a> consciousness" and will settle for the limited, socio-economic gains so achieved. In Russia as in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a>, socialist theory was the product of the "educated representatives of the propertied classes", of "revolutionary socialist intellectuals", such as were Karl Marx and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>: 31, 137–8 The Hungarian Marxist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a> (1885–1971) identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers and peasants the "Who?", the "How?" and the "Why?" of the social, economic and political <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a>—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The Italian communist theoretician <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> (1891–1937) developed <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere. That because "all knowledge is <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentially</a>-based", the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are "spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests". That intellectuals occur in each social class and throughout the <a href="/wiki/Right-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing">right-wing</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">centre</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Left-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing">left-wing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">political spectrum</a> and that as a social class the "intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling class</a>" of their society. Addressing their role as a social class, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> said that intellectuals are the moral conscience of their age; that their moral and ethical responsibilities are to observe the socio-political moment, and to freely speak to their society, in accordance with their consciences.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>: 119 The British historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Stone" title="Norman Stone">Norman Stone</a> said that the intellectual <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> misunderstand the reality of society and so are doomed to the errors of <a href="/wiki/Logical_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacy">logical fallacy</a>, ideological stupidity, and poor planning hampered by ideology.<a href="#cite_note-Jennings-16">[16]</a> In her memoirs, the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> politician <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> wrote that the anti-monarchical <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> (1789–1799) was "a <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopian</a> attempt to overthrow a traditional order [...] in the name of <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">abstract ideas</a>, formulated by vain intellectuals".<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>: 753 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Latin America" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The American academic <a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Smith" title="Peter H. Smith">Peter H. Smith</a> describes the intellectuals of Latin America as people from an identifiable social class, who have been conditioned by that common experience and thus are inclined to share a set of <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">common assumptions</a> (values and ethics); that ninety-four per cent of intellectuals come either from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> or from the <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a> and that only six per cent come from the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>. <a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Steve_Fuller_(sociologist)" title="Steve Fuller (sociologist)">Steven Fuller</a> said that because <a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a> confers <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> and social status as a status group they must be autonomous in order to be credible as intellectuals: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It is relatively easy to demonstrate autonomy, if you come from a wealthy or [an] <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocratic</a> background. You simply need to disown your <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">status</a> and champion the poor and [the] downtrodden [...]. [A]utonomy is much harder to demonstrate if you come from a poor or <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletarian</a> background [...], [thus] calls to join the wealthy in common cause appear to betray one's class origins. <a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>: 113–4 </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg/170px-Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="913"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 221px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg/170px-Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="221" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg/255px-Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg/340px-Edwards_Amasa_Park.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Congregational theologian <a href="/wiki/Edwards_Amasa_Park" title="Edwards Amasa Park">Edwards Amasa Park</a> proposed segregating the intellectuals from the public sphere of society in the United States.</figcaption></figure> The 19th-century U.S. <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a> theologian <a href="/wiki/Edwards_Amasa_Park" title="Edwards Amasa Park">Edwards Amasa Park</a> said: "We do wrong to our own minds, when we carry out scientific difficulties down to the arena of popular dissension".<a href="#cite_note-Bender-25">[25]</a>: 12 In his view, it was necessary for the sake of social, economic and political stability "to separate the serious, <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">technical role</a> of professionals from their responsibility [for] supplying <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">usable philosophies</a> for the general public". This expresses a dichotomy, derived from Plato, between public knowledge and private knowledge, "civic culture" and "professional culture", the <a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">intellectual sphere of life</a> and the life of ordinary people in society.<a href="#cite_note-Bender-25">[25]</a>: 12 In the United States, members of the intellectual status class have been <a href="/wiki/Demographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographic">demographically</a> characterized as people who hold <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a>-to-<a href="/wiki/Leftist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leftist">leftist</a> political perspectives about <a href="/wiki/Guns_versus_butter_model" title="Guns versus butter model">guns-or-butter</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In "The Intellectuals and Socialism" (1949), <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> wrote that "journalists, teachers, ministers, lecturers, publicists, radio commentators, writers of fiction, cartoonists, and artists" form an intellectual social class whose function is to communicate the complex and specialized knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a> to the general public. He argued that intellectuals were attracted to <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> because the socialists offered "broad visions; the spacious comprehension of the social order, as a whole, which a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned system</a> promises" and that such broad-vision philosophies "succeeded in inspiring the imagination of the intellectuals" to change and improve their societies.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> According to Hayek, intellectuals disproportionately support socialism for idealistic and utopian reasons that cannot be realized in practice.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criticism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2994"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Milton_Friedman.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> identified the intelligentsia and the business class as interfering with capitalism.</figcaption></figure> The French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> noted that "the Intellectual is someone who meddles in what does not concern them" (L'intellectuel est quelqu'un qui se mêle de ce qui ne le regarde pas).<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>: 588–9 <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> expressed the view that "intellectuals are specialists in <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a>, they are basically <a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">political commissars</a>, they are the ideological administrators, the most threatened by <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissidence</a>."<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In his 1967 article "<a href="/wiki/The_Responsibility_of_Intellectuals" title="The Responsibility of Intellectuals">The Responsibility of Intellectuals</a>", Chomsky analyzes the intellectual culture in the U.S., and argues that it is largely subservient to <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>. He is particularly critical of <a href="/wiki/Social_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Science">social scientists</a> and technocrats, who provide a <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-science" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-science">pseudo-scientific</a> justification for the <a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">crimes of the state</a>. In "An Interview with Milton Friedman" (1974), the American economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> said that <a href="/wiki/Businessmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Businessmen">businessmen</a> and intellectuals are enemies of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>: most intellectuals believed in socialism while businessmen expected economic privileges. In his essay "Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?" (1998), the American <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">libertarian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a> argued that intellectuals become embittered leftists because their superior intellectual work, much rewarded at school and at university, are undervalued and underpaid in the capitalist <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>. Thus, intellectuals turn against capitalism despite enjoying more socioeconomic status than the average person.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</a> economist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> wrote in his book <a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010) that intellectuals, who are producers of knowledge, not material goods, tend to speak outside their own areas of expertise, and yet expect social and professional benefits from the <a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">halo effect</a> derived from possessing professional expertise. In relation to other professions, public intellectuals are socially detached from the negative and <a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequences" title="Unintended consequences">unintended consequences</a> of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> derived from their ideas. Sowell gives the example of <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (1872–1970), who advised the British government against national rearmament in the years before the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>: 218–276 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The New Fontana dictionary of Modern Thought Third Edition, A. Bullock & S. Trombley, Eds. (1999) p. 433. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Jennings, Jeremy and Kemp-Welch, Tony. "The Century of the Intellectual: From Dreyfus to Salman Rushdie", Intellectuals in Politics, Routledge: New York (1997) p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pascal_Ory" title="Pascal Ory">Ory, Pascal</a> and Sirinelli, Jean-François. Les Intellectuels en France. De l’affaire Dreyfus à nos jours (The Intellectuals in France: From the Dreyfus Affair to Our Days), Paris: Armand Colin, 2002, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> The Oxford English Reference Dictionary Second Edition, (1996) p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> The New Cassel's French–English, English–French Dictionary (1962) p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"Littérateur, n.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/109241">Discover the Story of English</a> (Second (1989) ed.). 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Retrieved 14 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+Praises+Science%3B+Scientists+Fault+Public%2C+Media%3A+Section+4%3A+Scientists%2C+Politics+and+Religion+%E2%80%93+Pew+Research+Center+for+the+People+%26+the+Press&rft.pub=People-press.org&rft.date=2009-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople-press.org%2Freport%2F%3Fpageid%3D1549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> "The Intellectuals and Socialism", The University of Chicago Law Review (Spring 1949) </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf">"Papers of Interest"</a> (PDF). Mises Institute. 18 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mises+Institute&rft.atitle=Papers+of+Interest&rft.date=2014-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmises.org%2Fetexts%2Fhayekintellectuals.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Annie Cohen-Solal, Sartre, Gallimard, 1989 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky2003" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (2003). Understanding Power. Penguin Books India. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143029915" title="Special:BookSources/9780143029915"><bdi>9780143029915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Power&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780143029915&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNozick1998" class="citation journal cs1">Nozick, Robert (January–February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/cpr-20n1-1.html">"Why do intellectuals oppose capitalism?"</a>. Cato Policy Report. 20 (1): 1, 9–11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cato+Policy+Report&rft.atitle=Why+do+intellectuals+oppose+capitalism%3F&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1%2C+9-11&rft.date=1998-01%2F1998-02&rft.aulast=Nozick&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fpubs%2Fpolicy_report%2Fcpr-20n1-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell, Thomas</a> (2010). Intellectuals and Society. Basic Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectuals+and+Society&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron, Raymond</a> (1962) The Opium of the Intellectuals. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.</li> <li>Basov, Nikita et al. (2010). The Intellectual: A Phenomenon in Multidimensional Perspectives, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/ikp3ever10607101.pdf">Inter-Disciplinary Press</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035614/http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/ikp3ever10607101.pdf">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Bates, David, ed., (2007). Marxism, Intellectuals and Politics. London: Palgrave.</li> <li>Benchimol, Alex. (2016) Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (London: Routledge).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Benda" title="Julien Benda">Benda, Julien</a> (2003). The Treason of the Intellectuals. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.</li> <li>Camp, Roderic (1985). Intellectuals and the State in Twentieth-Century Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Coleman" title="Peter Coleman">Coleman, Peter</a> (2010) The Last Intellectuals. Sydney: Quadrant Books.</li> <li>Di Leo, Jeffrey R., and Peter Hitchcock, eds. (2016) The New Public Intellectual: Politics, Theory, and the Public Sphere. (Springer).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Finkielkraut" title="Alain Finkielkraut">Finkielkraut, Alain</a> (1995). The Defeat of the Mind. Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Gella, Aleksander, Ed., (1976). The Intelligentsia and the Intellectuals. California: Sage Publication.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Ward_Gouldner" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvin Ward Gouldner">Gouldner, Alvin W.</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/futureofintellec00goulrich">The Future of the Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class.</a> New York: The Seabury Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gross" title="John Gross">Gross, John</a> (1969). The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters. New York: Macmillan.</li> <li>Huszar, George B. de, ed., (1960). The Intellectuals: A Controversial Portrait. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Anthology with many contributors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson, Paul</a> (1990). Intellectuals. New York: Harper Perennial <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-091657-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-091657-5">0-06-091657-5</a>. Highly ideological criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Shelley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Ibsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Hemingway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Wilson" title="Edmund Wilson">Edmund Wilson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Gollancz" title="Victor Gollancz">Victor Gollancz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hellman" title="Lillian Hellman">Lillian Hellman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Connolly" title="Cyril Connolly">Cyril Connolly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Mailer" title="Norman Mailer">Norman Mailer</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Baldwin (writer)">James Baldwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Tynan" title="Kenneth Tynan">Kenneth Tynan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, and others.</li> <li>Kennedy, Michael D. (2015). Globalizing knowledge: Intellectuals, universities and publics in transformation (Stanford University Press). 424pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sfu.ca/cjhe/index.php/cjhe/article/viewFile/187569/pdf">online review</a>.</li> <li>Konrad, George et al. (1979). The Intellectuals On The Road To Class Power. Sussex: Harvester Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch, Christopher</a> (1997). The New Radicalism in America, 1889–1963: The Intellectual as a Social Type. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.</li> <li>Lemert, Charles (1991). Intellectuals and Politics. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.</li> <li>McCaughan, Michael (2000). True Crime: Rodolfo Walsh and the Role of the Intellectual in Latin American Politics. Latin America Bureau <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-899365-43-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-899365-43-5">1-899365-43-5</a>.</li> <li>Michael, John (2000). Anxious Intellects: Academic Professionals, Public Intellectuals, and Enlightenment Values. Duke University Press.</li> <li>Misztal, Barbara A. (2007). Intellectuals and the Public Good. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar, Thomas</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.49015000956855">The Decline of the Intellectual.</a> Cleveland: The World Publishing Company.</li> <li>Piereson, James (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141105013200/http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/miarticle.htm?id=5759#.VFk6s2fYvKc">"The Rise & Fall of the Intellectual,"</a> The New Criterion, Vol. XXV, p. 52.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Posner" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Posner">Posner, Richard A.</a> (2002). Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01246-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01246-1">0-674-01246-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Rieff" title="Philip Rieff">Rieff, Philip</a>, Ed., (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/onintellectualst00riefrich">On Intellectuals</a>. New York: Doubleday & Co.</li> <li>Sawyer, S., and Iain Stewart, eds. (2016) In Search of the Liberal Moment: Democracy, Anti-totalitarianism, and Intellectual Politics in France since 1950 (Springer).</li> <li>Showalter, Elaine (2001). Inventing Herself: Claiming A Feminist Intellectual Heritage. London: Picador.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Viereck" title="Peter Viereck">Viereck, Peter</a> (1953). Shame and Glory of the Intellectuals. Boston: Beacon Press.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aczél, Tamás & <a href="/wiki/Tibor_M%C3%A9ray" title="Tibor Méray">Méray, Tibor</a>. (1959) The Revolt of the Mind. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun, Jacques</a> (1959). The House of Intellect. New York: Harper.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berman" title="Paul Berman">Berman, Paul</a> (2010). The Flight of the Intellectuals. New York: Melville House.</li> <li>Carey, John (2005). The Intellectuals And The Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939. Chicago Review Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a> (1968). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals." In: The Dissenting Academy, ed. Theolord Roszak. New York: Pantheon Books, pp. 254–298.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">Grayling, A.C.</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/public-intellectual-world-thinkers-ac-grayling/">"Do Public Intellectuals Matter?,"</a> Prospect Magazine, No. 206.</li> <li>Hamburger, Joseph (1966). Intellectuals in Politics. New Haven: Yale University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek, F.A.</a> (1949). "The Intellectuals and Socialism," The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. XVI, No. 3, pp. 417–433.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Huizinga" title="Johan Huizinga">Huizinga, Johan</a> (1936). In the Shadows of Tomorrow. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.</li> <li>Kidder, David S., Oppenheim, Noah D., (2006). <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Intellectual_Devotional&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Intellectual Devotional (page does not exist)">The Intellectual Devotional</a>. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Books <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59486-513-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-59486-513-2">1-59486-513-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laruelle" title="François Laruelle">Laruelle, François</a> (2014). Intellectuals and Power. Cambridge: Polity Press.</li> <li>Lilla, Mark (2003). The Reckless Mind – Intellectuals in Politics. New York: New York Review Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lukacs" title="John Lukacs">Lukacs, John A.</a> (1958). "Intellectuals, Catholics, and the Intellectual Life," Modern Age, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 40–53.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Mac_Donald" title="Heather Mac Donald">MacDonald, Heather</a> (2001). The Burden of Bad Ideas. New York: Ivan R. Dee.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czeslaw_Milosz" class="mw-redirect" title="Czeslaw Milosz">Milosz, Czeslaw</a> (1990). <a href="/wiki/The_Captive_Mind" title="The Captive Mind">The Captive Mind</a>. New York: Vintage Books.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Molnar" title="Thomas Molnar">Molnar, Thomas</a> (1958). "Intellectuals, Experts, and the Classless Society," Modern Age, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 33–39.</li> <li>Moses, A. Dirk (2009) German Intellectuals and the Nazi Past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard, Murray N.</a> (1989). "World War I as Fulfillment: Power and the Intellectuals," The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 81–125.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gis%C3%A8le_Sapiro" title="Gisèle Sapiro">Sapiro, Gisèle</a>. (2014). The French Writers' War 1940–1953 (1999; English edition 2014); highly influential study of intellectuals in the French Resistance <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-france.net/vol15reviews/vol15no68atack.pdf">online review</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Salwyn_Schapiro" title="J. Salwyn Schapiro">Shapiro, J. Salwyn</a> (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/atlanticmonthly04unkngoog#page/n826/mode/2up">"The Revolutionary Intellectual,"</a> The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CXXV, pp. 320–330.</li> <li>Shenfield, Arthur A. (1970). "The Ugly Intellectual," The Modern Age, Vol. XVI, No. 1, pp. 9–14.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Shlapentokh" title="Vladimir Shlapentokh">Shlapentokh, Vladimir</a> (1990) Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marci_Shore" title="Marci Shore">Shore, Marci</a> (2009). Caviar and Ashes. New Haven: Yale University Press.</li> <li>Small, Helen (2002). The Public Intellectual. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_Strunsky" title="Simeon Strunsky">Strunsky, Simeon</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924057673398;view=1up;seq=162">"Intellectuals and Highbrows,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924057673398;view=1up;seq=206">Part II</a>, Vanity Fair, Vol. XV, pp. 52, 92.</li> <li>Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-08-01). "The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part One". Contemporary Review.</li> <li>Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-10-01). "The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part Two". Contemporary Review.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wolin" title="Richard Wolin">Wolin, Richard</a> (2010). The Wind from the East: French Intellectuals, the Culture Revolution and the Legacy of the 1960s. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Intellectual&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intellectual" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:intellectual">intellectual</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/literati" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:literati">literati</a>, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/public_intellectual" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:public intellectual">public intellectual</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 34px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="34" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intellectual" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Intellectual">Intellectual</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chomsky.info/19670223/">The Responsibility of Intellectuals</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, 23 February 1967.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150922083823/http://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf">"Richard Posner's table of 600+ public intellectuals"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richard+Posner%27s+table+of+600%2B+public+intellectuals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.uchicago.edu%2F~rposner%2FTABLE%2520II.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"> (105 KB) classified by profession, discipline, scholastic citations, media affiliation, number of web hits and sex.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Laura_Barton" title="Laura Barton">Barton, Laura</a> (2 July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jul/02/britishidentity.gender">"Here's a Few You Missed"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Here%27s+a+Few+You+Missed&rft.date=2004-07-02&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fuk%2F2004%2Fjul%2F02%2Fbritishidentity.gender&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newhavenadvocate.com/arts-literature-articles/the-optimist-s-book-club-040596">"The Optimist's Book Club"</a>, The New Haven Advocate—discussion of public intellectuals in the 21st century.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D9%83%D8%B1" title="مفكر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مفكر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ntellektual" title="İntellektual – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İntellektual" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80" title="বুদ্ধিজীবী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বুদ্ধিজীবী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel%C2%B7lectual" title="Intel·lectual – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Intel·lectual" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektu%C3%A1l" title="Intelektuál – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Intelektuál" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuel" title="Intellektuel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Intellektuel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektueller" title="Intellektueller – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Intellektueller" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelectual" title="Intelectual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Intelectual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektulo" title="Intelektulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Intelektulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%86%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="روشنفکر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روشنفکر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectuel" title="Intellectuel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Intellectuel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelectual" title="Intelectual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Intelectual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9D%EC%9D%B8" title="지식인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지식인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF" title="बुद्धजीवि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बुद्धजीवि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualac" title="Intelektualac – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Intelektualac" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektual" title="Intelektual – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Intelektual" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellettuale" title="Intellettuale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Intellettuale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C" title="אינטלקטואל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אינטלקטואל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF" title="ಬುದ್ಧಿಜೀವಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬುದ್ಧಿಜೀವಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entelekty%C3%A8l" title="Entelektyèl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Entelektyèl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rew%C5%9Fenb%C3%AEr" title="Rewşenbîr – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Rewşenbîr" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualas" title="Intelektualas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Intelektualas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cendekiawan" title="Cendekiawan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cendekiawan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectueel_(persoon)" title="Intellectueel (persoon) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Intellectueel (persoon)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E4%BA%BA" title="知識人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="知識人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuell" title="Intellektuell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Intellektuell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuell" title="Intellektuell – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Intellektuell" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%95" title="ਚਿੰਤਕ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚਿੰਤਕ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AC%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سوجھوان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سوجھوان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%BC_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="روڼ اندي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="روڼ اندي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualista" title="Intelektualista – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Intelektualista" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelectual" title="Intelectual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Intelectual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelectual" title="Intelectual – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Intelectual" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Интеллектуал – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Интеллектуал" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektuali" title="Intelektuali – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Intelektuali" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Intellectual" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektu%C3%A1l" title="Intelektuál – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Intelektuál" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javni_intelektualec" title="Javni intelektualec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Javni intelektualec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86" title="Интелектуалац – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Интелектуалац" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualac" title="Intelektualac – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Intelektualac" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84lymyst%C3%B6" title="Älymystö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Älymystö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuell" title="Intellektuell – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Intellektuell" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%80" title="Равшанфикр – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Равшанфикр" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entelekt%C3%BCel" title="Entelektüel – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Entelektüel" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Інтелектуал – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інтелектуал" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%AD_th%E1%BB%A9c" title="Trí thức – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trí thức" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="דענקער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="דענקער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E4%BB%BD%E5%AD%90" title="知識份子 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="知識份子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="知识分子 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="知识分子" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 December 2024, at 20:07 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 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