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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drought_and_dust_storms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Drought and dust storms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drought_and_dust_storms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_displacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_displacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Human displacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_displacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_in_agriculture_and_population_on_the_Plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_agriculture_and_population_on_the_Plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Changes in agriculture and population on the Plains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_agriculture_and_population_on_the_Plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Government response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_economic_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_economic_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Long-term economic impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_economic_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_the_arts_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_the_arts_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Influence on the arts and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_the_arts_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentary_films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentary_films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Documentary films</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentary_films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dust Bowl</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="قصعة الغبار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قصعة الغبار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tozlu_tufanlar" title="Tozlu tufanlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tozlu tufanlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8" title="Тусан Пырши – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тусан Пырши" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9yah%C3%ADg%C3%AD%C3%AD_nidineesdza%CA%BC" title="Kéyahígíí nidineesdzaʼ – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Kéyahígíí nidineesdzaʼ" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84_%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB" title="Νταστ Μπόουλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νταστ Μπόουλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polvosekego" title="Polvosekego – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Polvosekego" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84" title="داست بول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="داست بول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BAiche_deannaigh" title="Dúiche deannaigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dúiche deannaigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%86%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A7%E0%AB%80" title="આંધી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="આંધી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%A9%EC%A7%84" title="황진 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="황진" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%80" title="आँधी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आँधी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%92%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7" title="אגן האבק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אגן האבק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patera_Pulveris" title="Patera Pulveris – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Patera Pulveris" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%80%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A6%E3%83%AB" title="ダストボウル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ダストボウル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%91%D0%BB" title="Пыльный котёл – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пыльный котёл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prljave_tridesete" title="Prljave tridesete – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Prljave tridesete" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Пиловий казан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пиловий казан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Dust Bowl" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E8%89%B2%E9%A3%8E%E6%9A%B4%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="黑色风暴事件 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="黑色风暴事件" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Dust Bowl (disambiguation)">Dust Bowl (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg/220px-Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg/330px-Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg/440px-Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7284" data-file-height="7120" /></a><figcaption>A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in <a href="/wiki/Cimarron_County,_Oklahoma" title="Cimarron County, Oklahoma">Cimarron County, Oklahoma</a>, April 1936. Iconic photo entitled "<a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl_Cimarron_County,_Oklahoma" title="Dust Bowl Cimarron County, Oklahoma">Dust Bowl Cimarron County, Oklahoma</a>" taken by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rothstein" title="Arthur Rothstein">Arthur Rothstein</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl,_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._(NRCS_SSRA-RAD).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg/350px-Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg/525px-Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg/700px-Map_of_states_and_counties_affected_by_the_Dust_Bowl%2C_sourced_from_US_federal_government_dept._%28NRCS_SSRA-RAD%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="691" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Map of states and <a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a> affected by the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938, originally prepared by the <a href="/wiki/Soil_Conservation_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Conservation Service">Soil Conservation Service</a>. The most severely affected counties during this period are colored <span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="Dark Red"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#d88373;color:inherit;"> </span></span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Dust Bowl</b> was the result of a period of severe <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storms</a> that greatly damaged the ecology and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> of the American and Canadian <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairies</a> during the 1930s. The phenomenon was caused by a combination of natural factors (severe <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>) and human-made factors: a failure to apply <a href="/wiki/Dryland_farming" title="Dryland farming">dryland farming</a> methods to prevent <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">wind erosion</a>, most notably the destruction of the natural <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> by settlers in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-whatwelearned_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatwelearned-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drought came in three waves: <a href="/wiki/1934%E2%80%9335_North_American_drought" title="1934–35 North American drought">1934</a>, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the <a href="/wiki/High_Plains_(United_States)" title="High Plains (United States)">High Plains</a> experienced drought conditions for as long as eight years.<sup id="cite_ref-drought_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drought-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, including <a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a>'s 1939 novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath" title="The Grapes of Wrath">The Grapes of Wrath</a></i>, the folk music of <a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Woody Guthrie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>'s photographs depicting the conditions of migrants, particularly <i><a href="/wiki/Migrant_Mother" title="Migrant Mother">Migrant Mother</a></i>, taken in 1936. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_characteristics_and_early_history">Geographic characteristics and early history</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford,_Texas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/260px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/390px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg/520px-Dust_storm_approaching_Stratford%2C_Texas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3248" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption>A dust storm approaches <a href="/wiki/Stratford,_Texas" title="Stratford, Texas">Stratford, Texas</a>, in 1935.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the <a href="/wiki/100th_meridian_west" title="100th meridian west">100th meridian</a> on the <a href="/wiki/High_Plains_(United_States)" title="High Plains (United States)">High Plains</a>, characterized by plains that vary from rolling in the north to flat in the <a href="/wiki/Llano_Estacado" title="Llano Estacado">Llano Estacado</a>. Elevation ranges from 2,500 ft (760 m) in the east to 6,000 ft (1,800 m) at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>. The area is <a href="/wiki/Semiarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiarid">semiarid</a>, receiving less than 20 in (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the <a href="/wiki/Shortgrass_prairie" title="Shortgrass prairie">shortgrass prairie</a> biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During early European and American exploration of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the <a href="/wiki/Great_American_Desert" title="Great American Desert">Great American Desert</a>. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for <a href="/wiki/Plantation_(settlement_or_colony)" title="Plantation (settlement or colony)">pioneer settlement</a> and agriculture. </p><p>The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the <a href="/wiki/Homestead_Act_of_1862" class="mw-redirect" title="Homestead Act of 1862">Homestead Act of 1862</a>, offering settlers "<a href="/wiki/Section_(United_States_land_surveying)" title="Section (United States land surveying)">quarter section</a>" 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> in 1865 and the completion of the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">first transcontinental railroad</a> in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains and greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Regions_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Regions-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An unusually wet period in the Great Plains <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">mistakenly led</a> settlers and the federal government to believe that "<a href="/wiki/Rain_follows_the_plow" title="Rain follows the plow">rain follows the plow</a>" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the region's climate had permanently changed.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily <a href="/wiki/Cattle_ranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattle ranch">cattle ranching</a>, the harsh winters' adverse effect on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a>, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation. </p><p>Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the U.S. government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act, granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the <a href="/wiki/Kinkaid_Act" title="Kinkaid Act">Kinkaid Act</a> (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the <a href="/wiki/Enlarged_Homestead_Act_of_1909" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909">Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909</a>. Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs. </p><p>With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive <a href="/wiki/Deep_plowing" title="Deep plowing">deep plowing</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a>' virgin <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> during the previous decade; this displaced the native, deep-rooted <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grasses</a> that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the <a href="/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combine harvester</a> contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.<sup id="cite_ref-dustbowl_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dustbowl-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a>, which prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross-country, reaching as far as the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a> and striking such cities as <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> On the plains, they often reduced visibility to three feet (1 m) or less. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in <a href="/wiki/Boise_City,_Oklahoma" title="Boise City, Oklahoma">Boise City, Oklahoma</a>, to witness the "<a href="/wiki/Black_Sunday_(storm)" title="Black Sunday (storm)">Black Sunday</a>" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, the Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.<sup id="cite_ref-srh.noaa.gov_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srh.noaa.gov-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mencken_1979_206_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mencken_1979_206-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "the Dust Bowl" originally referred to the geographical area affected by the dust, but today it usually refers to the event itself (the term "Dirty Thirties" is also sometimes used). The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100 million acres (400,000 km<sup>2</sup>) that centered on the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Panhandle" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Panhandle">Texas Panhandle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Panhandle" class="mw-redirect" title="Oklahoma Panhandle">Oklahoma Panhandle</a> and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families, who were unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, to abandon their farms, and losses reached $25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to $550 million in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these families, often called "<a href="/wiki/Okie" title="Okie">Okies</a>" because many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and other states to find that the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left. </p><p>The combined effects of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and the disruption of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Llano_Estacado" title="Llano Estacado">Llano Estacado</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_New_Mexico" title="Eastern New Mexico">eastern New Mexico</a> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, the area of farmland doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled between 1925 and 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-Regions_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Regions-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agricultural methods farmers favored during this period created the conditions for large-scale <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> under certain environmental conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-drought_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drought-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses that held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> farmers left fields bare during the winter, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and <a href="/wiki/Stubble_burning" title="Stubble burning">burned</a> the <a href="/wiki/Crop_residue" title="Crop residue">stubble</a> as a means to control weeds before planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drought_and_dust_storms">Drought and dust storms</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_storm_in_Spearman,Texas,_Wea01422.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg/220px-Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg/330px-Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg/440px-Dust_storm_in_Spearman%2CTexas%2C_Wea01422.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storm</a>; <a href="/wiki/Spearman,_Texas" title="Spearman, Texas">Spearman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, April 14, 1935</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_bowl,_Texas_Panhandle,_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg/220px-Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg/330px-Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg/440px-Dust_bowl%2C_Texas_Panhandle%2C_TX_fsa.8b27276_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7481" data-file-height="5569" /></a><figcaption>Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas, c. 1936</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15,_1935.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg/220px-U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg/330px-U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg/440px-U.S._Weather_Bureau_Surface_Analysis_at_7-00_am_CST_on_April_15%2C_1935.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1888" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>U.S. Weather Bureau Surface Analysis at 7:00 am CST on April 15, 1935, just after one of the most severe dust storms</figcaption></figure> <p>After fairly favorable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its 12 driest,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the entire region south to <a href="/wiki/West_Texas" title="West Texas">West Texas</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lacked any period of above-normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became <a href="/wiki/Friable" class="mw-redirect" title="Friable">friable</a>, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without indigenous grasses in place, the plains' high winds picked up the topsoil and created massive <a href="/wiki/Dust_storm" title="Dust storm">dust storms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The Great Plains' fine soil eroded easily and was carried east by strong continental winds. </p><p>On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> farmlands in one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dust clouds blew all the way to <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, where they deposited 12 million pounds (5,400 tonnes) of dust.<sup id="cite_ref-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monuments like the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</a> were blotted out. Dust worked its way into even the most sealed homes, leaving a coating on food, skin, and furniture.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That winter (1934–35), red snow fell on <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>. </p><p>On April 14, 1935, known as "<a href="/wiki/Black_Sunday_(storm)" title="Black Sunday (storm)">Black Sunday</a>", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The storms caused extensive damage and appeared to turn day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet (1.5 m) in front of them at certain points. Denver-based <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in <a href="/wiki/Boise_City,_Oklahoma" title="Boise City, Oklahoma">Boise City, Oklahoma</a>, that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term <i>Dust Bowl</i>; it was coined by Edward Stanley, <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas City">Kansas City</a> news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.<sup id="cite_ref-srh.noaa.gov_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-srh.noaa.gov-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mencken_1979_206_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mencken_1979_206-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there hasn't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged [sic] with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Spearman Reporter</i>, March 21, 1935<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.<sup id="cite_ref-hornbeck_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornbeck-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whatwelearned_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatwelearned-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_displacement">Human displacement</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg/220px-Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg/330px-Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg/440px-Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas%2C_South_Dakota_1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Buried machinery in a barn lot; <a href="/wiki/Dallas,_South_Dakota" title="Dallas, South Dakota">Dallas, South Dakota</a>, May 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> in the region. </p><p>In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought, which had already lasted four years.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Panhandle" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Panhandle">Texas Panhandle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Panhandle" class="mw-redirect" title="Oklahoma Panhandle">Oklahoma Panhandle</a>, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. More than 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.<sup id="cite_ref-PBS_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The severe drought and dust storms left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Americans migrated west, looking for work. Parents packed up "<a href="/wiki/Jalopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalopy">jalopies</a>" with their families and a few personal belongings and headed west.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some residents of the Plains, especially Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of <a href="/wiki/Dust_pneumonia" title="Dust pneumonia">dust pneumonia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broke,_baby_sick,_and_car_trouble!_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy,_California.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg/220px-Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg/330px-Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg/440px-Broke%2C_baby_sick%2C_and_car_trouble%21_-_Dorothea_Langes_photo_of_a_Missouri_family_of_five_in_the_vicinity_of_Tracy%2C_California.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4116" data-file-height="4336" /></a><figcaption><i>"Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!"</i> – <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>'s 1937 photo of a Missouri migrant family's jalopy stuck near <a href="/wiki/Tracy,_California" title="Tracy, California">Tracy, California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Between 1930 and 1940, about 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states.<sup id="cite_ref-worster492_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worster492-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">1849 gold rush</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, but were often generally called "<a href="/wiki/Okie" title="Okie">Okies</a>", "Arkies", or "Texies".<sup id="cite_ref-PBS2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBS2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terms such as "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be standard in the 1930s for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:On_Arizona_Highway_87,_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County,_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg/220px-On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg/330px-On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg/440px-On_Arizona_Highway_87%2C_south_of_Chandler._Maricopa_County%2C_Arizona._Children_in_a_democracy._A_migra_._._._-_NARA_-_522528.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2414" /></a><figcaption>A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field</figcaption></figure> <p>But not all migrants traveled long distances; most participated in internal state migration, moving from counties that the Dust Bowl badly impacted to other, less affected counties.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion of migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.<sup id="cite_ref-worster492_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worster492-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An examination of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">Census Bureau</a> statistics and other records, and a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, showed that only 43% of Southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly a third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some farmers had to take on unskilled labor when they moved; leaving the farming sector commonly led to greater social mobility as there was a far greater likelihood that migrant farmers would later go into semi-skilled or high-skilled fields that paid better. Non-farmers experienced more downward occupational moves than farmers, but in most cases they were not significant enough to bring them into poverty, because high-skilled migrants were most likely to experience a downward shift into semi-skilled work. While semi-skilled work did not pay as well as high-skilled work, most of these workers were not impoverished. For the most part, by the end of the Dust Bowl the migrants generally were better off than those who chose to stay behind.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Great Depression ended, some migrants moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-eighth of California's population is of Okie heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_in_agriculture_and_population_on_the_Plains">Changes in agriculture and population on the Plains</h2></div> <p>Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-hornbeck2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornbeck2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (March 2016)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The agricultural land most affected by the Dust Bowl was 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares) of land in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles. These 20 counties that the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service identified as the worst wind-eroded region were home to the majority of the Great Plains migrants during the Dust Bowl.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While migration from and between the Southern Great Plain States was greater than migration in other regions in the 1930s, the numbers of migrants from these areas had only slightly increased from the 1920s. The Dust Bowl and Great Depression thus did not trigger a mass exodus of southern migrants, but simply encouraged these migrants to keep moving where in other areas the Great Depression limited mobility due to economic issues, decreasing migration. While the population of the Great Plains did fall during the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, the drop was not caused by extreme numbers of migrants leaving the Great Plains but by of a lack of migrants moving from outside the Great Plains into the region.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_response">Government response</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg/220px-Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg/330px-Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg/440px-Resettlement_Administration_Poster_Jansen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Resettlement Administration poster by Richard H. Jansen, 1935</figcaption></figure> <p>Government's greatly expanded participation in land management and soil conservation was an important result of the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Soil_Conservation_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Conservation Service">Soil Conservation Service</a> generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a>'s Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Groups like the <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_Administration" title="Resettlement Administration">Resettlement Administration</a>, which later became the <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a>, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands if they lived in drier parts of the Plains.<sup id="cite_ref-whatwelearned_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatwelearned-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During President <a href="/wiki/First_100_days_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_presidency" class="mw-redirect" title="First 100 days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency">Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days</a> in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conserve soil</a> and restore the nation's ecological balance. Interior Secretary <a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold L. Ickes</a> established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Hammond_Bennett" title="Hugh Hammond Bennett">Hugh Hammond Bennett</a>. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">Department of Agriculture</a> and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Conservation_Service" title="Natural Resources Conservation Service">Natural Resources Conservation Service</a> (NRCS).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As part of <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> programs, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Soil_Conservation_and_Domestic_Allotment_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act">Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act</a> in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914. </p><p>To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered as part of the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">Agricultural Adjustment Act</a> (AAA). It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Surplus_Relief_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Surplus Relief Corporation">Federal Surplus Relief Corporation</a> (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. In a May 14, 1935, address to the AAA, Roosevelt said: </p> <blockquote><p>Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe needy.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1935, the federal government formed a <a href="/wiki/Drought_Relief_Service" title="Drought Relief Service">Drought Relief Service</a> (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties that were designated emergency areas for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50% were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt ordered the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> to plant the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains_Shelterbelt" title="Great Plains Shelterbelt">Great Plains Shelterbelt</a>, a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to <a href="/wiki/Abilene,_Texas" title="Abilene, Texas">Abilene, Texas</a>, to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">soil conservation</a> and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, <a href="/wiki/Strip_farming" title="Strip farming">strip farming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contour_plowing" title="Contour plowing">contour plowing</a>, and terracing.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage Dust Bowl farmers to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre (equivalent to $21 in 2023) to use the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the Plains' soil and ecology. </p><p>At the end of the drought, the programs implemented during the tough times helped sustain a friendly relationship between farmers and the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous exhibits are included in this report. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_economic_impact">Long-term economic impact</h2></div> <p>In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a> varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences of erosion, the Dust Bowl had severe long-term economic consequences. </p><p>By 1940, counties that had experienced the most erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.<sup id="cite_ref-hornbeck_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornbeck-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> Even over the long term, the land's agricultural value often failed to return to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-hornbeck_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornbeck-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1500">: 1500 </span></sup> </p><p>The economic effects persisted in part because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties. </p><p>Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to obtain capital to shift crop production.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers at first had little incentive to change their crops. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Allitt" title="Patrick Allitt">Patrick Allitt</a> recounts how fellow historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_Worster" title="Donald Worster">Donald Worster</a> responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties: </p> <dl><dd>Capital-intensive <a href="/wiki/Agribusiness" title="Agribusiness">agribusiness</a> had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year after year whether it rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America's capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In contrast with Worster's pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the Dust Bowl's long-term significance was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2023 study in the <i>Journal of Economic History</i> found that while the Dust Bowl had large and enduring impacts on agricultural land, it had modest impacts on average wage incomes.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_the_arts_and_culture">Influence on the arts and culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/220px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/330px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/440px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Florence_Owens_Thompson" title="Florence Owens Thompson">Florence Owens Thompson</a> seen in the photo <i><a href="/wiki/Migrant_Mother" title="Migrant Mother">Migrant Mother</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg/220px-Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg/330px-Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg/440px-Dust_Bowl_farmers_of_west_Texas_in_town.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1985" /></a><figcaption>"Dust bowl farmers of west Texas in town", photograph taken by <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>, June 1937, in <a href="/wiki/Anton,_Texas" title="Anton, Texas">Anton, Texas</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a> hired photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a> were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-WDL1_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDL1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her best-known photographs is <i>Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children</i><sup id="cite_ref-WDL1_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDL1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> depicted a gaunt-looking woman, <a href="/wiki/Florence_Owens_Thompson" title="Florence Owens Thompson">Florence Owens Thompson</a>, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented that she had received no money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it made her perceived as a Dust Bowl "Okie".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author <a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a>, borrowing closely from field notes taken by <a href="/wiki/Farm_Security_Administration" title="Farm Security Administration">Farm Security Administration</a> worker and author <a href="/wiki/Sanora_Babb" title="Sanora Babb">Sanora Babb</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath" title="The Grapes of Wrath">The Grapes of Wrath</a></i> (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, <i><a href="/wiki/Whose_Names_Are_Unknown" title="Whose Names Are Unknown">Whose Names Are Unknown</a></i>, was written in 1939, but was eclipsed and shelved in response to Steinbeck's success, and was not published till 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of folk singer <a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Woody Guthrie</a>'s songs, such as those on his 1940 album <i><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl_Ballads" title="Dust Bowl Ballads">Dust Bowl Ballads</a></i>, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression, when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour".<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "<a href="/wiki/Bakersfield_Sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakersfield Sound">Bakersfield Sound</a>" describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles. </p><p>The 2003–2005 <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a> TV series <i><a href="/wiki/Carniv%C3%A0le" title="Carnivàle">Carnivàle</a></i> was set during the dust bowl. </p><p>The 2014 science fiction film <i><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_(film)" title="Interstellar (film)">Interstellar</a></i> features a ravaged 21st-century America that is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> features interviews from the 2012 documentary <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dust_Bowl_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dust Bowl (film)">The Dust Bowl</a></i> to draw further parallels.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, Americana recording artist <a href="/wiki/Grant_Maloy_Smith" title="Grant Maloy Smith">Grant Maloy Smith</a> released the album <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dust_Bowl_%E2%80%93_American_Stories&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dust Bowl – American Stories (page does not exist)">Dust Bowl – American Stories</a></i>, inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a review, the music magazine <i><a href="/wiki/No_Depression_(magazine)" title="No Depression (magazine)">No Depression</a></i> wrote that the album's lyrics and music are "as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as <a href="/wiki/John_Trudell" title="John Trudell">John Trudell</a> and dusted with the trials and tribulations of <a href="/wiki/Tom_Joad" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom Joad">Tom Joad</a> – Steinbeck and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath" title="The Grapes of Wrath">The Grapes of Wrath</a></i>."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_North_American_heat_wave" title="1936 North American heat wave">1936 North American heat wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goyder%27s_Line" title="Goyder's Line">Goyder's Line</a> – semiarid area of Australia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_disasters" title="List of environmental disasters">List of environmental disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">Monoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliser%27s_Triangle" title="Palliser's Triangle">Palliser's Triangle</a> – semiarid area of Canada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">Semi-arid climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Route_66" title="U.S. Route 66">U.S. Route 66</a> – notable Dust Bowl migration route to California</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Livestock_Reduction" title="Navajo Livestock Reduction">Navajo Livestock Reduction</a> – simultaneous program to prevent overgrazing and erosion</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.planning.org/25anniversary/planning/1987dec.htm">the original</a> on October 6, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Great+Plains%3A+from+dust+to+dust&rft.pub=Planning+Magazine&rft.date=1987-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.planning.org%2F25anniversary%2Fplanning%2F1987dec.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Regions-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Regions_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Regions_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu14re/uu14re00.htm"><i>Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments</i></a>. United Nations University Press. 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071216233621/http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu14re/uu14re00.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regions+at+Risk%3A+a+comparison+of+threatened+environments&rft.pub=United+Nations+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unu.edu%2Funupress%2Funupbooks%2Fuu14re%2Fuu14re00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/DroughtintheDustBowlYears.aspx"><i>Drought in the Dust Bowl Years</i></a>. US: National Drought Mitigation Center. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160124105928/http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/DroughtintheDustBowlYears.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drought+in+the+Dust+Bowl+Years&rft.place=US&rft.pub=National+Drought+Mitigation+Center&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrought.unl.edu%2FDroughtBasics%2FDustBowl%2FDroughtintheDustBowlYears.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dustbowl-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dustbowl_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-drought/">"The American Experience: Drought"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150310174144/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-drought/">Archived</a> from the original on March 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+American+Experience%3A+Drought&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Fgeneral-article%2Fdustbowl-drought%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-srh.noaa.gov-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-srh.noaa.gov_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-srh.noaa.gov_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=blacksunday">"The Black Sunday Dust Storm of 14 April 1935"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Norman,_Oklahoma" title="Norman, Oklahoma">Norman, Oklahoma</a>: <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a>. August 24, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121125235449/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/oun/?n=blacksunday">Archived</a> from the original on November 25, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Black+Sunday+Dust+Storm+of+14+April+1935&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service&rft.date=2010-08-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srh.noaa.gov%2Foun%2F%3Fn%3Dblacksunday&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mencken_1979_206-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mencken_1979_206_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mencken_1979_206_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMencken1979" class="citation book cs1">Mencken, H. L. (1979). Raven I. McDavid Jr. (ed.). <i>The American Language</i> (One-Volume Abridged ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-40075-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-40075-4"><bdi>978-0-394-40075-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=206&rft.edition=One-Volume+Abridged&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-394-40075-4&rft.aulast=Mencken&rft.aufirst=H.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakim1995" class="citation book cs1">Hakim, Joy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kwke_hhx8Z8C&pg=PP1"><i>A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509514-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509514-2"><bdi>978-0-19-509514-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429050637/https://books.google.com/books?id=kwke_hhx8Z8C&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on April 29, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 22,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Us%3A+War%2C+Peace+and+all+that+Jazz&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509514-2&rft.aulast=Hakim&rft.aufirst=Joy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkwke_hhx8Z8C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><i>Bust: America – The Story of Us</i>. A&E Television Networks. 2010. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/783245601">783245601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bust%3A+America+%E2%80%93+The+Story+of+Us&rft.pub=A%26E+Television+Networks&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F783245601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/105/00/tavg/6/03/1895-2014?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1896&lastbaseyear=1967&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1968&lasttrendyear=2014&filter=true&filterType=binomial">"Northern Rockies and Plains Average Temperature – October to March"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center" title="National Climatic Data Center">National Climatic Data Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006155918/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/105/00/tavg/6/03/1895-2014?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1896&lastbaseyear=1967&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1968&lasttrendyear=2014&filter=true&filterType=binomial">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Northern+Rockies+and+Plains+Average+Temperature+%E2%80%93+October+to+March&rft.pub=National+Climatic+Data+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Fcag%2Ftime-series%2Fus%2F105%2F00%2Ftavg%2F6%2F03%2F1895-2014%3Fbase_prd%3Dtrue%26firstbaseyear%3D1896%26lastbaseyear%3D1967%26trend%3Dtrue%26trend_base%3D10%26firsttrendyear%3D1968%26lasttrendyear%3D2014%26filter%3Dtrue%26filterType%3Dbinomial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/105/00/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">"Northern Rockies and Plains Precipitation, 1895–2013"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center" title="National Climatic Data Center">National Climatic Data Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006082942/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/105/00/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Northern+Rockies+and+Plains+Precipitation%2C+1895%E2%80%932013&rft.pub=National+Climatic+Data+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Fcag%2Ftime-series%2Fus%2F105%2F00%2Fpcp%2F12%2F12%2F1895-2013%3Fbase_prd%3Dtrue%26firstbaseyear%3D1895%26lastbaseyear%3D1966%26trend%3Dtrue%26trend_base%3D10%26firsttrendyear%3D1967%26lasttrendyear%3D2013%26filter%3Dtrue%26filterType%3Dbinomial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/14/00/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">"Kansas Precipitation 1895 to 2013"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center" title="National Climatic Data Center">National Climatic Data Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006171009/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/14/00/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kansas+Precipitation+1895+to+2013&rft.pub=National+Climatic+Data+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Fcag%2Ftime-series%2Fus%2F14%2F00%2Fpcp%2F12%2F12%2F1895-2013%3Fbase_prd%3Dtrue%26firstbaseyear%3D1895%26lastbaseyear%3D1966%26trend%3Dtrue%26trend_base%3D10%26firsttrendyear%3D1967%26lasttrendyear%3D2013%26filter%3Dtrue%26filterType%3Dbinomial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/41/01/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">"Texas Climate Division 1 (High Plains): Precipitation 1895–2013"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Climatic_Data_Center" title="National Climatic Data Center">National Climatic Data Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075024/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/time-series/us/41/01/pcp/12/12/1895-2013?base_prd=true&firstbaseyear=1895&lastbaseyear=1966&trend=true&trend_base=10&firsttrendyear=1967&lasttrendyear=2013&filter=true&filterType=binomial">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 17,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Texas+Climate+Division+1+%28High+Plains%29%3A+Precipitation+1895%E2%80%932013&rft.pub=National+Climatic+Data+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Fcag%2Ftime-series%2Fus%2F41%2F01%2Fpcp%2F12%2F12%2F1895-2013%3Fbase_prd%3Dtrue%26firstbaseyear%3D1895%26lastbaseyear%3D1966%26trend%3Dtrue%26trend_base%3D10%26firsttrendyear%3D1967%26lasttrendyear%3D2013%26filter%3Dtrue%26filterType%3Dbinomial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/downloadpdf/journals/mwre/69/12/1520-0493_1941_069_0360_twoitu_2_0_co_2.pdf">"The Weather of 1941 in the United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Research Bulletin (United States. Works Progress Administration. Division of Social Research). U.S. Works Progress Administration / Federal Reserve Archival System for Economic Research (FRASER). pp. 1–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180810205544/https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/838">Archived</a> from the original on August 10, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+Report+of+the+Federal+Government%27s+Assistance+to+Agriculture&rft.atitle=The+Drought+of+1934&rft.date=1935-07-15&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Philip+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffraser.stlouisfed.org%2Ftitle%2F834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Surviving_the_Dust_Bowl_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170218045709/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/dustbowl-transcript/">"Surviving the Dust Bowl"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>. 1998. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/dustbowl-transcript/">the original</a> on February 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 19,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=Surviving+the+Dust+Bowl&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Ftranscript%2Fdustbowl-transcript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stock, Catherine McNicol (1992). <i>Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains</i>, p. 24. University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-4689-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-4689-9">0-8078-4689-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/great-depression/dust-bowl">"Dust Bowl: Causes, Definition & Years"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i>. April 24, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 23,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Dust+Bowl%3A+Causes%2C+Definition+%26+Years&rft.date=2023-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fgreat-depression%2Fdust-bowl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1935" class="citation news cs1">Miller, Bill (March 21, 1935). "Nearly week siege of dust storm in county". <i>Spearman Reporter</i>. 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BBC. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/884893188">884893188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Plenty&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F884893188&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Hobkinson%2C+Sam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PBS_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/fmc/interviews/gregory.htm">"First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718110146/https://www.pbs.org/fmc/interviews/gregory.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Measured+Century%3A+Interview%3AJames+Gregory&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ffmc%2Finterviews%2Fgregory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Babb, Sanora, Dorothy Babb, and Douglas Wixson. <i>On the Dirty Plate Trail</i>. Edited by Douglas Wixson. Autin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2007, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Cultural History</i> (1999), p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFender2011" class="citation book cs1">Fender, Stephen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fISoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143"><i>Nature, Class, and New Deal Literature: The Country Poor in the Great Depression</i></a>. Routledge. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136632280" title="Special:BookSources/9781136632280"><bdi>9781136632280</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819065854/https://books.google.com/books?id=fISoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%2C+Class%2C+and+New+Deal+Literature%3A+The+Country+Poor+in+the+Great+Depression&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781136632280&rft.aulast=Fender&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfISoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-worster492-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worster492_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worster492_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorster1979" class="citation book cs1">Worster, Donald (1979). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dustbowl00dona"><i>Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dustbowl00dona/page/49">49</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dust+Bowl%3A+The+Southern+Plains+in+the+1930s&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Worster&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdustbowl00dona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Worster, Donald. <i>Dust Bowl – The Southern Plains in the 1930s</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS2-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PBS2_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/fmc/interviews/gregory.htm">"First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180718110146/https://www.pbs.org/fmc/interviews/gregory.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 18, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Measured+Century%3A+Interview%3AJames+Gregory&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ffmc%2Finterviews%2Fgregory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Worster (2004), <i>Dust Bowl</i>, p. 45,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongSiu2018" class="citation journal cs1">Long, Jason; Siu, Henry (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050718000591">"Refugees from Dust and Shrinking Land: Tracking the Dust Bowl Migrants"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>78</b> (4): 1001–1033. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050718000591">10.1017/S0022050718000591</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38804642">38804642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Refugees+from+Dust+and+Shrinking+Land%3A+Tracking+the+Dust+Bowl+Migrants&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1001-1033&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38804642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050718000591&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft.au=Siu%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0022050718000591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory, N. James. (1991) <i>American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California.</i> Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Babb, et al. (2007), <i>On the Dirty Plate Trail,</i> p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hornbeck2-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hornbeck2_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornbeck2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hornbeck, Richard (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11303325">"The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short and Long-run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Economic_Review" title="American Economic Review">American Economic Review</a></i>. <b>102</b> (4): 1477–1507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.102.4.1477">10.1257/aer.102.4.1477</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6257886">6257886</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819065858/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/11303325">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Enduring+Impact+of+the+American+Dust+Bowl%3A+Short+and+Long-run+Adjustments+to+Environmental+Catastrophe&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1477-1507&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Faer.102.4.1477&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6257886%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hornbeck&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnrs.harvard.edu%2Furn-3%3AHUL.InstRepos%3A11303325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steiner, Frederick (2008). <i>The Living Landscape, Second Edition: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning</i>, p. 188. Island Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59726-396-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-59726-396-6">1-59726-396-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rau, Allan. <i>Agricultural Policy and Trade Liberalization in the United States, 1934–1956; a Study of Conflicting Policies</i>. Genève: E. Droz, 1957. p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: F.D. Roosevelt, 1935, Volume 4" page 178, Best Books, 1938</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/dust-bowl-surviving-dust-bowl/">"Timeline: The Dust Bowl | American Experience | PBS"</a>. <i>www.pbs.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008161016/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/dust-bowl-surviving-dust-bowl/">Archived</a> from the original on October 8, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=Timeline%3A+The+Dust+Bowl+%26%23124%3B+American+Experience+%26%23124%3B+PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffeatures%2Fdust-bowl-surviving-dust-bowl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Monthly Catalog,</i> United States Public Documents, By United States Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Published by the G.P.O., 1938</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Writers'_Project" class="citation book cs1">Federal Writers' Project. <i>Texas</i>. Writers' Program (Tex.): Writers' Program Texas. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Texas&rft.place=Writers%27+Program+%28Tex.%29&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Writers%27+Program+Texas&rft.au=Federal+Writers%27+Project&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchanan" class="citation book cs1">Buchanan, James Shannon. <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicles+of+Oklahoma&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Oklahoma+Historical+Society&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=James+Shannon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Cultural History</i> (1999), p.45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United States. Agricultural Adjustment Administration and Murphy, Philip G., (1935), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/scribd/?title_id=834&filepath=/docs/publications/books/drought_1934_aaa.pdf">Drought of 1934: The Federal Government's Assistance to Agriculture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603012850/https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/scribd/?title_id=834&filepath=%2Fdocs%2Fpublications%2Fbooks%2Fdrought_1934_aaa.pdf">Archived</a> June 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Accessed October 15, 2014.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandon-LaneRockoffSteckel2009" class="citation journal cs1">Landon-Lane, John; Rockoff, Hugh; Steckel, Richard (December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw15596">"Droughts, Floods, and Financial Distress in the United States"</a>. <i>NBER Working Paper No. 15596</i>: 6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3386%2Fw15596">10.3386/w15596</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBER+Working+Paper+No.+15596&rft.atitle=Droughts%2C+Floods%2C+and+Financial+Distress+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2009-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3386%2Fw15596&rft.aulast=Landon-Lane&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Rockoff%2C+Hugh&rft.au=Steckel%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3386%252Fw15596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Allitt, <i>A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism</i> (2014) p 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allitt p 211, paraphrasing William Cronin's evaluation of Mathew Paul Bonnifield, <i>Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression</i>(1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornbeck2023" class="citation journal cs1">Hornbeck, Richard (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/dust-bowl-migrants-environmental-refugees-and-economic-adaptation/9876C760B117636890F8ED3C88840898">"Dust Bowl Migrants: Environmental Refugees and Economic Adaptation"</a>. <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>83</b> (3): 645–675. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050723000244">10.1017/S0022050723000244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0507">0022-0507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235678459">235678459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Dust+Bowl+Migrants%3A+Environmental+Refugees+and+Economic+Adaptation&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=645-675&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235678459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-0507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050723000244&rft.aulast=Hornbeck&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-economic-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fdust-bowl-migrants-environmental-refugees-and-economic-adaptation%2F9876C760B117636890F8ED3C88840898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL1-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WDL1_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WDL1_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/81/">"Destitute Pea Pickers in California: Mother of Seven Children, Age Thirty-two, Nipomo, California. Migrant Mother"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. February 1936. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126040914/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/81/">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Destitute+Pea+Pickers+in+California%3A+Mother+of+Seven+Children%2C+Age+Thirty-two%2C+Nipomo%2C+California.+Migrant+Mother&rft.pub=World+Digital+Library&rft.date=1936-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F81%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuBoisDumenil2012" class="citation book cs1">DuBois, Ellen Carol; Dumenil, Lynn (2012). <i>Through Women's Eyes</i> (Third ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 583. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-67603-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-67603-2"><bdi>978-0-312-67603-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+Women%27s+Eyes&rft.pages=583&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-312-67603-2&rft.aulast=DuBois&rft.aufirst=Ellen+Carol&rft.au=Dumenil%2C+Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-dust-bowl/sanora-babb/">"The Dust Bowl – Sanora Babb biography"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210819065920/https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-dust-bowl/sanora-babb/">Archived</a> from the original on August 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 2,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Dust+Bowl+%E2%80%93+Sanora+Babb+biography&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fkenburns%2Fthe-dust-bowl%2Fsanora-babb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/web/babb/career/whose2.html">"Whose Names Are Unknown: Sanora Babb"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Ransom_Center" title="Harry Ransom Center">Harry Ransom Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208142018/http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/web/babb/career/whose2.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 8, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 22,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Whose+Names+Are+Unknown%3A+Sanora+Babb&rft.pub=Harry+Ransom+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrc.utexas.edu%2Fexhibitions%2Fweb%2Fbabb%2Fcareer%2Fwhose2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayton_Duncan,_preface_by_Ken_Burns2012" class="citation web cs1">Dayton Duncan, preface by Ken Burns (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/bios/sanora-babb/">"Biographies: Sanora Babb"</a>. <i>The Dust Bowl: An Illustrated History</i>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024023/http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/bios/sanora-babb/">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Dust+Bowl%3A+An+Illustrated+History&rft.atitle=Biographies%3A+Sanora+Babb&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Dayton+Duncan%2C+preface+by+Ken+Burns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fkenburns%2Fdustbowl%2Fbios%2Fsanora-babb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li>Lanzendorfer, Joy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/forgotten-dust-bowl-novel-rivaled-grapes-wrath-180959196/">"The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled 'The Grapes of Wrath'"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171606/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/forgotten-dust-bowl-novel-rivaled-grapes-wrath-180959196/">Archived</a> December 28, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Smithsonian.com</i>, 2016 May 23.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/bios/sanora-babb/">"Sanora Babb"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024023/http://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/bios/sanora-babb/">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Dust Bowl: a film by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)</li> <li>For the role of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck's novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., <i>Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941</i> (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6anuYIZDBOIC&pg=PR28">pp. xxvii–xxviii</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429190813/https://books.google.com/books?id=6anuYIZDBOIC&pg=PR28">Archived</a> April 29, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6anuYIZDBOIC&pg=PA33">33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24).</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210429051210/https://books.google.com/books?id=6anuYIZDBOIC&pg=PA33">Archived</a> April 29, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alarik, Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2005/08/07/robert_burns_unplugged/">Robert Burns unplugged.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073154/http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2005/08/07/robert_burns_unplugged/">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>The Boston Globe</i>, August 7, 2005. Retrieved on December 5, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenberg2014" class="citation news cs1">Rosenberg, Alyssa (November 6, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/act-four/wp/2014/11/06/how-ken-burns-surprise-role-in-interstellar-explains-the-movie/">"How Ken Burns' surprise role in 'Interstellar' explains the movie"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141108023023/http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/act-four/wp/2014/11/06/how-ken-burns-surprise-role-in-interstellar-explains-the-movie/">Archived</a> from the original on November 8, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=How+Ken+Burns%27+surprise+role+in+%27Interstellar%27+explains+the+movie&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Alyssa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fact-four%2Fwp%2F2014%2F11%2F06%2Fhow-ken-burns-surprise-role-in-interstellar-explains-the-movie%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2017" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Hubble (June 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kdminer.com/news/2017/jun/01/kingman-gets-mention-dust-bowl-album/?templates=desktop">"Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl album"</a>. <i>Kingman Daily Miner</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010022349/https://kdminer.com/news/2017/jun/01/kingman-gets-mention-dust-bowl-album/?templates=desktop">Archived</a> from the original on October 10, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kingman+Daily+Miner&rft.atitle=Kingman+gets+a+mention+on+Dust+Bowl+album&rft.date=2017-06-01&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Hubble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkdminer.com%2Fnews%2F2017%2Fjun%2F01%2Fkingman-gets-mention-dust-bowl-album%2F%3Ftemplates%3Ddesktop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApice2017" class="citation web cs1">Apice, John (May 22, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nodepression.com/album-review/expressive-original-songs-steeped-dirt-reality-dust-bowl-depression-era">"Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Dust Bowl-Depression Era"</a>. <i>No Depression</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170706030509/http://nodepression.com/album-review/expressive-original-songs-steeped-dirt-reality-dust-bowl-depression-era">Archived</a> from the original on July 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=No+Depression&rft.atitle=Expressive+Original+Songs+Steeped+In+the+Dirt+%26+Reality+of+the+Dust+Bowl-Depression+Era&rft.date=2017-05-22&rft.aulast=Apice&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnodepression.com%2Falbum-review%2Fexpressive-original-songs-steeped-dirt-reality-dust-bowl-depression-era&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonnifield1979" class="citation book cs1">Bonnifield, Paul (1979). <i>The dust bowl: men, dirt, and depression</i>. 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Redlands, CA: <a href="/wiki/ESRI_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="ESRI Press">ESRI Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-013-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58948-013-1"><bdi>978-1-58948-013-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scaling+the+Dust+Bowl&rft.btitle=Placing+history%3A+how+maps%2C+spatial+data%2C+and+GIS+are+changing+historical+scholarship&rft.place=Redlands%2C+CA&rft.pub=ESRI+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58948-013-1&rft.aulast=Cunfer&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVN1v7rzhSQEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory1991" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, James N. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qNdtGwnXYrIC"><i>American exodus: the dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California</i></a>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507136-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507136-8"><bdi>978-0-19-507136-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+exodus%3A+the+dust+bowl+migration+and+Okie+culture+in+California&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507136-8&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=James+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqNdtGwnXYrIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLassieur2009" class="citation book cs1">Lassieur, Allison (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wnUYNCMvf8wC"><i>The Dust Bowl: an interactive history adventure</i></a>. You choose books. Mankato, Minn: <a href="/wiki/Capstone_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Capstone Press">Capstone Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4296-2343-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4296-2343-8"><bdi>978-1-4296-2343-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/244177146">244177146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dust+Bowl%3A+an+interactive+history+adventure&rft.place=Mankato%2C+Minn&rft.series=You+choose+books&rft.pub=Capstone+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F244177146&rft.isbn=978-1-4296-2343-8&rft.aulast=Lassieur&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwnUYNCMvf8wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReis2008" class="citation book cs1">Reis, Ronald A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQ9ZoUJ1hWQC"><i>The Dust Bowl</i></a>. Great historic disasters. New York: <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-9737-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7910-9737-3"><bdi>978-0-7910-9737-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dust+Bowl&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Great+historic+disasters&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7910-9737-3&rft.aulast=Reis&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDQ9ZoUJ1hWQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSylvesterRupley2012" class="citation journal cs1">Sylvester, Kenneth M.; Rupley, Eric S. A. (July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4185197">"Revising the Dust Bowl: High Above the Kansas Grasslands"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_History_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental History (journal)">Environmental History</a></i>. <b>17</b> (3): 603–633. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fenvhis%2Fems047">10.1093/envhis/ems047</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1084-5453">1084-5453</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4185197">4185197</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25288873">25288873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+History&rft.atitle=Revising+the+Dust+Bowl%3A+High+Above+the+Kansas+Grasslands&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=603-633&rft.date=2012-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4185197%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1084-5453&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25288873&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fenvhis%2Fems047&rft.aulast=Sylvester&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft.au=Rupley%2C+Eric+S.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4185197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorster2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Worster" title="Donald Worster">Worster, Donald</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8fM-ZWXPe_QC"><i>Dust Bowl: the southern Plains in the 1930s</i></a> (25th anniversary ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517489-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517489-2"><bdi>978-0-19-517489-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dust+Bowl%3A+the+southern+Plains+in+the+1930s&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517489-2&rft.aulast=Worster&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8fM-ZWXPe_QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuthrieSeeger1963" class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Guthrie, Woody</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Seeger, Pete</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/woodyguthriefolk00guth"><i>Woody Guthrie folk songs: a collection of songs by America's foremost balladeer</i></a>. New York: Ludlow Music. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1036976480">1036976480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Woody+Guthrie+folk+songs%3A+a+collection+of+songs+by+America%27s+foremost+balladeer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ludlow+Music&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1036976480&rft.aulast=Guthrie&rft.aufirst=Woody&rft.au=Seeger%2C+Pete&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwoodyguthriefolk00guth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_AV_media" title="Template:Cite AV media">cite AV media</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLomaxGuthrieSeeger1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lomax" title="Alan Lomax">Lomax, Alan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Guthrie, Woody</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Seeger, Pete</a> (1967). <i>Hard hitting songs for hard-hit people</i>. New York, N.Y.: <a href="/wiki/Oak_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Oak Publications">Oak Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8256-0041-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8256-0041-8"><bdi>978-0-8256-0041-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/190819">190819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hard+hitting+songs+for+hard-hit+people&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Oak+Publications&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F190819&rft.isbn=978-0-8256-0041-8&rft.aulast=Lomax&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Guthrie%2C+Woody&rft.au=Seeger%2C+Pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgan2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Egan" title="Timothy Egan">Egan, Timothy</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=np1RwDQfpjsC"><i>The worst hard time: the untold story of those who survived the great American dust bowl</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Mariner_Books" title="Mariner Books">Mariner Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-34697-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-34697-4"><bdi>978-0-618-34697-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+worst+hard+time%3A+the+untold+story+of+those+who+survived+the+great+American+dust+bowl&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-34697-4&rft.aulast=Egan&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnp1RwDQfpjsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanke2002" class="citation book cs1">Janke, Katelan (2002). <i>Survival in the storm: the dust bowl diary of Grace Edwards</i>. Dear America. New York: <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_Corporation" title="Scholastic Corporation">Scholastic</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-439-21599-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-439-21599-2"><bdi>978-0-439-21599-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survival+in+the+storm%3A+the+dust+bowl+diary+of+Grace+Edwards&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Dear+America&rft.pub=Scholastic&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-439-21599-2&rft.aulast=Janke&rft.aufirst=Katelan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweeney2016" class="citation book cs1">Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NDV9DQAAQBAJ"><i>Prelude to the Dust Bowl: drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains</i></a>. Norman: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-5340-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-5340-7"><bdi>978-0-8061-5340-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prelude+to+the+Dust+Bowl%3A+drought+in+the+Nineteenth-Century+Southern+Plains&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-5340-7&rft.aulast=Sweeney&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNDV9DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADust+Bowl" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Documentary_films">Documentary films</h2></div> <ul><li>1936 – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains" title="The Plow That Broke the Plains">The Plow That Broke the Plains</a></i> – 25 minutes, directed by <a href="/wiki/Pare_Lorentz" title="Pare Lorentz">Pare Lorentz</a></li> <li>1998 – <i><a href="/wiki/American_Experience_(season_10)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Experience (season 10)">Surviving the Dust Bowl</a></i> – 52 minutes, season 10 episode of <i><a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a></i> documentary tv series</li> <li>2012 – <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dust_Bowl_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dust Bowl (film)">The Dust Bowl</a></i> – 240 minutes, 4 episodes, directed by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Ken Burns</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dust_Bowl" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061014181201/http://www.weru.ksu.edu/new_weru/multimedia/dustbowl/dustbowlpics.html"><i>The Dust Bowl</i> photo collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/">"The Dust Bowl"</a>, a PBS television series by filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Ken Burns</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/?s=dust+bowl">The Dust Bowl</a> (EH.Net Encyclopedia)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kansashistory.us/dustbowl.html">Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.afc/collafc.af000011">Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941</a> <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Folklife_Center" title="American Folklife Center">American Folklife Center</a> Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://livinghistoryfarm.org/farming-in-the-1930s/water/the-dust-bowl/">The Dust Bowl (Wessels Living History Farm)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=DU011">Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.okstate.edu/oralhistory/dustbowl/">Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Bowl Oral History Project</a>, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voicesofoklahoma.com/interview/troy-frosty/">Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy.</a> First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voicesofoklahoma.com">Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLzkQfVIJun2Kl_ZEVTYA-qXlloRYQP3kv"><span class="plainlinks">Dust Bowl – Ken Burns</span></a> playlist on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_playlist_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube playlist (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLF211AA273F925771"><span class="plainlinks">Dust Bowl – Ken Burns</span></a> playlist on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_playlist_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube playlist (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Great_Depression" title="Category:Great Depression">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Great_Depression" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Great Depression">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Oklahoma&#124;link=Oklahoma_History_of_Oklahoma" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Oklahoma" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Oklahoma"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="24px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Oklahoma&#124;link=Oklahoma_History_of_Oklahoma" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma"><img alt="Oklahoma" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/24px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/36px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg/48px-Flag_of_Oklahoma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">History of Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prior to 19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Bison_Kill_Site" title="Cooper Bison Kill Site">Cooper Bison Kill</a> (11th millennium BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a> (9th–15th century CE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Territory" title="Arkansas Territory">Arkansas Territory</a> (1819−1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche%E2%80%93Mexico_Wars" title="Comanche–Mexico Wars">Comanche–Mexico Wars</a> (1821–1870s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_Gap_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutthroat Gap Massacre">Cutthroat Gap Massacre</a> (1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal">Indian Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> (1834–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Antelope Hills Expedition">Antelope Hills Expedition</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Civil War</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washita_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Washita Massacre">Washita Massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory" title="Oklahoma Territory">Oklahoma Territory</a> (1890–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_run#In_Oklahoma" title="Land run">Land runs</a> (1890s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Sequoyah" title="State of Sequoyah">State of Sequoyah</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">State of Oklahoma</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1920s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dust Bowl</a> (1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Bridge_War" title="Red River Bridge War">Red River Bridge War</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15092668g">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15092668g">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007542245005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/102416478">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637227">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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