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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cellular_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Cellular components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell_junctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_junctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Cell junctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_junctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Layers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular_kinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_kinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Cellular kinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular_kinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cell_division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Cell division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calcium_concentration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calcium_concentration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Calcium concentration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calcium_concentration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barrier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barrier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Barrier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barrier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin_hydration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_hydration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Skin hydration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_hydration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin_color" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_color"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Skin color</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_color-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Touch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Touch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Touch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Touch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hyperplasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperplasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hyperplasia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperplasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidermis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opperhuid" title="Opperhuid – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Opperhuid" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="بشرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بشرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95" title="বহিস্ত্বক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বহিস্ত্বক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Епидермис – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епидермис" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderma" title="Epiderma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Epiderma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poko%C5%BEka_(%C5%BEivo%C4%8Dichov%C3%A9)" title="Pokožka (živočichové) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pokožka (živočichové)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(Wirbeltiere)" title="Epidermis (Wirbeltiere) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epidermis (Wirbeltiere)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrasknahk" title="Marrasknahk – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Marrasknahk" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1" title="Επιδερμίδα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιδερμίδα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8C" title="Лангакедь – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Лангакедь" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermo" title="Epidermo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epidermo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85" title="اپیدرم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اپیدرم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89piderme_(anatomie)" title="Épiderme (anatomie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épiderme (anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eipideirm" title="Eipideirm – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eipideirm" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderme" title="Epiderme – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epiderme" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%A9athia" title="Rũathia – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Rũathia" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%BD" title="Էպիդերմիս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էպիդերմիս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderma" title="Epiderma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epiderma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermo" title="Epidermo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Epidermo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulit_ari" title="Kulit ari – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kulit ari" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermide" title="Epidermide – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epidermide" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A1" title="אפידרמיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפידרמיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Эпидермис – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эпидермис" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemisi" title="Epidemisi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Epidemisi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epid%C3%A8m" title="Epidèm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Epidèm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%AEderm%C3%AEs" title="Epîdermîs – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Epîdermîs" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Эпидермис – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эпидермис" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderma" title="Epiderma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Epiderma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermisz" title="Epidermisz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Epidermisz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Покожица – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Покожица" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapisan_epidermis" title="Lapisan epidermis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Lapisan epidermis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8" title="ਐਪੀਡਰਮਿਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਪੀਡਰਮਿਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nask%C3%B3rek" title="Naskórek – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Naskórek" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderme_(pele)" title="Epiderme (pele) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epiderme (pele)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderm%C4%83" title="Epidermă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epidermă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Эпидермис – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпидермис" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poko%C5%BEka_(anat%C3%B3mia)" title="Pokožka (anatómia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pokožka (anatómia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poko%C5%BEnica" title="Pokožnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pokožnica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B4" title="کاش – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کاش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Покожица – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Покожица" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiderma" title="Epiderma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epiderma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvaskesi" title="Orvaskesi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orvaskesi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96verhud" title="Överhud – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Överhud" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மேற்றோல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மேற்றோல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="หนังกำพร้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หนังกำพร้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81" title="Епідерміс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епідерміс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_b%C3%AC" title="Thượng bì – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thượng bì" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Epidermis" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%9A%AE%EF%BC%88%E7%9A%AE%E8%82%A4%EF%BC%89" title="表皮（皮肤） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="表皮（皮肤）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%9A%AE_(%E7%9A%AE%E8%86%9A)" title="表皮 (皮膚) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="表皮 (皮膚)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Outermost of the three layers that make up the skin</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about skin in mammals. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Epidermis (disambiguation)">Epidermis (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:beige">Epidermis</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Epidermis-delimited.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Epidermis-delimited.JPG/250px-Epidermis-delimited.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Epidermis-delimited.JPG/375px-Epidermis-delimited.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Epidermis-delimited.JPG/500px-Epidermis-delimited.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="620" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Microscopic</a> image of the epidermis, which constitutes the outer layer of skin, shown here by the white bar</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Epidermal_layers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Epidermal_layers.png/250px-Epidermal_layers.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Epidermal_layers.png/375px-Epidermal_layers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Epidermal_layers.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="713" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Microscopic image showing the layers of the epidermis. The <i>stratum corneum</i> appears more compact in this image than above because of different sample preparation.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">Skin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>epidermis</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004817">D004817</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/16.0.00.009%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A16.0.00.009</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=7046">7046</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Histologica" title="Terminologia Histologica">TH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/PDF/TH%20Chapter%20H3.12.pdf">H3.12.00.1.01001 </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma70596">70596</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_microanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of microanatomy">Anatomical terms of microanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212743" class="extiw" title="d:Q212743">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>epidermis</b> is the outermost of the three layers that comprise the <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, the inner layers being the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">hypodermis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epidermis layer provides a barrier to <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> from environmental <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a><sup id="cite_ref-Lookingbill_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lookingbill-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through <a href="/wiki/Transepidermal_water_loss" title="Transepidermal water loss">transepidermal water loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The epidermis is composed of <a href="/wiki/Stratified_squamous_epithelium" title="Stratified squamous epithelium">multiple layers of flattened cells</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rooks_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that overlie a base layer (<a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">stratum basale</a>) composed of <a href="/wiki/Epithelium#Cell_types" title="Epithelium">columnar cells</a> arranged perpendicularly. The layers of cells develop from <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cells</a> in the basal layer. The thickness of the epidermis varies from 31.2μm for the <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> to 596.6μm for the <a href="/wiki/Sole_(foot)" title="Sole (foot)">sole of the foot</a> with most being roughly 90μm. Thickness does not vary between the sexes but becomes thinner with age.<sup id="cite_ref-Lintzeri_Karimian_Blume‐Peytavi_Kottner_2022_pp._1191–1200_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lintzeri_Karimian_Blume‐Peytavi_Kottner_2022_pp._1191–1200-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human epidermis is an example of <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a>, particularly a <a href="/wiki/Stratified_squamous_epithelium" title="Stratified squamous epithelium">stratified squamous epithelium</a>. </p><p>The word epidermis is derived through Latin from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> epidermis</i>, itself from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> epi</i> 'over, upon' and from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> derma</i> 'skin'. Something related to or part of the epidermis is termed epidermal. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular_components">Cellular components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cellular components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The epidermis primarily consists of <a href="/wiki/Keratinocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratinocytes">keratinocytes</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rooks_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Cell_proliferation" title="Cell proliferation">proliferating</a> basal and <a href="/wiki/Cell_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell differentiation">differentiated</a> suprabasal), which comprise 90% of its cells, but also contains <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langerhans_cell" title="Langerhans cell">Langerhans cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell" title="Merkel cell">Merkel cells</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2–3">: 2–3 </span></sup> and inflammatory cells. Epidermal thickenings called <a href="/wiki/Rete_pegs" title="Rete pegs">Rete ridges</a> (or rete pegs) extend downward between <a href="/wiki/Dermal_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal papillae">dermal papillae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a> <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a> are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arteriole</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Venule" title="Venule">venule</a>. The epidermis itself has no <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">blood supply</a> and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air.<sup id="cite_ref-stucker_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stucker-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cellular mechanisms for regulating <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> levels (<a href="/wiki/Epithelial_sodium_channel" title="Epithelial sodium channel">ENaCs</a>) are found in all layers of the epidermis.<sup id="cite_ref-2017-Hanukoglu_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-Hanukoglu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_junctions">Cell junctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cell junctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epidermal cells are tightly interconnected to serve as a tight barrier against the exterior environment. The junctions between the epidermal cells are of the <a href="/wiki/Adherens_junction" title="Adherens junction">adherens junction</a> type, formed by transmembrane proteins called <a href="/wiki/Cadherins" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadherins">cadherins</a>. Inside the cell, the cadherins are linked to <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> filaments. In immunofluorescence microscopy, the actin filament network appears as a thick border surrounding the cells,<sup id="cite_ref-2017-Hanukoglu_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-Hanukoglu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the <a href="/wiki/Microfilament" title="Microfilament">actin filaments</a> are actually located inside the cell and run parallel to the cell membrane. Because of the proximity of the neighboring cells and tightness of the junctions, the actin <a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">immunofluorescence</a> appears as a border between cells.<sup id="cite_ref-2017-Hanukoglu_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2017-Hanukoglu-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layers">Layers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Layers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skinlayers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Skinlayers.png/220px-Skinlayers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Skinlayers.png/330px-Skinlayers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Skinlayers.png 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>Schematic image showing a section of epidermis, with epidermal layers labeled</figcaption></figure> <p>The epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers, depending on the region of skin being considered.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those layers from outermost to innermost are:<sup id="cite_ref-Lookingbill_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lookingbill-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Keratin#Cornification" title="Keratin">cornified layer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a></i>)</dt> <dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_corneum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_corneum.jpg/220px-Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_corneum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_corneum.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Confocal image of the stratum corneum</figcaption></figure>Composed of 10 to 30 layers of polyhedral, anucleated <a href="/wiki/Corneocyte" title="Corneocyte">corneocytes</a> (final step of keratinocyte <a href="/wiki/Cell_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell differentiation">differentiation</a>), with the palms and soles having the most layers. Corneocytes contain a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> envelope (cornified envelope proteins) underneath the plasma membrane, are filled with water-retaining <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a> proteins, attached together through <a href="/wiki/Desmosome" title="Desmosome">corneodesmosomes</a> and surrounded in the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular">extracellular</a> space by stacked layers of <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bensouillah_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bensouillah-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the barrier functions of the epidermis localize to this layer.<sup id="cite_ref-elias_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elias-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>clear/translucent layer (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_lucidum" title="Stratum lucidum">stratum lucidum</a></i>, only in palms and soles)</dt> <dd>This narrow layer is found only on the palms and soles. The epidermis of these two areas is known as "thick skin" because with this extra layer, the skin has 5 epidermal layers instead of 4.</dd> <dt>granular layer (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_granulosum" title="Stratum granulosum">stratum granulosum</a></i>)</dt> <dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_granulosum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_granulosum.jpg/220px-Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_granulosum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_granulosum.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="298" /></a><figcaption>Confocal image of the stratum granulosum</figcaption></figure>Keratinocytes lose their <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> appears granular. Lipids, contained into those keratinocytes within <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_bodies" title="Lamellar bodies">lamellar bodies</a>, are released into the extracellular space through <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a> to form a lipid barrier that prevents water loss from the body as well as entry of foreign substances. Those polar lipids are then converted into non-polar lipids and arranged parallel to the cell surface. For example <a href="/wiki/Glycosphingolipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosphingolipids">glycosphingolipids</a> become <a href="/wiki/Ceramides" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramides">ceramides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">phospholipids</a> become <a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Free fatty acids">free fatty acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bensouillah_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bensouillah-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>spinous layer (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">stratum spinosum</a></i>)</dt> <dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_spinosum_with_some_basal_cell_clusters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_spinosum_with_some_basal_cell_clusters.jpg/220px-Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_spinosum_with_some_basal_cell_clusters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_spinosum_with_some_basal_cell_clusters.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Confocal image of the stratum spinosum already showing some clusters of basal cells</figcaption></figure>Keratinocytes become connected through <a href="/wiki/Desmosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Desmosomes">desmosomes</a> and produce lamellar bodies, from within the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi</a>, enriched in polar lipids, <a href="/wiki/Glycosphingolipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosphingolipids">glycosphingolipids</a>, free <a href="/wiki/Sterols" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterols">sterols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">phospholipids</a> and catabolic enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Langerhans cells, immunologically active cells, are located in the middle of this layer.<sup id="cite_ref-bensouillah_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bensouillah-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>basal/germinal layer (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_germinativum" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratum germinativum">stratum basale/germinativum</a></i>)</dt> <dd><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_basale_showing_some_papillae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_basale_showing_some_papillae.jpg/220px-Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_basale_showing_some_papillae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Confocal_image_of_the_stratum_basale_showing_some_papillae.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Confocal image of the stratum basale already showing some papillae</figcaption></figure>Composed mainly of proliferating and non-proliferating keratinocytes, attached to the <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hemidesmosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemidesmosomes">hemidesmosomes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">Melanocytes</a> are present, connected to numerous keratinocytes in this and other strata through <a href="/wiki/Dendrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendrites">dendrites</a>. <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Merkel cells">Merkel cells</a> are also found in the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">stratum basale</a> with large numbers in touch-sensitive sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Fingertip" class="mw-redirect" title="Fingertip">fingertips</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">lips</a>. They are closely associated with cutaneous <a href="/wiki/Nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerves">nerves</a> and seem to be involved in light touch sensation.<sup id="cite_ref-bensouillah_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bensouillah-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Malpighian_layer" title="Malpighian layer">Malpighian layer</a> (<i>stratum malpighii</i>)</dt> <dd>This is usually defined as both the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">stratum basale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">stratum spinosum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rooks_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a>, by a <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular_kinetics">Cellular kinetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cellular kinetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cell_division">Cell division</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cell division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a <a href="/wiki/Stratified_squamous_epithelium" title="Stratified squamous epithelium">stratified squamous epithelium</a>, the epidermis is maintained by <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a> within the stratum basale. <a href="/wiki/Cell_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell differentiation">Differentiating</a> cells delaminate from the <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a> and are displaced outward through the epidermal layers, undergoing multiple stages of differentiation until, in the stratum corneum, losing their nucleus and fusing to squamous sheets, which are eventually shed from the surface (<a href="/wiki/Desquamation" title="Desquamation">desquamation</a>). Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins, which contribute to the formation of an <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> that is an integral part of the skin barrier function. In normal skin, the rate of keratinocyte production equals the rate of loss,<sup id="cite_ref-Rooks_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rooks-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taking about two weeks for a cell to journey from the stratum basale to the top of the stratum granulosum, and an additional four weeks to cross the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-Lookingbill_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lookingbill-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entire epidermis is replaced by new cell <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">growth</a> over a period of about 48 days.<sup id="cite_ref-Iizuka_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iizuka-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calcium_concentration">Calcium concentration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Calcium concentration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Keratinocyte differentiation throughout the epidermis is in part mediated by a <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> gradient, increasing from the stratum basale until the outer stratum granulosum, where it reaches its maximum, and decreasing in the stratum corneum. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions. This calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> free calcium concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of that intracellular increase comes from calcium released from intracellular stores<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another part comes from transmembrane calcium influx,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through both calcium-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Chloride_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloride channels">chloride channels</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and voltage-independent cation channels permeable to calcium.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium-sensing <a href="/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor" title="Cell surface receptor">receptor</a> (CaSR) also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epidermal <a href="/wiki/Organogenesis" title="Organogenesis">organogenesis</a>, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the cells covering the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> after <a href="/wiki/Neurulation" title="Neurulation">neurulation</a>, the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. In most <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a>, this original one-layered structure quickly transforms into a two-layered <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a>; a temporary outer layer, the embryonic <i>periderm</i>, which is disposed once the inner <a href="/wiki/Basal_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal layer">basal layer</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_germinativum" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratum germinativum">stratum germinativum</a></i> has formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-2003_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This inner layer is a <a href="/wiki/Germ_layer" title="Germ layer">germinal epithelium</a> that gives rise to all epidermal cells. It divides to form the outer <a href="/wiki/Spinous_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous layer">spinous layer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">stratum spinosum</a></i>). The cells of these two layers, together called the <a href="/wiki/Malpighian_layer" title="Malpighian layer">Malpighian layer</a>(s) after <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a>, divide to form the superficial <a href="/wiki/Granularity" title="Granularity">granular</a> layer (<i>Stratum granulosum</i>) of the epidermis.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-2003_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the <a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">granules</a> of <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a>. These skin cells finally become the <a href="/wiki/Cornified_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornified layer">cornified layer</a> (<i>stratum corneum</i>), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After <a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">birth</a> these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> they are shed at a rate of 30 - 90 milligrams of skin flakes every hour, or 0.720 - 2.16 grams per day.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epidermal <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a> is a product of several <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">growth factors</a>, two of which are:<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-2003_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transforming_growth_factor" title="Transforming growth factor">Transforming growth factor</a> Alpha (<a href="/wiki/TGF%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="TGFα">TGFα</a>) is an <a href="/wiki/Autocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocrine">autocrine</a> growth factor by which basal cells stimulate their own <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">division</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte_growth_factor" title="Keratinocyte growth factor">Keratinocyte growth factor</a> (KGF or <a href="/wiki/FGF7" title="FGF7">FGF7</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Paracrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine">paracrine</a> growth factor produced by the underlying <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblasts</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Cell_proliferation" title="Cell proliferation">proliferation</a> of basal cells is regulated.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barrier">Barrier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Barrier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The epidermis serves as a barrier to protect the body against <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbial</a> pathogens, <a href="/wiki/Oxidant_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidant stress">oxidant stress</a> (<a href="/wiki/UV_light" class="mw-redirect" title="UV light">UV light</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemical</a> compounds, and provides <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanical</a> resistance to minor injury. Most of this barrier role is played by the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-elias_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elias-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Characteristics</dt></dl> <ul><li>Physical barrier: Epidermal keratinocytes are tightly linked by <a href="/wiki/Cell_junctions" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell junctions">cell–cell junctions</a> associated to <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoskeletal">cytoskeletal</a> proteins, giving the epidermis its mechanical strength.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Chemical barrier: Highly organized lipids, acids, hydrolytic <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides" title="Antimicrobial peptides">antimicrobial peptides</a><sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> inhibit passage of external chemicals and pathogens into the body.</li> <li>Immunologically active barrier: The <a href="/wiki/Humoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Humoral">humoral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular immunity">cellular</a> constituents of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a><sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found in the epidermis actively combat infection.</li> <li>Water content of the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> drops towards the surface, creating hostile conditions for pathogenic <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> growth.<sup id="cite_ref-elias_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elias-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>An acidic <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> (around 5.0) and low amounts of water make the epidermis hostile to many microorganic pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-elias_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elias-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Non-pathogenic microorganisms on the surface of the epidermis help defend against pathogens by competing for <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, limiting its availability, and producing chemical <a href="/wiki/Secretions" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretions">secretions</a> that inhibit the growth of pathogenic microbiota.<sup id="cite_ref-elias_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elias-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dt>Permeability</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">Psychological</a> <a href="/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">stress</a>, through an increase in <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucocorticoids">glucocorticoids</a>, compromises the stratum corneum and thus the barrier function.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sudden and large shifts in <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> alter stratum corneum <a href="/wiki/Tissue_hydration" title="Tissue hydration">hydration</a> in a way that could allow entry of pathogenic microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_hydration">Skin hydration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Skin hydration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ability of the skin to hold water is primarily due to the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> and is critical for maintaining <a href="/wiki/Healthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthy">healthy</a> skin.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Skin hydration is quantified using <a href="/wiki/Corneometry" title="Corneometry">corneometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2459872_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2459872-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lipids arranged through a <a href="/wiki/Gradient" title="Gradient">gradient</a> and in an organized manner between the cells of the stratum corneum form a barrier to <a href="/wiki/Transepidermal_water_loss" title="Transepidermal water loss">transepidermal water loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_color">Skin color</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Skin color"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> in the epidermis is the main reason for variation in <a href="/wiki/Skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin color">skin color</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>. Melanin is found in the small <a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">melanosomes</a>, particles formed in melanocytes from where they are transferred to the surrounding keratinocytes. The size, number, and arrangement of the melanosomes vary between racial groups, but while the number of melanocytes can vary between different body regions, their numbers remain the same in individual body regions in all human beings. In white and Asian skin the melanosomes are packed in "aggregates", but in black skin they are larger and distributed more evenly. The number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes increases with <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a> exposure, while their distribution remain largely unaffected.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Touch">Touch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Touch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The skin contains specialized epidermal touch receptor cells called <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Merkel cells">Merkel cells</a>. Historically, the role of Merkel cells in sensing touch has been thought to be indirect, due their close association with nerve endings. However, recent work in mice and other model organisms demonstrates that Merkel cells intrinsically transform touch into electrical signals that are transmitted to the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_cutaneous_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cutaneous conditions">List of cutaneous conditions</a>.</div> <p><a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a> culture of keratinocytes to form a 3D structure (<a href="/wiki/Artificial_skin" title="Artificial skin">artificial skin</a>) recapitulating most of the properties of the epidermis is routinely used as a tool for <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drug</a> development and testing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hyperplasia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epidermal <a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">hyperplasia</a> (thickening resulting from <a href="/wiki/Cell_proliferation" title="Cell proliferation">cell proliferation</a>) has various forms: </p> <ul><li><b>Acanthosis</b> is diffuse <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">hyperplasia</a> (thickening of the skin, and not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Acanthocyte" title="Acanthocyte">acanthocytes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It implies increased thickness of the <a href="/wiki/Malpighian_layer" title="Malpighian layer">Malpighian layer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">stratum basale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">stratum spinosum</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Acanthosis_nigricans" title="Acanthosis nigricans">Acanthosis nigricans</a> is a black, poorly defined, velvety <a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">hyperpigmented</a> acanthosis, usually observed in the back of neck, axilla, and other folded regions of the skin.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Focal_epithelial_hyperplasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Focal epithelial hyperplasia">Focal epithelial hyperplasia</a></b> (Heck's disease) is an asymptomatic, benign neoplastic condition characterized by multiple white to pinkish <a href="/wiki/Papule" title="Papule">papules</a> that occur diffusely in the oral cavity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 411">: 411 </span></sup></li> <li><b>Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia</b> (PEH) is a benign condition characterized by hyperplasia of the epidermis and epithelium of <a href="/wiki/Skin_appendage" title="Skin appendage">skin appendages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ChakrabartiChakrabarti2014_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChakrabartiChakrabarti2014-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with irregular squamous strands extending down into the dermis,<sup id="cite_ref-Lynch2004_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lynch2004-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and closely simulating squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).<sup id="cite_ref-ChakrabartiChakrabarti2014_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChakrabartiChakrabarti2014-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Acanthosis nigricans"><img alt="Acanthosis nigricans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg/80px-Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg/120px-Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg/160px-Acanthosis-nigricans4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Acanthosis_nigricans" title="Acanthosis nigricans">Acanthosis nigricans</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hecks_disease.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heck's disease"><img alt="Heck's disease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hecks_disease.jpg/120px-Hecks_disease.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hecks_disease.jpg/180px-Hecks_disease.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hecks_disease.jpg/240px-Hecks_disease.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Heck%27s_disease" title="Heck's disease">Heck's disease</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia,_low_magnification.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia (PEH), low magnification, with acanthotic squamous epithelium with irregular thick finger-like downgrowths into the underlying dermis."><img alt="Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia (PEH), low magnification, with acanthotic squamous epithelium with irregular thick finger-like downgrowths into the underlying dermis." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg/90px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg/135px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg/181px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_low_magnification.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1360" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia (PEH), low magnification, with acanthotic squamous epithelium with irregular thick finger-like downgrowths into the underlying dermis.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia,_high_magnification.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="PEH, high magnification, with reactive-appearing squamous downgrowths with no significant cytologic atypia."><img alt="PEH, high magnification, with reactive-appearing squamous downgrowths with no significant cytologic atypia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg/120px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg/180px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg/240px-Histopathology_of_pseudoepitheliomatous_hyperplasia%2C_high_magnification.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1360" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">PEH, high magnification, with reactive-appearing squamous downgrowths with no significant cytologic atypia.</div> </li> </ul> <p>In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Hyperkeratosis" title="Hyperkeratosis">hyperkeratosis</a> is a thickening of the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a>, and is not necessarily due to hyperplasia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Epidermis and dermis of human skin"><img alt="Epidermis and dermis of human skin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG/150px-Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG/225px-Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG/300px-Normal_Epidermis_and_Dermis_with_Intradermal_Nevus_10x.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Epidermis and dermis of human skin</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skin.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section of all skin layers"><img alt="Cross-section of all skin layers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Skin.png/146px-Skin.png" decoding="async" width="146" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Skin.png/219px-Skin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Skin.png/292px-Skin.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1029" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cross-section of all skin layers</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Illustration of epidermal layers"><img alt="Illustration of epidermal layers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png/150px-Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png/225px-Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png/300px-Blausen_0353_Epidermis.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Illustration of epidermal layers</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Optical coherence tomography of fingertip"><img alt="Optical coherence tomography of fingertip" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif/144px-HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif" decoding="async" width="144" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="218" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</a> of fingertip</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">List of distinct cell types in the adult human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_repair" title="Skin repair">Skin repair</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFYoung2014" class="citation book cs1">Young B (2014). <i>Wheater's functional histology a text and colour atlas</i>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histochemistry+and+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=Expression+of+epithelial+sodium+channel+%28ENaC%29+and+CFTR+in+the+human+epidermis+and+epidermal+appendages&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=733-748&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8504408%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28130590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00418-016-1535-3&rft.aulast=Hanukoglu&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Boggula%2C+VR&rft.au=Vaknine%2C+H&rft.au=Sharma%2C+S&rft.au=Kleyman%2C+T&rft.au=Hanukoglu%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F890756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpidermis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetts2022" 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"Understanding Pseudoepitheliomatous Hyperplasia". <i>Pathology Case Reviews</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 36–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.pcr.0000117275.18471.5f">10.1097/01.pcr.0000117275.18471.5f</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1082-9784">1082-9784</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71497554">71497554</a>.</cite><span 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gland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Nail</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nail_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Nail matrix">Nail matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Nail plate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunula_(anatomy)" title="Lunula (anatomy)">Lunula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponychium" title="Eponychium">Eponychium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paronychium" class="mw-redirect" title="Paronychium">Paronychium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponychium" title="Hyponychium">Hyponychium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212743#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212743#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4152498-6">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Epidermis"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85044375">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Épiderme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11944119b">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Épiderme"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11944119b">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="epidermis (anatomie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph125319&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550777505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="http://tools.wmflabs.org/wikidata-externalid-url/?p=1323&url_prefix=https:%2F%2Fwww.unifr.ch%2Fifaa%2FPublic%2FEntryPage%2FTA98%20Tree%2FEntity%20TA98%20EN%2F&url_suffix=%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm&id=A16.0.00.009">Terminologia Anatomica</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&oldid=1254901694">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epidermis&oldid=1254901694</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Skin_anatomy" title="Category:Skin anatomy">Skin 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