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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Course of the war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Course of the war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Georgia_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Georgia_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Georgia campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Georgia_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mississippi_militia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mississippi_militia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mississippi militia</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Creek War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83" title="حرب الكريك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الكريك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creek_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Creek Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Creek Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Creek" title="Guerra Creek – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra Creek" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%ADksk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Kríkská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kríkská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Creek_(1813-1814)" title="Guerra Creek (1813-1814) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra Creek (1813-1814)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1" title="جنگ نهر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ نهر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_Creek" title="Guerre Creek – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre Creek" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%81%AC_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="크리크 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="크리크 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_creek" title="Guerra creek – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra creek" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="クリーク戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クリーク戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creekkrigen" title="Creekkrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Creekkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_z_Krikami" title="Wojna z Krikami – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna z Krikami" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Creek" title="Guerra Creek – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Creek" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Крикская война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Крикская война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creek-sota" title="Creek-sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Creek-sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creekkriget" title="Creekkriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Creekkriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Creek War (1813–1814). For the 1836 conflict, see <a href="/wiki/Creek_War_of_1836" title="Creek War of 1836">Creek War of 1836</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Creek War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg/220px-Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg/330px-Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg/440px-Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4467" data-file-height="3196" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a> surrendering to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>July 22, 1813 – August 9, 1814<br />(1 year, 2 weeks and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">American South</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p>United States victory </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Muscogee cede 22 million acres of land in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> to the United States</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281795-1818%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Red_Sticks" title="Red Sticks">Red Sticks</a></b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_confederacy" title="Tecumseh's confederacy">Tecumseh's confederacy</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_Floyd_(Georgia_politician)" title="John Floyd (Georgia politician)">John Floyd</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Claiborne" title="Ferdinand Claiborne">Ferdinand Claiborne</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_Coffee" title="John Coffee">John Coffee</a><br /><a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pushmataha" title="Pushmataha">Pushmataha</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mushulatubbee" title="Mushulatubbee">Mushulatubbee</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Menawa" title="Menawa">Menawa</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peter_McQueen" title="Peter McQueen">Peter McQueen</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> ~7,000</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> ~4,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> ~584 killed</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> ~1,597 killed</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Creek_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Creek War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Creek_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Creek War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Creek_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Creek War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Creek_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creek War</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1813</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Burnt Corn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashi_Skirmish" title="Bashi Skirmish">Bashi Skirmish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tallushatchee" title="Battle of Tallushatchee">Tallushatchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Talladega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_Fight_(Creek_War)" title="Canoe Fight (Creek War)">Canoe Fight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Autossee" title="Battle of Autossee">Autossee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Holy_Ground" title="Battle of Holy Ground">Holy Ground</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1814</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calebee_Creek" title="Battle of Calebee Creek">Calebee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Horseshoe Bend</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gulf_theater1813–1815" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_War_of_1812:_Gulf_Theater_1813%E2%80%931815" title="Template:Campaignbox War of 1812: Gulf Theater 1813–1815"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_War_of_1812:_Gulf_Theater_1813%E2%80%931815" title="Template talk:Campaignbox War of 1812: Gulf Theater 1813–1815"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_War_of_1812:_Gulf_Theater_1813%E2%80%931815" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox War of 1812: Gulf Theater 1813–1815"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gulf_theater1813–1815" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812#Gulf_Coast" title="War of 1812">Gulf theater</a><br />1813–1815</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>Prelude</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creeks</a></li></ul> <p><b>1813</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Charlotte,_Mobile" title="Fort Charlotte, Mobile">Fort Charlotte</a></li></ul> <p><b>1814</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Bowyer#First_battle" title="Fort Bowyer">1st Fort Bowyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Borgne" title="Battle of Lake Borgne">Lake Borgne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans#Villeré_Plantation" title="Battle of New Orleans">Villeré Plantation</a></li></ul> <p><b>1815</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_St._Philip_(1815)" title="Siege of Fort St. Philip (1815)">Fort St. Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Bowyer#Second_battle" title="Fort Bowyer">2nd Fort Bowyer</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Creek War</b> (also the <b>Red Stick War</b> or the <b>Creek Civil War</b>) was a regional conflict between opposing <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> factions, European powers, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> during the early 19th century. The Creek War began as a conflict within the tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a>, but the United States quickly became involved. British traders and Spanish colonial officials in Florida supplied the Red Sticks with weapons and equipment due to their shared interest in preventing the expansion of the United States into regions under their control. </p><p>The Creek War took place largely in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf Coast</a>. Major engagements of the war involved the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States military</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sticks" title="Red Sticks">Red Sticks</a> (or Upper Creeks), a Muscogee tribal faction who resisted <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">U.S. territorial expansion</a>. The United States formed an alliance with the traditional enemies of the Muscogee, the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> nations, as well as the Lower Creeks faction of the Muscogee. During the hostilities, the Red Sticks allied themselves to the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>. A Red Stick force aided British Naval Officer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cochrane" title="Alexander Cochrane">Alexander Cochrane</a>'s advance towards <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>. The Creek War effectively ended in August 1814 with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> forced the Creek confederacy to surrender more than 21 million acres in what is now southern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> and central Alabama.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198543_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198543-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/John_K._Mahon" title="John K. Mahon">John K. Mahon</a>, the Creek War "was as much a civil war among Creeks as between red and white".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war was also a continuation of <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Northwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Northwest">Old Northwest</a>, and, although a conflict framed within the centuries-long <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a>, it is usually more identified with, and considered an integral part of, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley20171_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley20171-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20092_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20092-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Creek militancy was a response to increasing United States cultural and territorial encroachment into their traditional lands. However, the war's alternate designation as the "Creek Civil War" comes from the divisions within the tribe over cultural, political, economic, and geographic matters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the time of the Creek War, the Upper Creeks controlled the <a href="/wiki/Coosa_River" title="Coosa River">Coosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tallapoosa_River" title="Tallapoosa River">Tallapoosa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alabama_River" title="Alabama River">Alabama Rivers</a> that lead to <a href="/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama" title="Mobile, Alabama">Mobile</a>; while the Lower Creeks controlled the <a href="/wiki/Chattahoochee_River" title="Chattahoochee River">Chattahoochee River</a>, which flows into <a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_Bay" title="Apalachicola Bay">Apalachicola Bay</a>. The Lower Creek were trading partners with the United States and, unlike the Upper Creeks, had adopted more of their cultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20094–5_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20094–5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_conflict">Territorial conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Territorial conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The provinces of <a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a>, governed by Spanish and British firms like <a href="/wiki/Panton,_Leslie_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Panton, Leslie and Company">Panton, Leslie, and Co.</a>, provided most of the European trading goods into Creek country. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Pensacola,_Florida" title="History of Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mobile,_Alabama" title="History of Mobile, Alabama">Mobile</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>, controlled the outlets of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">U.S. Mississippi Territory</a>'s rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund2006?_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund2006?-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Territorial conflicts between France, Spain, Britain, and the United States along the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf Coast</a> that had previously helped the Creeks to maintain control over most of the United States' southwestern territory had shifted dramatically due to the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_West_Florida" title="Republic of West Florida">West Florida Rebellion</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. This made long-standing intra-Creek trade and political alliances more tenuous than ever. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_New_York_(1790)" title="Treaty of New York (1790)">Treaty of New York</a> (1790), <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Colerain" title="Treaty of Colerain">Treaty of Colerain</a> (1796), <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wilkinson" title="Fort Wilkinson">Treaty of Fort Wilkinson</a> (1802), and Treaty of Washington (1805), the Creek ceded parts of their Georgia territory east of the <a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_River" title="Ocmulgee River">Ocmulgee River</a>. In 1804, the United States claimed the city of Mobile under the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_Act" title="Mobile Act">Mobile Act</a>. The 1805 treaty with the Creek also allowed the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Road_(Creek_lands)" title="Federal Road (Creek lands)">Federal Road</a> that linked <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> to the newly acquired <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">port</a> city of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, which partially stretched through Creek territories. </p><p>During and after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the United States wished to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Line" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Line">Indian Line</a> which had been established by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a>. The Indian Line created a boundary for colonial settlement in order to prevent illegal encroachment into Indian lands, and also helped the U.S. government maintain control over Indian trade. Still, traders and settlers often violated the terms of the treaties establishing the Indian Line, and frontier settlement by colonists in Indian lands was one of the arguments the United States used to expand its territory. </p><p>These increasing territorial grabs westward into Creek territory (which included parts of Spanish Florida), coupled with the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> (which neither the British nor the Spaniards recognized at the time), compelled the British and Spanish governments to strengthen existing alliances with the Creek. In 1810, following the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana#1810–1812:_Republic_of_West_Florida_&_Orleans_Territory" title="History of Baton Rouge, Louisiana">occupation of Baton Rouge</a> during the West Florida Rebellion, the United States sent an expeditionary force to occupy Mobile. As a result, Mobile was jointly occupied by weak detachments of American and Spanish soldiers until <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Armstrong,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John Armstrong, Jr.">John Armstrong</a> ordered General <a href="/wiki/James_Wilkinson" title="James Wilkinson">James Wilkinson</a> to force the Spaniards to turn over control of the city in February 1813. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Patriot_War_(Seminole_Wars)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriot War (Seminole Wars)">Patriot Army</a> captured parts of East Florida from 1811–1815. After <a href="/wiki/Fort_Charlotte,_Mobile" title="Fort Charlotte, Mobile">Fort Charlotte</a> was surrendered in April, the Spaniards focused on protecting <a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola</a> from the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201718–24_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201718–24-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spaniards decided to support the Creeks in an attack on the United States and in defense of their homeland, but were greatly hindered by their weak position in the Floridas and lack of supplies even for their own army. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_assimilation_and_religious_revival">Cultural assimilation and religious revival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cultural assimilation and religious revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg/330px-Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg/440px-Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians_-_higher_resolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Painting (1805) of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a> on his plantation, instructing <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Creeks</a> in European technology</figcaption></figure> <p>The splintering of the Creek peoples along progressive and nativist lines had roots dating back to the eighteenth century, but came to a head after 1811.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212,_165_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201212,_165-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red Stick militancy was a response to the economic and cultural crises in Creek society caused by the adoption of Western trade goods and culture. From the 16th century, the Creeks had formed successful trade alliances with European empires, but the drastic fall in the price of deerskin from 1783 to 1793 made it more difficult for individuals to repay their debt, while at the same time the assimilation process made American goods more necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund2012178_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund2012178-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Red Sticks particularly resisted the "civilization" programs administered by the <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">U.S. Indian agent</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a>, who had stronger alliances among the towns of the Lower Creek. Some of the "progressive" Creek began to adopt American farming practices as their game disappeared, and as more Anglo settlers assimilated into Creek towns and families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leaders of the Lower Creek towns in present-day Georgia included Bird Tail King (<i>Fushatchie Mico</i>) of <a href="/wiki/Cusseta,_Georgia" title="Cusseta, Georgia">Cusseta</a>, Little Prince (<i>Tustunnuggee Hopoi</i>) of Broken Arrow, and <a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a> (<i>Tunstunuggee Hutkee</i>, White Warrior) of <a href="/wiki/Coweta_(tribal_town)" title="Coweta (tribal town)">Coweta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the most prominent Creek chiefs before the Creek War were "mixed-bloods", like William McGillivray and William McIntosh (who were on opposing sides of the Creek Civil War). </p><p>Before the Creek War and the War of 1812, most U.S. politicians saw <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">removal</a> to be the only alternative to the assimilation of native peoples into Western culture. The Creeks, on the other hand, blended their own culture with adopted trade goods and political terms, and had no intention of abandoning their land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov200973_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov200973-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Americanization of the Creeks was more prevalent in western Georgia among the Lower Creeks than in Upper Creek towns, and came from internal and external processes. The U.S. government's and Benjamin Hawkins' pressure on the Creeks to assimilate stood in contrast to the more natural blending of cultures that came from a long tradition of cohabitation and cultural appropriation, beginning with white traders in Indian country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund200658_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund200658-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a> came to the area to encourage the peoples to join his movement to throw the Americans out of Native American territories. Previously, he had united tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territory" title="Northwest Territory">Northwest</a> (Ohio and related territories) to fight against U.S. settlers after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War for Independence</a>. In 1811, Tecumseh and his brother <a href="/wiki/Tenskwatawa" title="Tenskwatawa">Tenskwatawa</a> attended the annual Creek council at <a href="/wiki/Tukabatchee" title="Tukabatchee">Tukabatchee</a>. Tecumseh delivered an hour-long speech to an audience of 5,000 Creeks as well as an American delegation including Hawkins. Although the Americans dismissed Tecumseh as non-threatening, his message of resistance to Anglo encroachment was well received among Creek and <a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a>, especially among more conservative and traditional elders and young men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201711–13_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201711–13-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobilization of recruits to Tecumseh's cause was bolstered by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1811" title="Great Comet of 1811">Great Comet of 1811</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Madrid_earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="New Madrid earthquakes">New Madrid earthquakes</a> of 1811–12, which were taken as evidence of Tecumseh's supernatural powers. The war party rallied around prophets who had traveled with Tecumseh and remained with the Creek, influencing newly converted Creek religious leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_McQueen" title="Peter McQueen">Peter McQueen</a> of <i>Talisi</i> (now <a href="/wiki/Tallassee,_Alabama" title="Tallassee, Alabama">Tallassee, Alabama</a>); <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Francis_(Hillis_Hadjo)" title="Josiah Francis (Hillis Hadjo)">Josiah Francis (Hillis Hadjo)</a> (Francis the Prophet) of <i><a href="/wiki/Autauga" class="mw-redirect" title="Autauga">Autauga</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Koasati" class="mw-redirect" title="Koasati">Koasati</a> town; and High-head Jim (<i>Cusseta Tustunnuggee</i>) and Paddy Walsh, both <a href="/wiki/Alabama_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama (people)">Alabamas</a>, were among the spiritual leaders responding to rising concerns and the prophetic message.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198540–42_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198540–42-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The militant faction of Creek stood in opposition of the Creek Confederacy Council's official policies, particularly in regard to foreign relations with the United States. The rising war party began to be called "<a href="/wiki/Red_Sticks" title="Red Sticks">Red Sticks</a>" at this time—in Creek culture, red 'sticks' or clubs symbolize war, while white sticks represent peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201289–93_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201289–93-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_war">Course of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Course of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creek_war_1813-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Creek_war_1813-14.jpg/220px-Creek_war_1813-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Creek_war_1813-14.jpg/330px-Creek_war_1813-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Creek_war_1813-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>Map of battle sites in the Creek War</figcaption></figure> <p>Creeks who did not support the war became targets for the prophets and their followers, and began to be murdered in their sleep or burned alive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warriors of the prophets' parties also began to attack the property of their enemies, burning plantations and destroying livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first major offensive of the civil war was the Red Stick attack on the Upper Creek town, and seat of the council, at <a href="/wiki/Tukabatchee" title="Tukabatchee">Tuckabatchee</a> on July 22, 1813.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, a war party of "friendly" Creeks organized under <a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a>, Big Warrior, and Little Prince attacked 150 <a href="/wiki/Uchee" class="mw-redirect" title="Uchee">Uchee</a> warriors who were traveling to meet up with Red Stick Creeks in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">Mississippi Territory</a>. After this offensive in the beginning of October 1813, the party burned a number of Red Stick towns before retiring to <a href="/wiki/Coweta_County,_Georgia" title="Coweta County, Georgia">Coweta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201752_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201752-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there were a few limited attacks on whites in 1812 and early 1813, <a href="/wiki/Indian_agent" title="Indian agent">Indian agent</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Benjamin Hawkins">Benjamin Hawkins</a> did not believe that the disruption in the Creek Nation or the increasing war dances were a cause for concern. But in February 1813, a small war party of Red Sticks, led by Little Warrior, were returning from <a href="/wiki/Detroit,_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit</a> when they killed two families of settlers along the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a>. Hawkins demanded that the Creek turn over Little Warrior and his six companions, the standard operating procedure between the nations up to that point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889777–778_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889777–778-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first clashes between the Red Sticks and United States forces occurred on July 27, 1813. A group of territorial militia intercepted a party of Red Sticks returning from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>, where they had acquired gunpowder, blankets and food from the Spanish governor at <a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201726_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201726-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Red Sticks escaped and the soldiers looted what they found. Seeing the Americans looting, the Creek regrouped and attacked and defeated the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201730–33_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201730–33-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn" title="Battle of Burnt Corn">Battle of Burnt Corn</a>, as the exchange became known, broadened the Creek Civil War to include American forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chiefs <a href="/wiki/Peter_McQueen" title="Peter McQueen">Peter McQueen</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a> led an attack on Fort Mims, north of <a href="/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama" title="Mobile, Alabama">Mobile</a>, on August 30, 1813. The Red Sticks' goal was to strike at mixed-blood Creek of the <a href="/wiki/Tensaw,_Alabama" title="Tensaw, Alabama">Tensaw</a> settlement who had taken refuge at the fort. The warriors attacked the fort and killed a total of 400 to 500 people, including women and children and numerous white settlers. The attack became known as the <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mims_massacre" title="Fort Mims massacre">Fort Mims massacre</a> and became a rallying cause for American militia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilentz200523–25_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilentz200523–25-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Red Sticks subsequently attacked other forts in the area, including <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sinquefield" title="Fort Sinquefield">Fort Sinquefield</a>. Panic spread among settlers throughout the Southwestern frontier, and they demanded U.S. government intervention. Federal forces were busy fighting the British and Northern Woodland tribes, led by the <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a> in the Northwest. Affected states called up <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militias</a> to deal with the threat. </p><p>After the Battle of Burnt Corn, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">U.S. Secretary of War</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Armstrong,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John Armstrong, Jr.">John Armstrong</a> notified General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a>, Commander of the 6th Military District, that the U.S. was prepared to take action against the Creek Confederacy. Furthermore, if Spain were found to be supporting the Creeks, an assault on <a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola</a> would ensue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991232–233_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991232–233-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Claiborne" title="Ferdinand Claiborne">Ferdinand Claiborne</a>, a militia commander in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">Mississippi Territory</a>, was concerned about the weakness of his sector on the western border of the Creek territory, and advocated preemptive strikes. But Major General Thomas Flourney, commander of 7th Military District, refused his requests. He intended to carry out a defensive American strategy. Meanwhile, settlers in that region sought refuge in blockhouses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991234_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991234-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> legislature authorized Governor <a href="/wiki/Willie_Blount" title="Willie Blount">Willie Blount</a> to raise 5,000 militia for a three-month tour of duty. Blount called out a force of 2,500 <a href="/wiki/West_Tennessee" title="West Tennessee">West Tennessee</a> men under Colonel <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> to "repel an approaching invasion ... and to afford aid and relief to ... Mississippi Territory".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini197772_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini197772-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also summoned a force of 2,500 from <a href="/wiki/East_Tennessee" title="East Tennessee">East Tennessee</a> under Major General <a href="/wiki/John_Alexander_Cocke" title="John Alexander Cocke">John Alexander Cocke</a>. Jackson and Cocke were not ready to move until early October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini197772_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini197772-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the state actions, U.S. Indian agent Hawkins organized the friendly Lower Creek under Major <a href="/wiki/William_McIntosh" title="William McIntosh">William McIntosh</a>, an Indian chief, to aid the Georgia and Tennessee militias in actions against the Red Sticks. At the request of Chief Federal Agent <a href="/wiki/Return_J._Meigs,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Return J. Meigs, Sr.">Return J. Meigs</a> (called "White Eagle" by the Indians for the color of his hair), the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_(1794%E2%80%931907)" title="Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)">Cherokee Nation</a> voted to join the Americans in their fight against the Red Sticks. Under the command of Chief <a href="/wiki/Major_Ridge" title="Major Ridge">Major Ridge</a>, 200 Cherokee fought with the Tennessee Militia under Colonel Andrew Jackson. </p><p>At most, the Red Stick force consisted of 4,000 warriors, possessing perhaps 1,000 muskets. They had never been involved in a large-scale war, not even against neighboring American Indians. Early in the war, General Cocke observed that arrows "form a very principal part of the enemy's arms for warfare, every man having a bow with a bundle of arrows, which is used after the first fire with the gun until a leisure time for loading offers".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889782–785_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889782–785-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Creek tried to remain friendly to the United States, but, after Fort Mims, few European Americans in the region distinguished between friendly and unfriendly Creeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Holy_Ground" title="Battle of Holy Ground">Holy Ground</a> (Econochaca), located near the junction of the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_River" title="Alabama River">Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coosa_River" title="Coosa River">Coosa</a> Rivers, was the heart of the Red Stick Confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was about 150 miles (240 km) from the nearest supply point available to any of the three American armies. The easiest attack route was from Georgia through the line of forts on the frontier and then along a good road that led to the Upper Creek towns near the Holy Ground, including nearby <a href="/wiki/Hickory_Ground" title="Hickory Ground">Hickory Ground</a>. Another route was north from Mobile along the Alabama River. Jackson's route of advance was south from Tennessee through a mountainous and pathless terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889783_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889783-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Georgia_campaign">Georgia campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Georgia campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By August, the Georgia Volunteer Army and state militia had been mobilized in anticipation of war with the Creeks. The news of Fort Mims first reached Georgia on September 16, and was taken as legal grounds to begin a military offensive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009159–161_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009159–161-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Benjamin Hawkins wrote to Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/John_Floyd_(Georgia_politician)" title="John Floyd (Georgia politician)">John Floyd</a> on September 30 that the Red Stick war party had "received 25 small guns" at Pensacola.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The immediate concern of the force was the defense of Georgia's "<a href="/wiki/Indian_Line" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Line">Indian Line</a>", separating Indian territory from U.S. territory at the <a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_River" title="Ocmulgee River">Ocmulgee River</a>. </p><p>The proximity of <a href="/wiki/Jasper_County,_Georgia" title="Jasper County, Georgia">Jasper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jones_County,_Georgia" title="Jones County, Georgia">Jones</a> counties to hostile Creek towns resulted in a regiment of Georgia volunteer militia under Major General David Adams. John Floyd was made general of the main Georgia army (in September 1812 and numbering 2,362 men). The Georgia Army was aided by Cherokee and independent Creek allies, as well as a number of Georgia volunteer militia. Floyd's task was to advance to the junction of the Coosa and <a href="/wiki/Tallapoosa_River" title="Tallapoosa River">Tallapoosa</a> rivers and join the Army of Tennessee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201751_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201751-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the state's failure to secure supplies early enough in the year, Floyd gained a few months to train and drill the men at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Fort Benjamin Hawkins">Fort Hawkins</a>. On November 24, General Floyd crossed the <a href="/wiki/Chattahoochee_River" title="Chattahoochee River">Chattahoochee</a> and established <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mitchell_Historic_Site" title="Fort Mitchell Historic Site">Fort Mitchell</a>, where he was joined by 300-400 Creek from <a href="/wiki/Coweta_(tribal_town)" title="Coweta (tribal town)">Coweta</a>, organized under McIntosh. With these allies and 950 of his men, Floyd began his advance towards the juncture of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers where he was supposed to rendezvous with Jackson. His first target was the major town of Autossee on the Tallapoosa River, a Red Stick stronghold only 20 miles from the Coosa River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201753_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201753-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 29, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Autossee" title="Battle of Autossee">he attacked Autossee</a>. Floyd's losses were 11 killed and 54 wounded. Floyd estimated that 200 Creek were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889788–789_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889788–789-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having achieved the destruction of the town, Floyd returned to Fort Mitchell. </p><p>The second westward advance of Floyd's troops departed Fort Mitchell with a force of 1,100 militia and 400 friendly Creek. Along the way they fortified <a href="/wiki/Fort_Bainbridge" title="Fort Bainbridge">Fort Bainbridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hull" title="Fort Hull">Fort Hull</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Road_(Creek_lands)" title="Federal Road (Creek lands)">Federal Road</a>. On January 26, 1813, they set up a camp on the Callabee Creek near the abandoned site of Autossee. Red Stick chiefs <a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a>, Paddy Walsh, High-head Jim, and William McGillivray raised a combined force of at least 1,300 warriors to stop the advance. This was the largest combined force raised by the Creek during the entire war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009168_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009168-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 29, the Red Sticks launched an attack on the American camp at dawn. After daylight, Floyd's army repulsed the attack. Casualty figures vary for Floyd's force, from 17 to 22 killed, and 132 to 147 wounded. Floyd estimated Red Stick casualties as 37 killed, including Chief High-head Jim. Georgia retreated to Fort Mitchell with Floyd, who was severely wounded in the leg. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calebee_Creek" title="Battle of Calebee Creek">Battle of Calebee Creek</a> was Georgia's last offensive operation of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mississippi_militia">Mississippi militia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mississippi militia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In October, General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Flournoy_(general)" title="Thomas Flournoy (general)">Thomas Flournoy</a> organized a force of about 1,000—consisting of the <a href="/wiki/3rd_U.S._Infantry_Regiment_(The_Old_Guard)" title="3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard)">Third United States Infantry</a>, militia, volunteers, and <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw Indians</a>—at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Stoddert" title="Fort Stoddert">Fort Stoddert</a>. General Claiborne, ordered to lay waste to Creek property near the junction of the Alabama and <a href="/wiki/Tombigbee_River" title="Tombigbee River">Tombigbee</a> Rivers, advanced from <a href="/wiki/St._Stephens,_Alabama" title="St. Stephens, Alabama">Fort St. Stephen</a>. He achieved some destruction but no military engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889789_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889789-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At roughly the same time, Captain <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dale" title="Samuel Dale">Samuel Dale</a> left <a href="/wiki/Fort_Madison_(Alabama)" title="Fort Madison (Alabama)">Fort Madison</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Suggsville,_Alabama" title="Suggsville, Alabama">Suggsville</a>) going southward to the Alabama River. On November 12 a small party rowed out to intercept a war canoe. Dale wound up alone in the canoe in hand-to-hand combat with four warriors, an encounter which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Canoe_Fight_(Creek_War)" title="Canoe Fight (Creek War)">Canoe Fight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continuing to a point about 85 miles (140 km) north of Fort Stoddert, Claiborne established <a href="/wiki/Fort_Claiborne" title="Fort Claiborne">Fort Claiborne</a>. On December 23, he encountered a small force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Holy_Ground" title="Battle of Holy Ground">Holy Ground</a> and burned 260 houses. <a href="/wiki/William_Weatherford" title="William Weatherford">William Weatherford</a> was nearly captured during this engagement. Casualties for the Mississippians were 1 killed and 6 wounded. 30 Creek soldiers were killed in the engagement, however. Because of supply shortages, Claiborne withdrew to Fort St. Stephens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Carolina_and_South_Carolina_militia">North Carolina and South Carolina militia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: North Carolina and South Carolina militia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Graham_(North_Carolina_soldier)" title="Joseph Graham (North Carolina soldier)">Joseph Graham</a>'s brigade of troops from North and South Carolina, including Colonel Reuben Nash's South Carolina militia, deployed along the Georgia frontier to deal with the Red Sticks. Colonel Nash's South Carolina regiment of volunteer militia traveled from South Carolina at the end of January 1814. The militia marched to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Road_(Creek_lands)" title="Federal Road (Creek lands)">Federal Road</a> in <a href="/wiki/Augusta,_Georgia" title="Augusta, Georgia">Augusta, Georgia</a>, walking to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Benjamin_Hawkins" title="Fort Benjamin Hawkins">Fort Benjamin Hawkins</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Macon,_Georgia" title="Macon, Georgia">Macon, Georgia</a>) en route to reinforce the various forts including <a href="/wiki/Fort_Mitchell_Historic_Site" title="Fort Mitchell Historic Site">Fort Mitchell</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Phenix_City,_Alabama" title="Phenix City, Alabama">Phenix City, Alabama</a>), <a href="/wiki/Fort_Bainbridge" title="Fort Bainbridge">Fort Bainbridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Hull" title="Fort Hull">Fort Hull</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Decatur_(Alabama)" title="Fort Decatur (Alabama)">Fort Decatur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other companies in the Nash's regiment were at Fort Mitchell by July 1814. Graham's brigade participated in only a few skirmishes before returning home. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tennessee_campaign">Tennessee campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tennessee campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg/220px-Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg/330px-Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg/440px-Battle_Horseshoe_Bend_1814.jpg 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>U.S. troops storm the breastworks at <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_Bend_National_Military_Park" title="Horseshoe Bend National Military Park">Horseshoe Bend</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although Jackson's mission was to defeat the Creek, his larger objective was to move on <a href="/wiki/Pensacola,_Florida" title="Pensacola, Florida">Pensacola</a>. Jackson's plan was to move south, build roads, destroy Upper Creek towns, and then later proceed to Mobile to stage an attack on Spanish-held Pensacola. He had two problems: logistics and short enlistments. When Jackson began his advance, the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_River" title="Tennessee River">Tennessee River</a> was low, making it difficult to move supplies, and there was little forage for his horses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991236_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991236-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889784_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889784-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On October 10, Jackson, along with 2,500 troops, set out on the expedition, his arm in a sling. Jackson established <a href="/wiki/Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a> as a supply base. On November 3, his top cavalry officer, Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/John_Coffee" title="John Coffee">John Coffee</a>, defeated a band of Red Sticks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tallushatchee" title="Battle of Tallushatchee">Battle of Tallushatchee</a>. It was a brutal battle, and many Red Sticks, including some women and children, were killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini1977192–193_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini1977192–193-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this, Jackson received a call for help from 150 allied Creeks besieged by 700 Red Stick warriors. Jackson marched his troops to relieve the siege, and won another decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Battle of Talladega</a> on November 9.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilentz200525–28_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilentz200525–28-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Talladega, however, Jackson was plagued by supply shortages and discipline problems arising from his men's short term enlistments. <a href="/wiki/John_Alexander_Cocke" title="John Alexander Cocke">John Alexander Cocke</a>, with the East Tennessee Militia, took the field on October 12. His route of march was from <a href="/wiki/Knoxville,_Tennessee" title="Knoxville, Tennessee">Knoxville</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga</a> and then along the Coosa River toward <a href="/wiki/Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a>. Because of rivalry between the East and West Tennessee militias, Cocke was in no hurry to join Jackson, particularly after he angered Jackson by mistakenly attacking a friendly village on November 17. When he finally reached Fort Strother on December 12, the East Tennessee men only had 10 days remaining on their enlistments. Jackson had no choice but to dismiss them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991238–239_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991238–239-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Brigadier General Coffee, who had returned to Tennessee for remounts, wrote Jackson that the cavalry had deserted. By the end of 1813, Jackson was down to a single regiment whose enlistments were due to expire in mid-January. </p><p>Although Governor <a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a> had ordered a new levee of 2,500 troops, Jackson would not be up to full strength until the end of February. When a draft of 900 raw recruits arrived unexpectedly on January 14, Jackson was down to a cadre of 103 and Coffee, who had been "abandoned by his men".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991237–239_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991237–239-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since new men had enlistment contracts of only sixty days, Jackson decided to get the most out of his untried force. He departed Fort Strother on January 17 and marched toward the village of Emuckfaw to cooperate with the Georgia Militia. However, this was a risky decision. It was a long march through difficult terrain against a numerically superior force, the men were inexperienced, undisciplined, and insubordinate, and a defeat would have prolonged the war. After two indecisive battles at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a>, Jackson returned to Fort Strother and did not resume the offensive until mid-March.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791–793_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791–793-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of the <a href="/wiki/39th_United_States_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="39th United States Infantry">39th United States Infantry</a> on February 6, 1814, provided Jackson a disciplined core for his force, which ultimately grew to about 5,000 men. After Governor Blount ordered the second draft of Tennessee militia, Cocke, with a force of 2,000 six-month men, once again marched from <a href="/wiki/Knoxville,_Tennessee" title="Knoxville, Tennessee">Knoxville</a> to Fort Strother. Cocke's men mutinied when they learned that Jackson's men only had three-month enlistments. Cocke tried to pacify his men, but Jackson misunderstood the situation and ordered Cocke's arrest as an instigator. The East Tennessee militia reported to Fort Strother without further comment on their term of service. Cocke was later cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889798_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889798-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jackson spent the next month building roads and training his force. In mid-March, he moved against the Red Stick force concentrated on the <a href="/wiki/Tallapoosa_River" title="Tallapoosa River">Tallapoosa</a> at Tohopeka (Horseshoe Bend). He first moved south along the <a href="/wiki/Coosa_River" title="Coosa River">Coosa</a>, about half the distance to the Creek position, and established a new outpost at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Williams_(Alabama)" title="Fort Williams (Alabama)">Fort Williams</a>. Leaving another garrison there, he then moved on Tohopeka with a force of about 3,000 effective fighting men augmented by 600 Cherokee and Lower Creek allies. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a>, which occurred on March 27, was a decisive victory for Jackson, effectively ending the Red Stick resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889795-796_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889795-796-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Results">Results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Land_Ceded_by_Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Map_of_Land_Ceded_by_Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson.png/220px-Map_of_Land_Ceded_by_Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Map_of_Land_Ceded_by_Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson.png 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="336" /></a><figcaption>Territory ceded by the Creek Confederation in 1814 under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On August 9, 1814, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> forced headmen of both the Upper and Lower towns of Creek to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a>. Despite protest of the Creek chiefs who had fought alongside Jackson, the Creek Nation ceded 21,086,793 acres (85,335 km²) of land—approximately half of present-day <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> and part of southern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>—to the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the United States">United States government</a>. Even though the Creek War was largely a civil war among the Creek, Andrew Jackson recognized no difference between his Lower Creek allies and the Red Sticks who fought against him. He took the lands of both for what he considered the security needs of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198543_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198543-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson forced the Creek to cede 1.9 million acres (7,700 km²) that was also claimed as hunting grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a>, who had fought as U.S. allies during the Creek War as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011123_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011123-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the Red Sticks subdued, Jackson turned his focus on the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf Coast</a> region in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a>. On his own initiative, he invaded <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">drove a British force out of Pensacola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991350_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991350-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pensacola had been a supply point for Red Sticks (see <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burnt_Corn_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Burnt Corn Creek">Battle of Burnt Corn Creek</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Corps_of_Colonial_Marines" title="Corps of Colonial Marines">Corps of Colonial Marines</a> at <a href="/wiki/Prospect_Bluff_Historic_Sites" title="Prospect Bluff Historic Sites">Prospect Bluff</a>. He defeated the British at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a> on January 8, 1815. </p><p>On-going issues during 1816-1817 between residents along the border of the United States and Spanish Florida resulted in several incidents such as the battles of the <a href="/wiki/Negro_Fort" title="Negro Fort">Negro Fort</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fowltown" title="Battle of Fowltown">Fowltown</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Scott_massacre" title="Scott massacre">Scott massacare</a>. In 1818, Jackson again invaded Spanish Florida, where some of the Red Stick leaders had fled, in an expedition known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Seminole_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Seminole War">First Seminole War</a>. </p><p>As a result of these victories, Jackson became a national figure and eventually was elected the seventh <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> in 1829. As president, Andrew Jackson advocated the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a>, passed by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> in 1830, which authorized negotiation of treaties for exchange of land and payment of annuities, and authorized forceful removal of the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern tribes">Southeastern tribes</a> to prescribed <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> now known as the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Campaign_Medal" title="Indian Campaign Medal">Indian Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian massacres">List of Indian massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mayfield" title="George Mayfield">George Mayfield</a>, interpreter and spy for Andrew Jackson, later honored by the Creek for his integrity during treaty negotiations</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thrower. "Casualties and Consequences of the Creek War," in Rethinking Tohopeka<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201212-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thrower. "Casualties and Consequences of the Creek War," in Rethinking Tohopeka<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201212-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams 793-794, Mahon 242, the second casualty estimates are Mahon's</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: Company muster rolls of Captain John Wallace (one of Nash's companies) list the company near Fort Hawkins on Feb. 9, near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Jackson_(Alabama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Jackson (Alabama)">Fort Jackson (Alabama)</a> on May 13, and near Fort Hawkins on July 13.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Citations</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198543-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198543_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198543_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1985">Green 1985</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_K._Mahon" title="John K. Mahon">Mahon, John K.</a>, <i>The History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842</i> (1967), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Florida Press">University of Florida Press</a>. p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley20171-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley20171_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20092-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20092_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaselkov2009">Waselkov 2009</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20094–5-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov20094–5_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaselkov2009">Waselkov 2009</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund2006?-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund2006?_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2006">Braund 2006</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201718–24-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201718–24_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, pp. 18–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201212,_165-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212,_165_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2012">Braund 2012</a>, pp. 12, 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201212-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201212_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2012">Braund 2012</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund2012178-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund2012178_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2012">Braund 2012</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198538–39_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1985">Green 1985</a>, pp. 38–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov200973-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov200973_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaselkov2009">Waselkov 2009</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund200658-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund200658_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2006">Braund 2006</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201711–13-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201711–13_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, pp. 11–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201714–15_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen198540–42-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen198540–42_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1985">Green 1985</a>, pp. 40–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraund201289–93-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraund201289–93_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraund2012">Braund 2012</a>, pp. 89–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011104-105_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhle2011">Ehle 2011</a>, p. 104-105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201752-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201752_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889777–778-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889777–778_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, pp. 777–778.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201726-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201726_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201730–33-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201730–33_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, pp. 30–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilentz200523–25-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilentz200523–25_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilentz2005">Wilentz 2005</a>, pp. 23–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991232–233-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991232–233_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, pp. 232–233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991234-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991234_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini197772-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini197772_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini197772_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemini1977">Remini 1977</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889787_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 787.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889782–785-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889782–785_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, pp. 782–785.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991235_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889783-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889783_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 783.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009159–161-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009159–161_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaselkov2009">Waselkov 2009</a>, pp. 159–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hawkins to Floyd, September 30, 1813, in Grant, <i>Letters, Journals, and Writings of Benjamin Hawkins</i>, Vol. Two 1802–1816, Beehive Press, 1980. 668-69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201751-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201751_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwsley201753-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwsley201753_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOwsley2017">Owsley 2017</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991240_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889788–789-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889788–789_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, pp. 788–789.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009168-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaselkov2009168_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaselkov2009">Waselkov 2009</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991239_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889789-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889789_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 789.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991236-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991236_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889784-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889784_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 784.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemini1977192–193-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemini1977192–193_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemini1977">Remini 1977</a>, pp. 192–193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilentz200525–28-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilentz200525–28_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilentz2005">Wilentz 2005</a>, pp. 25–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991238–239-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991238–239_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, pp. 238–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 791.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991237–239-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991237–239_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, pp. 237–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791–793-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889791–793_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, pp. 791–793.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889798-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889798_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 798.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams1889795-796-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams1889795-796_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams1889">Adams 1889</a>, p. 795-796.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhle2011123-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhle2011123_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEhle2011">Ehle 2011</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon1991350-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon1991350_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMahon1991">Mahon 1991</a>, p. 350.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdams1889" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brooks_Adams" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Brooks Adams">Adams, Henry</a> (1889). <i>History of the United States of America During the Administrations of James Madison</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+United+States+of+America+During+the+Administrations+of+James+Madison&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraund2006" class="citation book cs1">Braund, Kathryn E. Holland, ed. (2006). <i>Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685–1815</i>. University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deerskins+and+Duffels%3A+The+Creek+Indian+Trade+with+Anglo-America%2C+1685%E2%80%931815&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraund2012" class="citation book cs1">Braund, Kathryn E. Holland, ed. (2012). <i>Tohopeka: Rethinking the Creek War & the War of 1812</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pebble_Hill" title="Pebble Hill">Pebble Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5711-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5711-5"><bdi>978-0-8173-5711-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tohopeka%3A+Rethinking+the+Creek+War+%26+the+War+of+1812&rft.pub=Pebble+Hill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-5711-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Burstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrew Burstein (page does not exist)">Andrew Burstein</a> <i>The Passions of Andrew Jackson</i> (Alfred A. Knopf 2003), p. 106 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-41428-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-41428-2">0-375-41428-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhle2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ehle" title="John Ehle">Ehle, John</a> (2011). <i>Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation</i>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30-779383-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30-779383-6"><bdi>978-0-30-779383-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trail+of+Tears%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-30-779383-6&rft.aulast=Ehle&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1985" class="citation book cs1">Green, Michael D. (1985). <i>The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis</i>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7015-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7015-2"><bdi>978-0-8032-7015-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Indian+Removal%3A+Creek+Government+and+Society+in+Crisis&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7015-2&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Holland, James W. "Andrew Jackson and the Creek War: Victory at the Horseshoe Bend", <i><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama Review">Alabama Review</a></i>, 1968 21(4): 243–275.</li> <li>Kanon, Thomas. "'A Slow, Laborious Slaughter': The Battle Of Horseshoe Bend." <i>Tennessee Historical Quarterly</i>, 1999 58(1): 2–15.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLossing1869" class="citation book cs1">Lossing, Benson J. (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.history.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~wcarr1/Lossing2/Chap34.html">"XXXIV: War Against the Creek Indians."</a>. <i>Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812</i>. New York: Harper & Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XXXIV%3A+War+Against+the+Creek+Indians.&rft.btitle=Pictorial+Field-Book+of+the+War+of+1812&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1869&rft.aulast=Lossing&rft.aufirst=Benson+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffreepages.history.rootsweb.ancestry.com%2F~wcarr1%2FLossing2%2FChap34.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span> useful for illustrations</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahon1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_K._Mahon" title="John K. Mahon">Mahon, John K.</a>, ed. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warof18120000maho/"><i>The War of 1812</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80429-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-80429-8"><bdi>978-0-306-80429-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+1812&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-306-80429-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarof18120000maho%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwsley2017" class="citation book cs1">Owsley, Frank L. Jr. (2017) [1981]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/06/13/90/00001/AA00061390_00001.pdf"><i>Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1062-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1062-2"><bdi>978-0-8173-1062-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggle+for+the+Gulf+Borderlands%3A+The+Creek+War+and+the+Battle+of+New+Orleans%2C+1812%E2%80%931815&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1062-2&rft.aulast=Owsley&rft.aufirst=Frank+L.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu%2FAA%2F00%2F06%2F13%2F90%2F00001%2FAA00061390_00001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemini1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_V._Remini" title="Robert V. Remini">Remini, Robert V.</a> (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksonco00remi"><i>Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821</i></a></span>. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5912-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5912-3"><bdi>0-8018-5912-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson+and+the+Course+of+American+Empire%2C+1767%E2%80%931821&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8018-5912-3&rft.aulast=Remini&rft.aufirst=Robert+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fandrewjacksonco00remi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaselkov2009" class="citation book cs1">Waselkov, Gregory A. (May 19, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igdeU3JOTf0C&pg=PA99"><i>A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813-1814</i></a>. University of Alabama Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5573-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-5573-9"><bdi>978-0-8173-5573-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Conquering+Spirit%3A+Fort+Mims+and+the+Redstick+War+of+1813-1814&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2009-05-19&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-5573-9&rft.aulast=Waselkov&rft.aufirst=Gregory+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigdeU3JOTf0C%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilentz2005" class="citation book cs1">Wilentz, Sean (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1GhZl6KhM4cC&pg=PP8"><i>Andrew Jackson</i></a>. New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-6925-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-6925-9"><bdi>0-8050-6925-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andrew+Jackson&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8050-6925-9&rft.aulast=Wilentz&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1GhZl6KhM4cC%26pg%3DPP8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreek+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Richard D. Blackmon. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo53888">The Creek War, 1813-1814.</a></i> Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Center_of_Military_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of Military History">Center of Military History</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>, 2014.</li> <li>Mike Bunn and Clay Williams. <i>Battle for the Southern Frontier: The Creek War and the War of 1812</i>. The History Press, 2008.</li> <li>Benjamin W. Griffith Jr. <i>McIntosh and Weatherford: Creek Indian Leaders</i>. University of Alabama Press, 1998.</li> <li>Angela Pulley Hudson. <i>Creek Paths and Federal Roads: Indians, Settlers, and Slaves and the Making of the American South</i>. University of North Carolina Press, 2010.</li> <li>Roger L. Nichols. <i>Warrior Nations: The United States and Indian Peoples.</i> Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.</li> <li>Claudio Saunt. <i>A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1816</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</li> <li>J. Leitch Wright Jr. <i>Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People</i>. University of Nebraska Press, 1990.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Creek_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox" aria-labelledby="War_of_1812" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War_of_1812" title="Template:War of 1812"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War_of_1812" title="Template talk:War of 1812"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War_of_1812" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War of 1812"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="War_of_1812" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Origins</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>Involvement</li><li>Leaders</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chesapeake%E2%80%93Leopard_affair" title="Chesapeake–Leopard affair"><i>Chesapeake</i>–<i>Leopard</i> affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_in_Council_(1807)" title="Orders in Council (1807)">Orders in Council (1807)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embargo_Act_of_1807" title="Embargo Act of 1807">Embargo Act of 1807</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Intercourse_Act_(1809)" title="Non-Intercourse Act (1809)">Non-Intercourse Act (1809)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macon%27s_Bill_Number_2" title="Macon's Bill Number 2">Macon's Bill Number 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War" title="Tecumseh's War">Tecumseh's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_letters" title="Henry letters">Henry letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_hawk" title="War hawk">War hawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_1756" title="Rule of 1756">Rule of 1756</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe%E2%80%93Pinkney_Treaty" title="Monroe–Pinkney Treaty">Monroe–Pinkney Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Belt_affair" title="Little Belt affair"><i>Little Belt</i> affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Spencer_Perceval" title="Assassination of Spencer Perceval">Assassination of Spencer Perceval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_Kingdom" title="United States declaration of war on the United Kingdom">Declaration of war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters and<br /><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812_campaigns" title="War of 1812 campaigns">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Western theater of the War of 1812">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_campaign" title="Chesapeake campaign">Chesapeake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812#Gulf_Coast" title="War of 1812">Gulf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_War_of_1812_battles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of War of 1812 battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Queenston_Heights" title="Battle of Queenston Heights">Queenston Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wild_Cat_Creek" title="Battle of Wild Cat Creek">Spur's Defeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Frenchtown" title="Battle of Frenchtown">Frenchtown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bladensburg" title="Battle of Bladensburg">Beaver Dams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Thames" title="Battle of the Thames">Thames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Chateauguay" title="Battle of the Chateauguay">Chateauguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crysler%27s_Farm" title="Battle of Crysler's Farm">Crysler's Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chippawa" title="Battle of Chippawa">Chippawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lundy%27s_Lane" title="Battle of Lundy's Lane">Lundy's Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bladensburg" title="Battle of Bladensburg">Bladensburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baltimore" title="Battle of Baltimore">McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">New Orleans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Territory_in_the_War_of_1812" title="Illinois Territory in the War of 1812">Illinois Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_War_of_1812" title="Indiana in the War of 1812">Indiana Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_War_of_1812" title="Kentucky in the War of 1812">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_War_of_1812" title="North Carolina in the War of 1812">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_War_of_1812" title="Ohio in the War of 1812">Ohio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Brock" title="Isaac Brock">Isaac Brock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pakenham" title="Edward Pakenham">Edward Pakenham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ross_(British_Army_officer)" title="Robert Ross (British Army officer)">Robert Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jenkinson,_2nd_Earl_of_Liverpool" title="Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool">Lord Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tecumseh" title="Tecumseh">Tecumseh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Results_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Results of the War of 1812">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Eighth_(United_States)" title="The Eighth (United States)">The Eighth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Secord_Legacy_Trail" title="Laura Secord Legacy Trail">Laura Secord Legacy Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Society_of_the_War_of_1812" title="General Society of the War of 1812">General Society of the War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veteran_Corps_of_Artillery" title="Veteran Corps of Artillery">Military Society of the War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_United_States_Daughters_of_1812" title="National Society of United States Daughters of 1812">United States Daughters of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_War_of_1812_Bicentennial" title="List of War of 1812 Bicentennial">War of 1812 Bicentennial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Bibliography of the War of 1812">Bibliography</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Bold_Canadian" title="The Bold Canadian">The Bold Canadian</a>"</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creek War</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Hunters_of_Kentucky" title="The Hunters of Kentucky">The Hunters of Kentucky</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_Britain" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in Britain">Opposition in Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_the_United_States" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States">Opposition in the United States</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">The Star-Spangled Banner</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Timeline of the War of 1812">Timeline of the War of 1812</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:War_of_1812" title="Category:War of 1812">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Andrew_Jackson" title="Template talk:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew_Jackson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Andrew Jackson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Andrew_Jackson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">7th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1829–1837)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States senators from Tennessee">Senator from Tennessee</a> (1797–1798, 1823–1825)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Florida" title="List of governors of Florida">Federal Military Commissioner of Florida</a> (1821)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee" title="List of United States representatives from Tennessee">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/Tennessee%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Tennessee's at-large congressional district">Tennessee at-large</a> (1796–1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hanging_Rock" title="Battle of Hanging Rock">Battle of Hanging Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_the_slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States">Slave-trading career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robards%E2%80%93Donelson%E2%80%93Jackson_relationship_controversy" title="Robards–Donelson–Jackson relationship controversy">Marriage controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter%27s_Hill_(Tennessee)" title="Hunter's Hill (Tennessee)">Hunter's Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hermitage_(Nashville,_Tennessee)" title="The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)">The Hermitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_violent_incidents_involving_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of violent incidents involving Andrew Jackson">Violent incidents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">War of 1812</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Strother" title="Fort Strother">Fort Strother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talladega" title="Battle of Talladega">Battle of Talladega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Emuckfaw_and_Enotachopo_Creek" title="Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek">Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend" title="Battle of Horseshoe Bend">Battle of Horseshoe Bend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Jackson" title="Treaty of Fort Jackson">Treaty of Fort Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pensacola_(1814)" title="Battle of Pensacola (1814)">Battle of Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1816–1828</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars#First_Seminole_War" title="Seminole Wars">First Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrupt_bargain" title="Corrupt bargain">Corrupt bargain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_1828_presidential_campaign" title="Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign">1828 Jackson campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffin_Handbills" title="Coffin Handbills">Coffin Handbills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="First inauguration of Andrew Jackson">First inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenure_of_Office_Act_(1820)" title="Tenure of Office Act (1820)">Tenure of Office Act (1820)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petticoat_affair" title="Petticoat affair">Petticoat affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Cabinet" title="Kitchen Cabinet">Kitchen Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_War" title="Bank War">Bank War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censure_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Censure of Andrew Jackson">Senate censure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_Jacksonian_Era" title="Banking in the Jacksonian Era">Banking in the Jacksonian Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_money_(policy)" title="Hard money (policy)">Hard money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specie_Circular" title="Specie Circular">Specie Circular</a></li> <li>State of the Union <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1829_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1829 State of the Union Address">1829</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1830_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1830 State of the Union Address">1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1831_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1831 State of the Union Address">1831</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1832 State of the Union Address">1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1833_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1833 State of the Union Address">1833</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1834_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1834 State of the Union Address">1834</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1835_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1835 State of the Union Address">1835</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1836_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1836 State of the Union Address">1836</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1832 Democratic National Convention">1832 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maysville_Road_veto" title="Maysville Road veto">Maysville Road veto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson">Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1832" title="Tariff of 1832">Tariff of 1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Nullification" title="Ordinance of Nullification">Ordinance of Nullification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_Bill" title="Force Bill">Force Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1833" title="Tariff of 1833">Tariff of 1833</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet_banks" title="Pet banks">Pet banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson">List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Jackson" title="Rachel Jackson">Rachel Jackson</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Donelson" title="Andrew Jackson Donelson">Andrew Jackson Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Smith_Donelson" title="Daniel Smith Donelson">Daniel Smith Donelson</a> (adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyncoya_Jackson" title="Lyncoya Jackson">Lyncoya Jackson</a> (adopted son, also <a href="/wiki/Theodore_(Andrew_Jackson_captive)" title="Theodore (Andrew Jackson captive)">Theodore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charley_(Andrew_Jackson_captive)" title="Charley (Andrew Jackson captive)">Charley</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Donelson" title="Emily Donelson">Emily Donelson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Yorke_Jackson" title="Sarah Yorke Jackson">Sarah Yorke Jackson</a> (acting First Lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hutchings_(slave_trader)" title="John Hutchings (slave trader)">John Hutchings</a> (nephew)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_(parrot)" title="Poll (parrot)">Poll</a> (pet)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Jackson and slavery">Jackson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(Tennessee)" title="Gilbert (Tennessee)">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jackson_(Tennessee)" title="Alfred Jackson (Tennessee)">Alfred Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Jackson" title="Hannah Jackson">Hannah Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Andrew_Jackson" title="List of memorials to Andrew Jackson">List of memorials to Andrew Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Andrew Jackson (U.S. Capitol)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (U.S. Capitol statue)</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/King_Andrew_the_First" title="King Andrew the First">King Andrew the First</a>" (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Andrew_Jackson_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C.)"><i>Andrew Jackson</i> (Washington D.C. and New Orleans statues)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Jack_(stamp)" title="Black Jack (stamp)">Black Jack stamp</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_President%27s_Lady" title="The President's Lady">The President's Lady</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1938_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1938 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Buccaneer_(1958_film)" title="The Buccaneer (1958 film)">The Buccaneer</a></i> (1958)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gorgeous_Hussy" title="The Gorgeous Hussy">The Gorgeous Hussy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remarkable_Andrew" title="The Remarkable Andrew">The Remarkable Andrew</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson" title="Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson">Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man_of_Conquest" title="Man of Conquest">Man of Conquest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USRC_Jackson_(1832)" class="mw-redirect" title="USRC Jackson (1832)">USRC <i>Jackson</i> (1832)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Andrew_Jackson_(SSBN-619)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Andrew Jackson (SSBN-619)">USS <i>Andrew Jackson</i> (SSBN-619)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Jackson" title="USS President Jackson">USS <i>President Jackson</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Square_(New_Orleans)" title="Jackson Square (New Orleans)">Jackson Square (New Orleans)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">← John Quincy Adams</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Andrew_Jackson" title="Category:Andrew Jackson">Category</a></b></li></ul> 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War","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Creek_War","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1186260","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1186260","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-01-03T13:26:47Z","dateModified":"2024-11-02T19:50:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/20\/Jackson_and_Weatherford.jpg","headline":"regional war between opposing Creek factions, European empires, and the United States"}</script> </body> </html>