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id="toc-Importance_of_infectious_causes_of_cancer_mortality_worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_of_infectious_causes_of_cancer_mortality_worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Importance of infectious causes of cancer mortality worldwide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_of_infectious_causes_of_cancer_mortality_worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_instability_due_to_oncogenic_infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_instability_due_to_oncogenic_infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Genome instability due to oncogenic infections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_instability_due_to_oncogenic_infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pathogens as a cause of cancer</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EMpylori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/220px-EMpylori.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/330px-EMpylori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/EMpylori.jpg/440px-EMpylori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><i>Helicobacter pylori</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Estimates place the worldwide risk of cancers from <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious causes</a> at 16.1%.<sup id="cite_ref-deMartel2012_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deMartel2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viral</a> infections are risk factors for cervical cancer, 80% of liver cancers, and 15–20% of the other cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-De_PaoliCarbone2013_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_PaoliCarbone2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proportion varies in different regions of the world from a high of 32.7% in Sub-Saharan Africa to 3.3% in Australia and New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-deMartel2012_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deMartel2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A virus that can cause cancer is called an <i><a href="/wiki/Oncovirus" title="Oncovirus">oncovirus</a></i> or <i>tumor virus</i>. These include the <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">human papillomavirus</a>, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Cervical_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervical carcinoma">cervical carcinoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma" title="Nasopharyngeal carcinoma">nasopharyngeal carcinoma</a>; <a href="/wiki/Epstein-Barr_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Epstein-Barr virus">Epstein-Barr virus</a>, which is associated with a variety of <a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus-associated_lymphoproliferative_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases">Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative lymphomas</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma_herpesvirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus">Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus</a>, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primary_effusion_lymphoma" title="Primary effusion lymphoma">primary effusion lymphoma</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> viruses which are associated with <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocellular carcinoma</a>; <a href="/wiki/Human_T-cell_leukemia_virus-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Human T-cell leukemia virus-1">human T-cell leukemia virus-1</a>, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia/lymphoma" title="Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma">adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Bovine_leukemia_virus" title="Bovine leukemia virus">bovine leukemia virus</a>, which is associated with <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31892207_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31892207-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacterial infection may also increase the risk of cancer, as seen in <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i>-induced <a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">stomach cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Viral04_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Viral04-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parasitic infections strongly associated with cancer include <i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium" title="Schistosoma haematobium">Schistosoma haematobium</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Liver_fluke" title="Liver fluke">liver flukes</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Opisthorchis_viverrini" title="Opisthorchis viverrini">Opisthorchis viverrini</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Clonorchis_sinensis" title="Clonorchis sinensis">Clonorchis sinensis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cholangiocarcinoma" title="Cholangiocarcinoma">cholangiocarcinoma</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Infection,_cancer_and_mortality_in_the_developed_world"><span id="Infection.2C_cancer_and_mortality_in_the_developed_world"></span>Infection, cancer and mortality in the developed world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Infection, cancer and mortality in the developed world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infection is the fourth most important risk factor for cancer mortality in the developed world, causing about 10% of cancer mortality (see <a href="/wiki/Cancer_prevention#Preventable_causes_of_cancer" title="Cancer prevention">cancer prevention</a>), coming after tobacco (~30% of cancers), diet (~30%) and obesity (~15%). Cancer causes 22.5% of deaths in the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-causeofmortality_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-causeofmortality-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that about 2% of mortality in the United States appears to be due to cancers caused by infections. This is comparable to mortality caused by influenza and pneumonia, which cause 2.1% of deaths in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-causeofmortality_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-causeofmortality-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance_of_infectious_causes_of_cancer_mortality_worldwide">Importance of infectious causes of cancer mortality worldwide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Importance of infectious causes of cancer mortality worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worldwide in 2015, the most common causes of cancer death were lung cancer (1.6 million deaths), liver cancer (745,000 deaths), and stomach cancer (723,000 deaths).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25220842_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25220842-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lung cancer is largely due to non-infectious causes, such as tobacco smoke. However, liver and stomach cancer are primarily due to infectious causes. Liver cancer is largely caused by infectious hepatitis B virus (HBV) plus hepatitis C virus (HBC) and stomach cancer is largely caused by <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> bacteria. World-wide, the estimated number of people chronically infected with HBV and/or HCV is ~325 million.<sup id="cite_ref-urlWHO_|_New_hepatitis_data_highlight_need_for_urgent_global_response_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlWHO_|_New_hepatitis_data_highlight_need_for_urgent_global_response-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over half of the world's population is colonized with <i>H. pylori</i> and it is estimated that <i>H. pylori</i>-positive patients have a 1-2% risk of developing distal gastric cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16847081_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16847081-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome_instability_due_to_oncogenic_infections">Genome instability due to oncogenic infections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Genome instability due to oncogenic infections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Genomic_instability" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic instability">Genomic instability</a> through various means such as DNA damage and epigenetic modifications<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25869442_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25869442-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appear to be the basic causes of sporadic (non-familial) cancer. While <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> have many effects, infectious organisms that increase the risk of cancer are frequently a source of DNA damage or genomic instability, as discussed below for oncogenic viruses and an oncogenic bacterium.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viruses">Viruses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Viruses are one of the most important risk factors for cancer development in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-De_PaoliCarbone2013_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_PaoliCarbone2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infection by some hepatitis viruses, especially <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a>, can induce a long-term viral infection that leads to <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">liver cancer</a> in about 1 in 200 of people infected with hepatitis B each year (more in Asia, fewer in North America), and in about 1 in 45 of people infected with <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> each year.<sup id="cite_ref-Sung_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sung-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People with chronic hepatitis B infection are more than 200 times more likely to develop liver cancer than uninfected people.<sup id="cite_ref-Sung_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sung-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Liver_cirrhosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liver cirrhosis">Liver cirrhosis</a>, whether from chronic viral hepatitis infection or <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol use disorder">excessive alcohol use</a> or some other cause, is independently associated with the development of liver cancer, and the combination of cirrhosis and <a href="/wiki/Viral_hepatitis" title="Viral hepatitis">viral hepatitis</a> presents the highest risk of liver cancer development. Because chronic viral hepatitis is so common, and liver cancer so deadly, liver cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer-related deaths in the world, and is especially common in East Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">Human papillomaviruses</a> (HPV) also cause many cancers. HPV is well known for causing <a href="/wiki/Genital_warts" class="mw-redirect" title="Genital warts">genital warts</a> and essentially all cases of <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>, but it can also infect and cause cancer in several other parts of the body, including the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oropharyngeal_mucosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropharyngeal mucosa">lining of the mouth, nose, and throat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Papanicolaou_smear" class="mw-redirect" title="Papanicolaou smear">Papanicolaou smear</a> ("Pap" smear) is a widely used cancer screening test for cervical cancer. DNA-based tests to identify the virus are also available.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Herpesvirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpesvirus">Herpesviruses</a> are a third group of common cancer-causing viruses. Two types of herpesviruses have been associated with cancer: the <a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr virus</a> (EBV) and <a href="/wiki/Human_herpesvirus_8" class="mw-redirect" title="Human herpesvirus 8">human herpesvirus 8</a> (HHV-8).<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EBV appears to cause all nonkeratinizing <a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma" title="Nasopharyngeal carcinoma">nasopharyngeal carcinomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma#Epstein–Barr_virus-positive_diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma,_not_otherwise_specified" title="Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma">Epstein–Barr virus-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphomas, not otherwise specified</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid30380402_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30380402-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma_associated_with_chronic_inflammation" title="Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation">diffuse large B-cell lymphomas associated with chronic inflammation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid30380402_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30380402-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma#Epstein–Barr_virus-positive_mucocutaneous_ulcer" title="Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma">Epstein–Barr virus-positive mucocutaneous ulcers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31257347_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31257347-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma#Lymphomatoid_granulomatosis" title="Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma">Lymphomatoid granulomatoses</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid31735345_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31735345-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in many cases, <a href="/wiki/Fibrin-associated_diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma" title="Fibrin-associated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma">fibrin-associated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid28195879_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28195879-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Intravascular_lymphoma#Intravascular_NK/T_cell_lymphomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravascular lymphoma">intravascular NK/T cell lymphomas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid30442097_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30442097-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also appears to cause some cases of lymphoma, including <a href="/wiki/Burkitt%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burkitt's lymphoma">Burkitt's lymphoma</a> (this causal association is especially strong in Africa) and <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin's disease">Hodgkin's disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EBV has been found in a variety of other types of cancer cells, although its role in causing these other cancers is not well established. <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus" title="Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus">KSHV</a>/HHV-8<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causes all cases of <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a>, and has been found in some cases of a cancer-related condition called <a href="/wiki/Castleman%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Castleman's disease">Castleman's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies involving other kinds of cancer, particularly <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>, have been inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these herpesviruses are commonly found in cancerous cells of <a href="/wiki/Primary_effusion_lymphoma" title="Primary effusion lymphoma">primary effusion lymphoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herpesviruses also cause cancer in animals, especially leukemias and lymphomas.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human T cell lymphotropic virus (<a href="/wiki/HTLV-1" class="mw-redirect" title="HTLV-1">HTLV-1</a>) was the first human <a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">retrovirus</a> discovered by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gallo" title="Robert Gallo">Robert Gallo</a> and colleagues at <a href="/wiki/NIH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIH">NIH</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The virus causes <a href="/wiki/Adult_T-cell_leukemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Adult T-cell leukemia">Adult T-cell leukemia</a>, a disease first described by Takatsuki and colleagues in Japan<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other neurological diseases. Closely related to human T-cell leukemia virus, is another deltaretrovirus, bovine leukemia virus (BLV), which recently has met the expected criteria to accept a possible infectious agent causation of breast cancer, using sensitive PCR methods to detect BLV, and having samples from women with breast cancer compared to a control sample of women with no history of breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell_polyomavirus" title="Merkel cell polyomavirus">Merkel cell polyomavirus</a> is the most recently discovered human cancer virus, isolated from <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Merkel cell carcinoma">Merkel cell carcinoma</a> tissues in 2008,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the same group that discovered <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus" title="Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus">KSHV</a>/HHV-8 in 1994, using a new technology called <a href="/wiki/Digital_transcriptome_subtraction" title="Digital transcriptome subtraction">digital transcriptome subtraction</a>. About 80% of Merkel cell carcinomas are caused by Merkel cell polyomavirus; the remaining tumors have an unknown etiology and possibly a separate histogenesis. This is the only member of this group of viruses known to cause human cancer but other polyomaviruses are suspects for being additional cancer viruses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> does not directly cause cancer, but it is associated with a number of malignancies, especially <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma">non-Hodgkin's lymphoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anal_cancer" title="Anal cancer">anal cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>. Kaposi's sarcoma is caused by <a href="/wiki/Human_herpesvirus_8" class="mw-redirect" title="Human herpesvirus 8">human herpesvirus 8</a>. <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>-related cases of anal cancer and cervical cancer are commonly caused by <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">human papillomavirus</a>. After HIV destroys the immune system, the body is no longer able to control these viruses, and the infections manifest as cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain other immune deficiency states (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Common_variable_immunodeficiency" title="Common variable immunodeficiency">common variable immunodeficiency</a> and <a href="/wiki/IgA_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="IgA deficiency">IgA deficiency</a>) are also associated with increased risk of malignancy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_oncogenic_viruses">Common oncogenic viruses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Common oncogenic viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Western developed countries, <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection" title="Human papillomavirus infection">human papillomavirus</a> (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the most frequently encountered oncogenic DNA viruses.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18626751_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18626751-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_papillomavirus">Human papillomavirus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Human papillomavirus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Worldwide, HPV causes the second largest fraction of infection-associated cancers or 5.2% of the global cancer burden.<sup id="cite_ref-Parkin_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parkin-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, HPV causes most cervical cancers, as well as some cancers of the vagina, vulva, penis, anus, rectum, and oropharynx (cancers of the back of the throat, including the base of the tongue and tonsils).<sup id="cite_ref-HPV_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HPV-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each year in the United States, about 39,800 new cases of cancer are found in parts of the body where HPV is often found. HPV causes about 31,500 of these cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-HPV_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HPV-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As reviewed by Münger et al.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15479788_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15479788-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are about 200 HPVs. They can be classified into mucosal and cutaneous HPVs. Within each of these HPV groups, individual viruses are designated high risk or low risk according to the propensity for malignant progression of the lesions that they cause. Among the HPV high-risk viruses, the HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins functionally inactivate the p53 and retinoblastoma tumor suppressors respectively. In addition, the high-risk HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins can each independently induce genomic instability in normal human cells. They generate mitotic defects and aneuploidy through the induction of centrosome abnormalities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hepatitis_B_and_hepatitis_C_viruses">Hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hepatitis virus-associated <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocarcinogenesis</a> is a serious health concern.<sup id="cite_ref-Takeda_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takeda-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liver cancer in the United States is primarily due to three main factors: hepatitis C virus (HCV) (22%), hepatitis B virus (HBV) (12%) and alcohol use (47%).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28983565_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28983565-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017 there will be about 40,710 new cases of liver cancer in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World-wide, liver cancer mortality is more often due to hepatitis B virus (HBV) (33%), less often due to hepatitis C virus (HCV) (21%), and still frequently due to alcohol use (30%).<sup id="cite_ref-Global2015_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World-wide, liver cancer is the 4th most frequent cause of cancer mortality, causing 9% of all cancer mortality (total liver cancer deaths in 2015 being 810,500), and coming, in frequency, after lung, colorectal and stomach cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-Global2015_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global2015-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As reviewed by Takeda et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-Takeda_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takeda-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HCV and HBV cause <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">carcinogenic</a> DNA damage and genomic instability by a number of mechanisms. HBV, and especially HCV, cause chronic inflammation in the liver, increasing <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> (ROS) formation. ROS interact directly with DNA, causing multiple types of DNA damages (26 ROS-induced DNA damages are described by Yu et al.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27989142_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27989142-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) It also appears that chronic inflammation caused by HCV infection triggers the aberrant up-regulation of <a href="/wiki/Activation-induced_cytidine_deaminase" title="Activation-induced cytidine deaminase">activation-induced cytidine deaminase</a> (AID) in <a href="/wiki/Hepatocyte" title="Hepatocyte">hepatocytes</a>. AID creates mutations in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> by <a href="/wiki/Deamination" title="Deamination">deamination</a> (a DNA damage) of the <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> base, which converts cytosine into <a href="/wiki/Uracil" title="Uracil">uracil</a>. Thus, it changes a C:G base pair into a mutagenic U:G mismatch. In a still further cause of DNA damage, HCV core protein binds to the NBS1 protein and inhibits the formation of the Mre11/NBS1/Rad50 complex, thereby inhibiting DNA binding of repair enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20974981_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20974981-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of reduced DNA repair mutagenic DNA damages can accumulate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="H._pylori,_a_common_oncogenic_bacterium"><span id="H._pylori.2C_a_common_oncogenic_bacterium"></span><i>H. pylori</i>, a common oncogenic bacterium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: H. pylori, a common oncogenic bacterium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to viruses, <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic_bacteria" title="Carcinogenic bacteria">certain kinds of bacteria</a> can cause some cancers. The most prominent example is the link between chronic infection of the wall of the stomach with <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Gastric_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric cancer">gastric cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the data varies between different countries, overall about 1% to 3% of people infected with <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> develop gastric cancer in their lifetime compared to 0.13% of individuals who have no <i>H. pylori</i> infection.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16847081_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16847081-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the prevalence of infection by <i>H. pylori</i> in middle-aged adults (74% in developing countries and 58% in developed countries in 2002<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16404738_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16404738-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and 1% to 3% likelihood of infected individuals developing gastric cancer,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20930071_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20930071-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>H. pylori</i>-induced gastric cancer is the third highest cause of worldwide cancer mortality as of 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid30350310_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30350310-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mechanism by which <i>H. pylori</i> causes cancer may involve chronic inflammation, or the direct action of some of its virulence factors, for example, <a href="/wiki/CagA" class="mw-redirect" title="CagA">CagA</a> has been implicated in carcinogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16367902_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16367902-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As reviewed by Chang and <a href="/wiki/Julie_Parsonnet" title="Julie Parsonnet">Parsonnet</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20930075_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20930075-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chronic <i>H. pylori</i> infection in the human stomach is characterized by chronic inflammation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20930075_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20930075-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is accompanied by epithelial cell release of <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> (ROS) and <a href="/wiki/Reactive_nitrogen_species" title="Reactive nitrogen species">reactive nitrogen species</a> (RNOS), followed by the assembly of activated macrophages at the stomach site of infection. The macrophages also release ROS and RNOS. Levels of <a href="/wiki/8-oxo-2%27-deoxyguanosine" class="mw-redirect" title="8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine">8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine</a> (8-OHdG), one of the predominant forms of free radical-induced oxidative DNA damages,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19412858_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19412858-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are increased more than 8-fold in DNA after infection by <i>H. pylori</i>, especially if the <i>H. pylori</i> are <a href="/wiki/CagA" class="mw-redirect" title="CagA">cagA</a> positive.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24664859_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24664859-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in 8-OHdG likely increases mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24559511_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24559511-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, oxidative stress, with high levels of 8-OHdG in DNA, also affects genome stability by altering chromatin status. Such alterations can lead to abnormal methylation of promoters of tumor suppressor genes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24281021_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24281021-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to mutations caused by the direct damage to DNA by <i>H. pylori</i>-induced ROS, <i>H. pylori</i>-induced carcinogenic mutations and protein expression alterations are very often a result of <i>H. pylori</i>-induced <a href="/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics" title="Cancer epigenetics">epigenetic</a> alterations.<sup id="cite_ref-Muhammad_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhammad-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Noto_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noto-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These <a href="/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics" title="Cancer epigenetics">epigenetic</a> alterations include <i>H. pylori</i>-induced <a href="/wiki/CpG_site#Promoter_CpG_hyper/hypo-methylation_in_cancer" title="CpG site">methylation of CpG sites in promoters of genes</a><sup id="cite_ref-Muhammad_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muhammad-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>H. pylori</i>-induced altered expression of multiple <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Noto_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noto-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As reviewed by Santos and Ribeiro<sup id="cite_ref-Santos_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>H. pylori</i> infection is associated with epigenetically reduced efficiency of the DNA repair machinery, which favors the accumulation of mutations and genomic instability as well as gastric carcinogenesis. In particular, as reviewed by Raza et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-Raza_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raza-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> human gastric infection with H. pylori causes epigenetically reduced protein expression of DNA repair proteins <a href="/wiki/MLH1" title="MLH1">MLH1</a>, <a href="/wiki/O-6-methylguanine-DNA_methyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase">MGMT</a> and <a href="/wiki/MRE11A" title="MRE11A">MRE11</a>. In addition, Raza et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Raza_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raza-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showed that two further DNA repair proteins, <a href="/wiki/ERCC1" title="ERCC1">ERCC1</a> and <a href="/wiki/PMS2" class="mw-redirect" title="PMS2">PMS2</a> had epigenetically severely reduced protein expression once <i>H. pylori</i> infection had progressed to cause <a href="/wiki/Indigestion" title="Indigestion">dyspepsia</a> (which occurs in 20% of infected individuals<sup id="cite_ref-pmid27239194_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27239194-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mycobacterium"><i>Mycobacterium</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mycobacterium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> is a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E._Coli"><i>E. Coli</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: E. Coli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Colibactin" title="Colibactin">Colibactin</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Genotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Genotoxin">genotoxin</a> produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i> infection that can cause <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a> to develop.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_bacteria">Other bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">serological</a> data comparing prior <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydia_pneumoniae" title="Chlamydia pneumoniae">Chlamydia pneumoniae</a></i> infection in patients with and without lung cancer found results suggesting prior infection was associated with a slightly increased risk of developing lung cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mager2006_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mager2006-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Littman2005_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Littman2005-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parasites">Parasites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Parasites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> that cause <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a> (bilharzia), especially <i><a href="/wiki/S._haematobium" class="mw-redirect" title="S. haematobium">S. haematobium</a></i>, can cause <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a> and cancer at other sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inflammation triggered by the worm's eggs appears to be the mechanism by which squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder is caused. In Asia, infection by <i><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_japonicum" title="Schistosoma japonicum">S. japonicum</a></i> is associated with <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Distomiasis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Distomiasis (page does not exist)">Distomiasis</a>, caused by parasitic <a href="/wiki/Liver_fluke" title="Liver fluke">liver flukes</a>, is associated with <a href="/wiki/Cholangiocarcinoma" title="Cholangiocarcinoma">cholangiocarcinoma</a> (cancer of the <a href="/wiki/Bile_duct" title="Bile duct">bile duct</a>) in East Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a> is associated with <a href="/wiki/Burkitt%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burkitt's lymphoma">Burkitt's lymphoma</a> in Africa, especially when present in combination with <a href="/wiki/Epstein-Barr_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Epstein-Barr virus">Epstein-Barr virus</a>, although it is unclear whether it is causative.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parasites are also a significant cause of <a href="/wiki/Cancer_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer in animals">cancer in animals</a>. <i>Cysticercus fasciolaris</i>, the larval form of the common tapeworm of the cat, <i>Taenia taeniaformis</i>, causes cancer in rats.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Spirocerca lupi</i> is associated with <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_cancer" title="Esophageal cancer">esophageal cancer</a> in dogs, at least within the southern United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Mustacchi_60-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mustacchi-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A novel type of case, reported in 2015, involved an immunocompromised man whose tapeworm underwent <a href="/wiki/Malignant_transformation" title="Malignant transformation">malignant transformation</a>, causing metastasis of tapeworm cell neoplasia throughout his body. This was not a cancer of his own cells but of the parasite's. This isolated case has no substantive bearing on <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> but is interesting for being "a novel disease mechanism that links infection and cancer."<sup id="cite_ref-NEJMoa1505892_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEJMoa1505892-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori_eradication_protocols" title="Helicobacter pylori eradication protocols">Helicobacter pylori eradication protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robin_Warren" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robin Warren">J. Robin Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_diseases_associated_with_infectious_pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human diseases associated with infectious pathogens">List of human diseases associated with infectious pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oncogenic_bacteria" title="List of oncogenic bacteria">List of oncogenic bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infectious_diseases" title="List of infectious diseases">List of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Peyton Rous</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-deMartel2012-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deMartel2012_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deMartel2012_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFde_MartelFerlayFranceschiVignat2012" class="citation journal cs1">de Martel C, Ferlay J, Franceschi S, Vignat J, Bray F, Forman D, Plummer M (June 2012). 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"Tumor and metastases to the lung caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas". <i>Journal Contribution</i>. figshare: 57227 Bytes. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6084%2Fm9.figshare.3382954.v1">10.6084/m9.figshare.3382954.v1</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Contribution&rft.atitle=Tumor+and+metastases+to+the+lung+caused+by+the+bacterium+Pseudomonas&rft.pages=57227+Bytes&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6084%2Fm9.figshare.3382954.v1&rft.aulast=Pelini&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfectious+causes+of+cancer" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cornwall, Claudia M. Catching cancer : the quest for its viral and bacterial causes. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2013.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Infectious_causes_of_cancer" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Infectious causes of cancer">Infectious causes of cancer</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&oldid=1254916061">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infectious_causes_of_cancer&oldid=1254916061</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infectious_causes_of_cancer" title="Category:Infectious causes of cancer">Infectious causes of cancer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Carcinogenesis" title="Category:Carcinogenesis">Carcinogenesis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lymphoma" title="Category:Lymphoma">Lymphoma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Viral_diseases" title="Category:Viral diseases">Viral diseases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infectious_diseases" title="Category:Infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_intentionally_citing_publications_with_errata" title="Category:Articles intentionally citing publications with errata">Articles intentionally citing publications with errata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 2 November 2024, at 08:58<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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