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id="toc-Gaetano_Mosca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaetano_Mosca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Gaetano Mosca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaetano_Mosca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_Michels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_Michels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Robert Michels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_Michels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_elite_theorists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_elite_theorists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Contemporary elite theorists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_elite_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elmer_Eric_Schattschneider" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elmer_Eric_Schattschneider"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Elmer Eric Schattschneider</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elmer_Eric_Schattschneider-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C._Wright_Mills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C._Wright_Mills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>C. Wright Mills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C._Wright_Mills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floyd_Hunter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floyd_Hunter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Floyd Hunter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floyd_Hunter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-G._William_Domhoff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#G._William_Domhoff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>G. William Domhoff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-G._William_Domhoff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Burnham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Burnham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>James Burnham</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Burnham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_D._Putnam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_D._Putnam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.6</span> <span>Robert D. Putnam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_D._Putnam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_R._Dye" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_R._Dye"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.7</span> <span>Thomas R. Dye</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_R._Dye-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-George_A._Gonzalez" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_A._Gonzalez"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.8</span> <span>George A. Gonzalez</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_A._Gonzalez-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ralf_Dahrendorf" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ralf_Dahrendorf"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.9</span> <span>Ralf Dahrendorf</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ralf_Dahrendorf-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martin_Gilens_and_Benjamin_I._Page" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martin_Gilens_and_Benjamin_I._Page"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.10</span> <span>Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martin_Gilens_and_Benjamin_I._Page-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Ferguson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Ferguson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.11</span> <span>Thomas Ferguson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Ferguson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Elite theory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="نظرية النخبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرية النخبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_elit" title="Teorie elit – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teorie elit" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elitesoziologie" title="Elitesoziologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elitesoziologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADas_de_la_%C3%A9lite" title="Teorías de la élite – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teorías de la élite" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%A8%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نظریه نخبگان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه نخبگان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_des_%C3%A9lites" title="Théorie des élites – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie des élites" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="अभिजात सिद्धान्त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अभिजात सिद्धान्त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_elite" title="Teorija elite – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Teorija elite" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%AA" title="גישת האליטות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גישת האליטות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Элита теориясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Элита теориясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Элитийн онол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Элитийн онол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AE%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE" title="အီလစ်သီအိုရီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အီလစ်သီအိုရီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elitetheorie" title="Elitetheorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elitetheorie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="エリート理論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エリート理論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_elit" title="Teoria elit – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teoria elit" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_das_elites" title="Teoria das elites – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria das elites" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Теория элит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теория элит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%B3ria_elity" title="Teória elity – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Teória elity" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Теорије елита – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Теорије елита" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elitteori" title="Elitteori – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elitteori" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99" title="ทฤษฎีอติชน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทฤษฎีอติชน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A7kinci_teori" title="Seçkinci teori – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Seçkinci teori" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82" title="Теорія еліт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Теорія еліт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Theory of the state</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <b>elite theory</b> is a theory of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> that seeks to describe and explain power relations in <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>. In its contemporary form in the 21st century, elite theory posits that (1) power in larger societies, especially <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-states</a>, is concentrated at the top in relatively small <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elites</a>; (2) power "flows predominantly in a top-down direction from elites to non-elites"; and (3) "the characteristics and actions of elites are crucial determinants of major political and social outcomes".<sup id="cite_ref-Pakulski_Page_12_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pakulski_Page_12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept of the "elite" in this context goes beyond <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politicians</a> or other leaders who wield the formal power of the state. Through positions in <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>, influence over policymaking networks, control over the financial support of foundations, and positions with <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tanks</a>, <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a>, or other policy-discussion groups, members of the elite exert significant power over corporate, government, and societal decisions. The basic characteristics of this theory are that power is concentrated, the elites are unified, the non-elites are diverse and powerless, elites' interests are unified due to common backgrounds and positions, and the defining characteristic of power is institutional position.<sup id="cite_ref-Shannon_Page_35_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shannon_Page_35-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elite theory opposes <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">pluralism</a>, a tradition that emphasizes how multiple major social groups and interests contribute to representative political outcomes that reflect the collective needs of society. </p><p>Even when entire groups are ostensibly completely excluded from the state's traditional networks of power (on the basis of arbitrary criteria such as gender, nobility, race, religion or poverty), elite theory recognizes that "counter-elites" frequently develop within such excluded groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Dryzek_Page_66_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dryzek_Page_66-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negotiations between such disenfranchised groups and the state can be analyzed as negotiations between elites and counter-elites. A major problem, in turn, is the ability of elites to <a href="/wiki/Co-option" title="Co-option">co-opt</a> counter-elites.<sup id="cite_ref-Dryzek_Page_66_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dryzek_Page_66-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democratic systems function on the premise that voting behavior has a direct and noticeable effect on policy outcomes, and that these outcomes are preferred by the largest portion of voters. However, a study in 2014 correlated voters' preferences to policy outcomes and found that the statistical correlation between the two is heavily dependent on the income brackets of the voting groups.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the lowest income bracket sampled, the correlation coefficient reached zero, whereas the highest income bracket returned a correlation above 0.6. The conclusion was that there is a strong, linear correlation between the income of voters and how often their policy preferences become reality. The causation for this correlation has not yet been proven in subsequent studies, but it is an area ripe for further research. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_perspective">Ancient perspective</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient perspective"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (≈150 B.C.) referred to (what we call today) Elite Theory as simply "autocracy". He posited that all three originating forms of sources of political power—one man (monarchy/executive), few men (aristocracy), many men (democracy)—would eventually be corrupted into a debased form of itself if not balanced in a "mixed government". Monarchy would become "tyranny", democracy would become "mob rule", and rule by elites (aristocracy) would become "oligarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> effectively said this is due to a failure to properly apply <a href="/wiki/Checks_and_balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and balances">checks and balances</a> between the three mentioned forms as well as subsequent political institutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_school_of_elitism">Italian school of elitism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Italian school of elitism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:391px;max-width:391px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:123px;max-width:123px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg/121px-Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg/182px-Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg/242px-Vilfredo_Pareto_1870s2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="1435" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaetano_Mosca.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Gaetano_Mosca.gif/137px-Gaetano_Mosca.gif" decoding="async" width="137" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Gaetano_Mosca.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="163" data-file-height="192" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:123px;max-width:123px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert-michels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Robert-michels.jpg/121px-Robert-michels.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Robert-michels.jpg/182px-Robert-michels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Robert-michels.jpg/242px-Robert-michels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Robert Michels</a></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a> (1848–1923), <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</a> (1858–1941) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Robert Michels</a> (1876–1936) were cofounders of the Italian school of elitism, which influenced subsequent elite theory in the Western tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The outlook of the Italian school of elitism is based on two ideas: </p> <ol><li>Power lies in positions of authority in key economic and political institutions.</li> <li>The psychological difference that sets elites apart is that they have personal resources, for instance intelligence and skills, and a vested interest in the government; whilst the rest are incompetent and do not have the capabilities to govern themselves, the elite are resourceful and strive to make the government work. For, in reality, the elite would have the most to lose in a failed state.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vilfredo_Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vilfredo Pareto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> emphasized the psychological and intellectual superiority of elites, believing that they were the highest accomplishers in any field. He discussed the existence of two types of elites: </p> <ol><li>Governing elites</li> <li>Non-governing elites</li></ol> <p>He also extended the idea that a whole elite can be replaced by a new one and how one can <a href="/wiki/Circulation_of_elite" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulation of elite">circulate from being elite to non-elite</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaetano_Mosca">Gaetano Mosca</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gaetano Mosca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a> emphasized the sociological and personal characteristics of elites. He said elites are an organized minority and that the masses are an unorganized majority. The ruling class is composed of the ruling elite and the sub-elites. He divides the world into two groups: </p> <ol><li>Political class</li> <li>Non-Political class</li></ol> <p>Mosca asserted that elites have intellectual, moral, and material superiority that is highly esteemed and influential. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_Michels">Robert Michels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Robert Michels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Law_of_Oligarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Law of Oligarchy">iron law of oligarchy</a> where, he asserts, social and political organizations are run by a few individuals, and social organization and labor division are key. He believed that all organizations were elitist and that elites have three basic principles that help in the bureaucratic structure of political organization: </p> <ol><li>Need for leaders, specialized staff, and facilities</li> <li>Utilization of facilities by leaders within their organization</li> <li>The importance of the psychological attributes of the leaders</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_elite_theorists">Contemporary elite theorists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contemporary elite theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern elite theory is distinguished from classical or <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> elitism as articulated by Mosca, Pareto and Michels in that it attempts to merely present a "empirical picture of the way human societies operate", and is not "closely linked to a particular view" of how those societies should be organized.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunleavy_Page_138_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunleavy_Page_138-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Elmer_Eric_Schattschneider">Elmer Eric Schattschneider</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Elmer Eric Schattschneider"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Elmer_Eric_Schattschneider" title="Elmer Eric Schattschneider">Elmer Eric Schattschneider</a> offered a strong critique of the American <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">political theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">pluralism</a>: Rather than an essentially democratic system in which the many competing interests of <a href="/wiki/Citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens">citizens</a> are amply represented, if not advanced, by equally many competing <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">interest groups</a>, Schattschneider argued that the pressure system is biased in favor of "the most educated and highest-income members of society", and showed that "the difference between those who participate in interest group activity and those who stand at the sidelines is much greater than between voters and nonvoters".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i>The Semisovereign People</i>, Schattschneider argued that the scope of the pressure system is really quite small: The "range of organized, identifiable, known groups is amazingly narrow; there is nothing remotely universal about it" and the "business or upper-class bias of the pressure system shows up everywhere". He said that the "notion that the pressure system is automatically representative of the whole community is a myth" and, instead, the "system is skewed, loaded and unbalanced in favor of a fraction of a minority".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="C._Wright_Mills">C. Wright Mills</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: C. Wright Mills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C._Wright_Mills.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/C._Wright_Mills.jpg/220px-C._Wright_Mills.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/C._Wright_Mills.jpg/330px-C._Wright_Mills.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/C._Wright_Mills.jpg/440px-C._Wright_Mills.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>C. Wright Mills (left) and his assistant, Saul Landau (right)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> published his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_Elite" title="The Power Elite">The Power Elite</a></i> in 1956, in which he claimed to present a new sociological perspective on systems of power in the United States. He identified a triumvirate of power groups—political, economic and military—which form a distinguishable, although not unified, power-wielding body in the United States. </p><p>Mills proposed that this group had been generated through a process of rationalisation at work in all advanced industrial societies whereby the mechanisms of power became concentrated, funneling overall control into the hands of a limited, somewhat corrupt group.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reflected a decline in politics as an arena for debate and relegation to a merely formal level of discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This macro-scale analysis sought to point out the degradation of democracy in "advanced" societies and the fact that power generally lies outside the boundaries of elected representatives. </p><p>A main influence for the study was <a href="/wiki/Franz_Leopold_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Leopold Neumann">Franz Leopold Neumann</a>'s book, <i>Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism, 1933–1944</i>, a study of how Nazism came to power in the German democratic state. It provided the tools to analyse the structure of a political system and served as a warning of what could happen in a modern capitalistic democracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Floyd_Hunter">Floyd Hunter</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Floyd Hunter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The elite theory analysis of power was also applied on the micro scale in community power studies such as that by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Floyd_Hunter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Floyd Hunter (page does not exist)">Floyd Hunter</a> (1953). Hunter examined in detail the power of relationships evident in his "Regional City" looking for the "real" holders of power rather than those in obvious official positions. He posited a <a href="/wiki/Structural-functionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural-functionalism">structural-functional</a> approach that mapped hierarchies and webs of interconnection within the city—mapping relationships of power between businessmen, politicians, clergy etc. The study was promoted to debunk current concepts of any "democracy" present within urban politics and reaffirm the arguments for a true <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of analysis was also used in later, larger scale, studies such as that carried out by M. Schwartz examining the power structures within the sphere of the corporate elite in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="G._William_Domhoff">G. William Domhoff</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: G. William Domhoff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his controversial book, <i><a href="/wiki/Who_Rules_America%3F" title="Who Rules America?">Who Rules America?</a></i> (1967), <a href="/wiki/G._William_Domhoff" title="G. William Domhoff">G. William Domhoff</a> researched local and national decision-making process networks, seeking to illustrate the power structure in the United States. He asserted, much like Hunter, that an elite class which owns and manages large income-producing properties (like banks and corporations) dominate the American power structure both politically and economically.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="James_Burnham">James Burnham</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: James Burnham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham's</a> early work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Managerial_Revolution" title="The Managerial Revolution">The Managerial Revolution</a></i> sought to express the movement of all functional power into the hands of managers rather than politicians or businessmen—<a href="/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problem" title="Principal–agent problem">separating ownership and control</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robert_D._Putnam">Robert D. Putnam</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Robert D. Putnam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Putnam" title="Robert D. Putnam">Putnam</a> saw the development of technical and exclusive knowledge among administrators and other specialist groups as a mechanism that strips power from the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic process">democratic process</a> and slips it to the advisors and specialists who influence the <a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decision process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote> <p>"If the dominant figures of the past hundred years have been the entrepreneur, the businessman, and the industrial executive, the ‘new men’ are the scientists, the mathematicians, the economists, and the engineers of the new intellectual technology."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_R._Dye">Thomas R. Dye</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Thomas R. Dye"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Dye" title="Thomas R. Dye">Dye</a> in his book <i>Top Down Policymaking</i> argues that U.S. <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> does not result from the "demands of the people", but rather from <a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">elite consensus</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>–based non-profit foundations, <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tanks</a>, special-interest groups, and prominent <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobbying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">law firms</a>. Dye's thesis is further expanded upon in his works: <i>The Irony of Democracy</i>, <i>Politics in America,</i> <i>Understanding Public Policy</i>, and <i>Who's Running America?</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="George_A._Gonzalez">George A. Gonzalez</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: George A. Gonzalez"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his book <i>Corporate Power and the Environment</i>, George A. Gonzalez writes on the power of U.S. economic elites to shape environmental policy for their own advantage. In <i>The Politics of Air Pollution: Urban Growth</i>, <i>Ecological Modernization and Symbolic Inclusion</i> and in <i>Urban Sprawl, Global Warming, and the Empire of Capital</i>, Gonzalez employs elite theory to explain the interrelationship between <a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental policy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a> in America. His most recent work, <i>Energy and Empire: The Politics of Nuclear and Solar Power in the United States</i> demonstrates that economic elites tied their advocacy of the nuclear energy option to post-1945 American foreign policy goals, while at the same time these elites opposed government support for other forms of energy such as solar, that cannot be dominated by one nation. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban growth">urban growth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corporate_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate power">corporate power</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ralf_Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ralf Dahrendorf"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his book <i>Reflections on the Revolution in Europe</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ralf_Dahrendorf" title="Ralf Dahrendorf">Ralf Dahrendorf</a> asserts that, due to the advanced level of competence required for political activity, a political party tends to become, actually, a provider of "political services", that is, the administration of local and governmental public offices. During the electoral campaign, each party tries to convince voters it is the most suitable for managing the state's business. The logical consequence of this would be to acknowledge this character and to openly register the parties as service providing companies. In this way, the ruling class would include the members and associates of legally acknowledged companies and the "class that is ruled" would select, by election, the state administration company that best fits its interests. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Martin_Gilens_and_Benjamin_I._Page">Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In their <a href="/wiki/Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">statistical analysis</a> of 1,779 policy issues, professors Martin Gilens and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Page" title="Benjamin Page">Benjamin Page</a> found that "economic elites and organized groups representing business interests have substantial independent impacts on U.S. government policy, while average citizens and mass-based interest groups have little or no independent influence."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics cited by <a href="/wiki/Vox.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Vox.com">Vox.com</a> argued, using the same dataset, that when the rich and the middle class disagreed, the rich got their preferred outcome 53 percent of the time and the middle class got what they wanted 47 percent of the time. Some critics disagree with Gilens and Pages' headline conclusion, but do believe that the dataset confirms that "the rich and middle (class) are effective at blocking policies that the poor want".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Ferguson">Thomas Ferguson</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Thomas Ferguson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The political scientist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ferguson_(academic)" title="Thomas Ferguson (academic)">Thomas Ferguson</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Investment_theory_of_party_competition" title="Investment theory of party competition">Investment Theory of Party Competition</a> can be thought of as an elite theory. Set out most extensively in his 1995 book, <i>Golden Rule: The Investment Theory of Party Competition and the Logic of Money-driven Political Systems</i>, the theory begins by noting that in modern political systems the cost of acquiring political awareness is so great that no citizen can afford it.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence, these systems tend be dominated by those who can, most typically elites and corporations. These elites then seek to influence politics by 'investing' in the parties or policies they support through political contributions and other means such as endorsements in the media.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_deficit" title="Democratic deficit">Democratic deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_law_of_oligarchy" title="Iron law of oligarchy">Iron law of oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_political_theory" title="Positive political theory">Positive political theory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_Elite" title="The Power Elite">The Power Elite</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressions_of_dominance" title="Expressions of dominance">Expressions of dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_elite" title="Liberal elite">Liberal elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_Class_Empire" title="Invisible Class Empire">Invisible Class Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_state" title="Capitalist state">Dictatorship of the bourgeoisie</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pakulski_Page_12-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pakulski_Page_12_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPakulski2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Pakulski" title="Jan Pakulski">Pakulski, Jan</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sR0-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false">"The Development of Elite Theory"</a>. In Best, Heinrich; Higley, John (eds.). <i>The Palgrave Handbook of Political Elites</i>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137519047" title="Special:BookSources/9781137519047"><bdi>9781137519047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Elite+Theory&rft.btitle=The+Palgrave+Handbook+of+Political+Elites&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781137519047&rft.aulast=Pakulski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsR0-DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA12%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span> (At pp. 12-13.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shannon_Page_35-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shannon_Page_35_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShannonGlasberg2011" class="citation book cs1">Shannon, Deric; Glasberg, Davita Silfen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qiE6GMCuCbYC&pg=PT49"><i>Political Sociology: Oppression, Resistance, and the State</i></a>. Pine Forge Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412980401" title="Special:BookSources/9781412980401"><bdi>9781412980401</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/746832550">746832550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Sociology%3A+Oppression%2C+Resistance%2C+and+the+State&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Pine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F746832550&rft.isbn=9781412980401&rft.aulast=Shannon&rft.aufirst=Deric&rft.au=Glasberg%2C+Davita+Silfen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqiE6GMCuCbYC%26pg%3DPT49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dryzek_Page_66-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dryzek_Page_66_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dryzek_Page_66_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDryzekDunleavy2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Dryzek" title="John Dryzek">Dryzek, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Dunleavy" title="Patrick Dunleavy">Dunleavy, Patrick</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DZlGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66"><i>Theories of the Democratic State</i></a>. London: Red Globe Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">66–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230366459" title="Special:BookSources/9780230366459"><bdi>9780230366459</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+the+Democratic+State&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.pub=Red+Globe+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780230366459&rft.aulast=Dryzek&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Dunleavy%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDZlGEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilens, M., & Page, B. (2014). Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens. Perspectives on Politics, 12(3), 564-581. doi:10.1017/S1537592714001595</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polybius.(≈150 B.C.) The Rise of the Roman Empire: Book 6. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). Penguin Books; London, England</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert A. Nye, <i>The Anti-Democratic Sources of Elite Theory: Pareto, Mosca, Michels</i>, Sage, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. J. Chambliss (ed.), <i>Philosophy of Education: An Encyclopedia</i>, Routledge, 2013, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunleavy_Page_138-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dunleavy_Page_138_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunleavyO'Leary1987" class="citation book cs1">Dunleavy, Patrick; O'Leary, Brendan (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-TRIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Theories of the State: The Politics of Liberal Democracy</i></a>. London: Macmillan Education. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349186655" title="Special:BookSources/9781349186655"><bdi>9781349186655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+the+State%3A+The+Politics+of+Liberal+Democracy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=9781349186655&rft.aulast=Dunleavy&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=O%27Leary%2C+Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-TRIEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA138%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolley and Papa 1998, 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schattschneider 1960, 30-36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBottomore1993" class="citation book cs1">Bottomore, T. (1993). <i>Elites and Society (2nd ed.)</i>. London: Routledge. p. 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elites+and+Society+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bottomore&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills1956" class="citation book cs1">Mills, C. Wright (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/corporatepowerin0000carr/page/274"><i>The Power Elite</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/corporatepowerin0000carr/page/274">274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-541759-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-541759-3"><bdi>0-19-541759-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+Elite&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-19-541759-3&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=C.+Wright&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcorporatepowerin0000carr%2Fpage%2F274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1953" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Floyd (1953). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communitypowerst00hunt"><i>Community Power Structure: A Study of Decision Makers</i></a></span>. University of North Carolina Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communitypowerst00hunt/page/6">6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-0639-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-0639-0"><bdi>0-8078-0639-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Community+Power+Structure%3A+A+Study+of+Decision+Makers&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=0-8078-0639-0&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Floyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunitypowerst00hunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1987" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, M., ed. (1987). <i>The Structure of Power in America: The Corporate Elite as a Ruling Class</i>. New York: Holmes & Meier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8419-0764-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8419-0764-1"><bdi>0-8419-0764-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Power+in+America%3A+The+Corporate+Elite+as+a+Ruling+Class&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holmes+%26+Meier&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8419-0764-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomhoff1967" class="citation book cs1">Domhoff, G. William (1967). <i>Who Rules America?</i>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7674-1637-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7674-1637-6"><bdi>0-7674-1637-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Rules+America%3F&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-7674-1637-6&rft.aulast=Domhoff&rft.aufirst=G.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBottomore1993" class="citation book cs1">Bottomore, T. (1993). <i>Elites and Society (2nd ed.)</i>. London: Routledge. p. 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elites+and+Society+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Bottomore&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1977" class="citation journal cs1">Putnam, Robert D. (1977). "Elite Transformation in Advance Industrial Societies: An Empirical Assessment of the Theory of Technocracy". <i>Comparative Political Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 383–411 (p.385). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001041407701000305">10.1177/001041407701000305</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154141193">154141193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Elite+Transformation+in+Advance+Industrial+Societies%3A+An+Empirical+Assessment+of+the+Theory+of+Technocracy&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=383-411+%28p.385%29&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001041407701000305&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154141193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Putnam&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1976" class="citation book cs1">Putnam, Robert D. (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comparativestudy00putn/page/384"><i>The Comparative Study of Political Elites</i></a></span>. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comparativestudy00putn/page/384">384</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-154195-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-154195-1"><bdi>0-13-154195-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Comparative+Study+of+Political+Elites&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-13-154195-1&rft.aulast=Putnam&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomparativestudy00putn%2Fpage%2F384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dahrendorf, Ralf (1990) Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: In a letter intended to have been sent to a gentleman in Warsaw. New York: Random House</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-echochambers-27074746">"Study: US is an oligarchy, not a democracy"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 17 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221024053957/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-echochambers-27074746">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Study%3A+US+is+an+oligarchy%2C+not+a+democracy&rft.date=2014-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fblogs-echochambers-27074746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~mgilens/Gilens%20homepage%20materials/Gilens%20and%20Page/Gilens%20and%20Page%202014-Testing%20Theories%203-7-14.pdf">Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140803145218/http://www.princeton.edu/~mgilens/Gilens%20homepage%20materials/Gilens%20and%20Page/Gilens%20and%20Page%202014-Testing%20Theories%203-7-14.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-08-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Fall 2014)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2016" class="citation news cs1">Matthews, Dylan (9 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2016/5/9/11502464/gilens-page-oligarchy-study">"Remember that study saying America is an oligarchy? 3 rebuttals say it's wrong"</a>. <i>Vox</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110201638/https://www.vox.com/2016/5/9/11502464/gilens-page-oligarchy-study">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Remember+that+study+saying+America+is+an+oligarchy%3F+3+rebuttals+say+it%27s+wrong.&rft.date=2016-05-09&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Dylan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2016%2F5%2F9%2F11502464%2Fgilens-page-oligarchy-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1995" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Thomas (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goldenruleinvest00ferg"><i>Golden Rule : The Investment Theory of Party Competition and the Logic of Money-Driven Political Systems</i></a></span>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226243176" title="Special:BookSources/0226243176"><bdi>0226243176</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Golden+Rule+%3A+The+Investment+Theory+of+Party+Competition+and+the+Logic+of+Money-Driven+Political+Systems&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0226243176&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoldenruleinvest00ferg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElite+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elite_theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Amsden, Alice (2012) <i>The Role of Elites in Economic Development</i>, Oxford University Press, 2012. with Alisa Di Caprio and James A. 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"Power, hegemony, and world society theory: A critical evaluation." <i>Socius</i> 6 (2020): 2378023120920059 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2378023120920059">online</a>.</li> <li>Dye, T. R. (2000) <i>Top Down Policymaking</i> New York: Chatham House Publishers.</li> <li>Gonzalez, G. A. (2012) <i>Energy and Empire: The Politics of Nuclear and Solar Power in the United States</i>. Albany: State University of New York Press</li> <li>Gonzalez, G. A. (2009) <i>Urban Sprawl, Global Warming, and the Empire of Capital.</i> Albany: State University of New York Press</li> <li>Gonzalez, G. A. (2006) <i>The Politics of Air Pollution: Urban Growth, Ecological Modernization, And Symbolic Inclusion.</i> Albany: State University of New York Press</li> <li>Gonzalez, G. A. (2001) <i>Corporate Power and the Environment.</i> Rowman & Littlefield Publishers</li> <li>Hunter, Floyd (1953) <i>Community Power Structure: A Study of Decision Makers</i>.</li> <li>Lerner, R., A. K. Nagai, S. Rothman (1996) <i>American Elites</i>. New Haven CT: Yale University Press</li> <li>Milch, Jan, (1992) . C.Wright Mills och hans sociologiska vision Om hans syn på makt och metod och vetenskap,. Sociologiska Institution Göteborgs Universit-("C.Wright Mills and his sociological vision About his views on power and methodology and science. Department of Sociology Gothenburg University")</li> <li>Mills, C. Wright (1956) <i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_Elite" title="The Power Elite">The Power Elite</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.507694">online</a></li> <li>Neumann, Franz Leopold (1944). <i>Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism</i>, 1933 - 1944. Harper. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190043">online</a></li> <li>Putnam, R. D. (1976) <i>The Comparative Study of Political Elites</i>. New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>.</li> <li>Putnam, R. D. (1977) ‘Elite Transformation in Advance Industrial Societies: An Empirical Assessment of the Theory of Technocracy’ in <i>Comparative Political Studies</i> Vol. 10, No. 3, pp383–411.</li> <li>Schwartz, M. (ed.) (1987) <i>The Structure of Power in America: The Corporate Elite as a Ruling Class</i>. New York: Holmes & Meier.</li> <li>Volpe, G. (2021) <i>Italian Elitism and the Reshaping of Democracy in the United States</i>. Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1542" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1728701#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85042580">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Élite (sciences sociales)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119313476">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Élite (sciences 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