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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Genetic affiliation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_affiliation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction_of_Proto-Songhay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction_of_Proto-Songhay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reconstruction of Proto-Songhay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction_of_Proto-Songhay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_genetic_affiliation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_genetic_affiliation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>On genetic affiliation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_genetic_affiliation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Songhay languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%8A" title="لغات الصنغاي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات الصنغاي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_songhay" title="Llingües songhay – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües songhay" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_songayek" title="Yezhoù songayek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù songayek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai" title="Songhai – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Songhai" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhajsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Songhajské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Songhajské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai-Sprachen" title="Songhai-Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Songhai-Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_songhay" title="Lenguas songhay – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas songhay" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%BA%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های سنغایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های سنغایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songha%C3%AF" title="Songhaï – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Songhaï" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%A1%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%B4%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="송가이어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="송가이어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsunan_Songhay" title="Harsunan Songhay – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harsunan Songhay" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%AB_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A2" title="Սոնգաի լեզվախումբ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոնգաի լեզվախումբ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_jezici" title="Songhai jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Songhai jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asusu_Songhay" title="Asusu Songhay – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Asusu Songhay" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_songhay" title="Lingue songhay – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue songhay" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="სონგაი ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სონგაი ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kisonghai" title="Lugha za Kisonghai – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Kisonghai" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сонгай тилдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сонгай тилдери" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_Songhay" title="Lengue Songhay – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue Songhay" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_songai" title="Linguas songai – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas songai" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Сонгајски јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сонгајски јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_s%C3%B4ngay" title="Fiteny sôngay – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny sôngay" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_(taal)" title="Songhai (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Songhai (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_songhai" title="Lengas songhai – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas songhai" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai-Spraak" title="Songhai-Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Songhai-Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_songhaj" title="Języki songhaj – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki songhaj" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_songais" title="Línguas songais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas songais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Сонгайские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сонгайские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhaikielet" title="Songhaikielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Songhaikielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Сонгайські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сонгайські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%B3m_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_Songhay" title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Songhay – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Songhay" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A1%91%E6%B5%B7%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="桑海語族 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="桑海語族" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhai_language&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Songhai language">Songhai language</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of languages of West Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: gold;">Songhay</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: gold;">Songhai, Ayneha</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> valley<br />(<a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>); scattered oases (Niger, Mali, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Songhai_people" title="Songhai people">Songhai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>?<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Songhay</b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Songhay_reconstructions" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Songhay reconstructions">Proto-Songhay</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Songhay_languages" title="Northern Songhay languages">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Songhay_languages" title="Southern Songhay languages">Southern</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: gold;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/son" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:son">son</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/song1307">song1307</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Songhay_languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Songhay_languages.svg/300px-Songhay_languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Songhay_languages.svg/450px-Songhay_languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Songhay_languages.svg/600px-Songhay_languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="965" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Location of Songhay languages<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> <p><b>Northwest Songhay:</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#002b00; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Korandje_language" title="Korandje language">Korandje</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Koyra_Chiini_language" title="Koyra Chiini language">Koyra Chiini</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tadaksahak" title="Tadaksahak">Tadaksahak</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#55ff55; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tasawaq_language" title="Tasawaq language">Tasawaq</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#aaffaa; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Gadal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadal language">Tagdal</a></div> <p><b>Eastern Songhay:</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#2b0000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tondi_Songway_Kiini" title="Tondi Songway Kiini">Tondi Songway Kiini</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Humburi_Senni_language" title="Humburi Senni language">Humburi Senni</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d40000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Koyraboro_Senni" title="Koyraboro Senni">Koyraboro Senni</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff5555; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color: #ffff00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Songhoyboro_Ciine" title="Songhoyboro Ciine">Songhoyboro Ciine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffaaaa; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Dendi_language" title="Dendi language">Dendi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Songhay</b>, <b>Songhai</b> or <b>Ayneha</b><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> languages (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[sõʁaj]</a></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[soŋaj]</a></span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[soŋoj]</a></span>) are a group of closely related <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> centred on the middle stretches of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West African</a> countries of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. In particular, they are spoken in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9" title="Djenné">Djenné</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niamey" title="Niamey">Niamey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tillaberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tillaberi">Tillaberi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dosso,_Niger" title="Dosso, Niger">Dosso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parakou" title="Parakou">Parakou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kandi,_Benin" title="Kandi, Benin">Kandi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natitingou" title="Natitingou">Natitingou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Djougou" title="Djougou">Djougou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malanville" title="Malanville">Malanville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorom-Gorom" title="Gorom-Gorom">Gorom-Gorom</a>, <a href="/wiki/In-Gall" title="In-Gall">In-Gall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tabelbala" title="Tabelbala">Tabelbala</a> . They have been widely used as a <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> in that region ever since the era of the <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, the government has officially adopted the dialect of Gao (east of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>) as the dialect to be used as a medium of primary education.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Songhay languages have little to no <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> between each other. For example, <a href="/wiki/Koyraboro_Senni" title="Koyraboro Senni">Koyraboro Senni</a>, spoken in Gao, is unintelligible to speakers of <a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, according to <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i>. However, <a href="/wiki/Songhoyboro_Ciine" title="Songhoyboro Ciine">Songhoyboro Ciine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zarma, and Dendi have high mutual intelligibility within Niger.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">linguists</a>, a major point of interest in the Songhay languages has been the difficulty of determining their <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic affiliation</a>; they are commonly taken to be <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>, as defined by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> in 1963, but this classification remains controversial. Linguist <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Dimmendaal" title="Gerrit Dimmendaal">Gerrit Dimmendaal</a> (2008) believes that for now it is best considered an independent language family.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> argues that the Songhay and <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan languages</a> form a Songhay-Saharan branch with each other within the wider Nilo-Saharan linguistic phylum.<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, the name <i>Songhay</i> was neither an ethnic nor a linguistic designation for all, but a name for the ruling caste of the Songhai Empire which are the <a href="/wiki/Songhai_proper" class="mw-redirect" title="Songhai proper">Songhai proper</a>. The term used by the natives to address the languages and people collectively is <b>Ayneha</b>. Aside from the Songhai proper, some speakers in Mali have also adopted the name Songhay as an ethnic designation,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while other Songhay-speaking groups identify themselves with other ethnic terms, such as <a href="/wiki/Zarma_people" title="Zarma people">Zarma</a> (Djerma) or <a href="/wiki/Tasawaq_language" title="Tasawaq language">Isawaghen</a> (Sawaq). </p><p>A few precolonial poems and letters composed in Songhay and written in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> exist in Timbuktu.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Songhay is currently written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:Brown; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 1133.887355271px; border-left-color:#00ff00"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#00ff00"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#00ff00"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 434.53139796789px; border-left-color:#008000"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#008000"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#008000"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 184.63791930554px; border-left-color:#ffaaaa"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ffaaaa"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#ffaaaa"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 89.284774210373px; border-left-color:#d40000"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#d40000"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#d40000"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 14.552774652202px; border-left-color:#ffff00"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ffff00"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#ffff00"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:50.362320163576px 86.392341719284px 0 0; border-top-color:#ff5555"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ff5555"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>Percentage of Songhay speakers by population </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff5555; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a> (58.4%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Songhoyboro_Ciine" title="Songhoyboro Ciine">Songhoyboro Ciine</a> (18.9%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d40000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Koyraboro_Senni" title="Koyraboro Senni">Koyraboro Senni</a> (9.3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffaaaa; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Dendi_language" title="Dendi language">Dendi</a> (5.5%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Koyra_Chiini_language" title="Koyra Chiini language">Koyra Chiini</a> (4.3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Tadaksahak" title="Tadaksahak">Tadaksahak</a> (2.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Brown; color:white;"> </span> Others (1.4%)</div> </div> </div></div> <p>Researchers classify the Songhay languages into two main branches; Southern and Northern.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern Songhay is centered on the Niger River. <a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Djerma</a>), the most widely spoken Songhay language with two or three million speakers, is a major language of southwestern <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> (downriver from and south of Mali) including in the capital city, <a href="/wiki/Niamey" title="Niamey">Niamey</a>. <a href="/wiki/Koyraboro_Senni" title="Koyraboro Senni">Koyraboro Senni</a>, with 400,000 speakers, is the language of the town of Gao, the seat of the old Songhai Empire. Koyra Chiini is spoken to its west. The much smaller Northern Songhay is a group of heavily <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>-influenced dialects spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>. Since the Berber influence extends beyond the lexicon into the inflectional morphology, the Northern Songhay languages are sometimes viewed as <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_affiliation">Genetic affiliation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Genetic affiliation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann" title="Diedrich Hermann Westermann">Diedrich Hermann Westermann</a>, a missionary and linguist, hesitated between assigning it to <a href="/wiki/Gur_languages" title="Gur languages">Gur</a> or considering it an isolate, and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Delafosse" title="Maurice Delafosse">Maurice Delafosse</a> grouped it with <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>. At present, Songhay is normally considered to be <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>, following <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a>'s 1963 reclassification of <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African languages</a>; Greenberg's argument is based on about 70 claimed <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This proposal has been developed further by, in particular, <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Lionel Bender</a>, who saw it as an independent subfamily of Nilo-Saharan. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> notes that Songhay shares the defining <a href="/wiki/Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">singulative–plurative</a> morphology typical of Nilo-Saharan languages. As of 2011, he believes that Songhay is closest to the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan languages</a> and is not divergent. </p><p>However, a Nilo-Saharan classification is controversial. Greenberg's argument was subjected to serious criticism by Lacroix, who deemed only about 30 of Greenberg's claimed cognates acceptable, and moreover argued that these held mainly between <a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan languages</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup"><span title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">What about Tagdal, which neighbors Saharan?</span></a></i>]</sup> thus leading one to suspect them of being <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain Songhay–<a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a> similarities have long been observed (at least since Westermann), and Mukarovsky (1966), Denis Creissels (1981) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nicola%C3%AF" title="Robert Nicolaï">Nicolaï</a> (1977, 1984) investigated the possibility of a Mande relationship; Creissels made some 50 comparisons, including many body parts and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> suffixes (such as the <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> in <i>-endi</i>), while Nicolaï claimed some 450 similar words as well as some conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> traits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, Nicolaï eventually concluded that this approach was not adequate, and in 1990 proposed a distinctly novel hypothesis: that Songhay is a <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a>, restructured under Mande influence. In support of this he proposed 412 similarities, ranging all the way from basic vocabulary (<i>tasa</i> "<a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>") to obvious borrowings (<i>anzad</i> "<a href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a>", <i>alkaadi</i> "<a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a>".) Others, such as Gerrit Dimmendaal, were not convinced, and Nicolaï (2003) appears to consider the question of Songhay's origins still open, while arguing against Bender's proposed etymologies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Greenberg's morphological similarities with Nilo-Saharan include the personal pronouns <i>ai</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_language" title="Zaghawa language">Zaghawa</a> <i>ai</i>), 'I', <i>ni</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a> <i>nyi</i>), 'you (sg.)', <i>yer</i> (e.g. Kanuri <i>-ye</i>), 'we', <i>wor</i> (cf. Kanuri <i>-wi</i>), 'you (pl.)'; relative and adjective formants <i>-ma</i> (e.g. Kanuri <i>-ma</i>) and <i>-ko</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Maba_language" title="Maba language">Maba</a> <i>-ko</i>), a plural suffix <i>-an</i> (?), a hypothetical plural suffix <i>-r</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Teso_language" title="Teso language">Teso</a> <i>-r</i>) which he takes to appear in the pronouns <i>yer</i> and <i>wor</i>, intransitive/passive <i>-a</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Teso_language" title="Teso language">Teso</a> <i>-o</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most striking of the Mande similarities listed by Creissels are the third person pronouns <i>a</i> sg. (pan-Mande <i>a</i>), <i>i</i> pl. (pan-Mande <i>i</i> or <i>e</i>), the demonstratives <i>wo</i> "this" (cf. Manding <i>o</i>, <i>wo</i>) and <i>no</i> "there" (cf. Soninke <i>no</i>, other Mande <i>na</i>), the negative <i>na</i> (found in a couple of Manding dialects) and negative perfect <i>mana</i> (cf. Manding <i>má</i>, <i>máŋ</i>), the subjunctive <i>ma</i> (cf. Manding <i>máa</i>), the copula <i>ti</i> (cf. Bisa <i>ti</i>, Manding <i>de/le</i>), the verbal connective <i>ka</i> (cf. Manding <i>kà</i>), the suffixes <i>-ri</i> (resultative – cf. Mandinka <i>-ri</i>, Bambara <i>-li</i> process nouns), <i>-ncè</i> (ethnonymic, cf. Soninke <i>-nke</i>, Mandinka <i>-nka</i>), <i>-anta</i> (ordinal, cf. Soninke <i>-ndi</i>, Mandinka <i>-njaŋ</i>...), <i>-anta</i> (resultative participle, cf. Soninke <i>-nte</i>), <i>-endi</i> (causative, cf. Soninke, Mandinka <i>-ndi</i>), and the postposition <i>ra</i> "in" (cf. Manding <i>lá</i>, Soso <i>ra</i>...)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Songhay languages are considered to be an independent family by Dimmendaal (2011), although he classifies <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> as part of Nilo-Saharan.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Songhay is mostly a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> group of languages, an exception being the divergent <a href="/wiki/Koyra_Chiini_language" title="Koyra Chiini language">Koyra Chiini</a> of Timbuktu, which is non-tonal and uses <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">SVO</a> order. </p><p>Songhay has a morpheme <i>-ndi</i> which marks either the causative or the agentless passive. Verbs can even take two instances of the morpheme, one for each meaning. Thus <i>ŋa-ndi-ndi</i> figuratively translates to "[the rice] was made to be eaten [by someone: causee] [by someone: causer]".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstruction_of_Proto-Songhay">Reconstruction of Proto-Songhay</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reconstruction of Proto-Songhay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: gold;">Proto-Songhay</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data">Songhay languages</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Below are some Proto-Songhay reconstructions:<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>Proto-Songhay </th></tr> <tr> <td>person</td> <td>*bòro </td></tr> <tr> <td>bird</td> <td>*kídòw </td></tr> <tr> <td>scorpion, mosquito</td> <td>*(n)děŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ashes</td> <td>*bó:sú </td></tr> <tr> <td>stone, mountain</td> <td>*tóndì </td></tr> <tr> <td>year</td> <td>*gí:rí; *mán(n)à </td></tr> <tr> <td>yesterday</td> <td>*bǐ: </td></tr> <tr> <td>ask</td> <td>*há˜ </td></tr> <tr> <td>bring</td> <td>*kàte </td></tr> <tr> <td>thorn</td> <td>*kárgí </td></tr> <tr> <td>skin</td> <td>*kú:rú </td></tr> <tr> <td>blood</td> <td>*kúdí </td></tr> <tr> <td>year</td> <td>*gí:rí </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some Proto-Eastern Songhay reconstructions are:<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>Proto-Eastern Songhay </th></tr> <tr> <td>thatch hut</td> <td>*bùgù </td></tr> <tr> <td>armpit, wing</td> <td>*fátá </td></tr> <tr> <td>thirst</td> <td>*gèw </td></tr> <tr> <td>flank</td> <td>*kéráw </td></tr> <tr> <td>mason wasp</td> <td>*bímbín(í) </td></tr> <tr> <td>sweat</td> <td>*súŋgáy </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Comparison of numerals in individual languages:<sup id="cite_ref-ChanNumeralsNS_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChanNumeralsNS-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>1</th> <th>2</th> <th>3</th> <th>4</th> <th>5</th> <th>6</th> <th>7</th> <th>8</th> <th>9</th> <th>10 </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:kcy" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:kcy">Korandje</a></td> <td>affu*</td> <td>jnka</td> <td>jnzˁa</td> <td>rˁəbʕa < Arabic</td> <td>χəmsa < Arabic</td> <td>sətta < Arabic</td> <td>səbʕa < Arabic</td> <td>tmənja < Arabic</td> <td>təsʕa < Arabic</td> <td>ʕəʃrˁa < Arabic </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:dsq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:dsq">Tadaksahak</a></td> <td>a-ˈfːo / a-ˈfːoo-da</td> <td>hiŋˈka</td> <td>kaːˈrˤad < Tamasheq</td> <td>aˈkːoːz < Tamasheq</td> <td>ʃaˈmːuʃ < Tamasheq</td> <td>ʃaːˈdˤiʃ < Tamasheq</td> <td>iˈʃːa < Tamasheq</td> <td>iˈtˤːam < Tamasheq</td> <td>tˤaːˈsˤa < Tamasheq</td> <td>maːˈrˤa < Tamasheq </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:twq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:twq">Tasawaq</a></td> <td>fó / a-fːó</td> <td>hínká / à-hínká</td> <td>hínzà / à-hínzà</td> <td>táásì / à-tːáásì</td> <td>xámsà < Arabic</td> <td>sítːà < Arabic</td> <td>sábàɣà < Arabic</td> <td>tàmáníyà < Arabic</td> <td>tísàɣà < Arabic</td> <td>ɣàsárà < Arabic </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ddn" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ddn">Dendi</a></td> <td>afɔ</td> <td>hayinka / ahinka</td> <td>ahinza</td> <td>ataki</td> <td>aɡu</td> <td>ayidu</td> <td>ayiye / ahiye</td> <td>ayiyaku</td> <td>ayiɡa</td> <td>aweyi </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ses" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ses">Koyraboro Senni</a></td> <td>affoo</td> <td>ihinka</td> <td>ihinza</td> <td>itaatʃi</td> <td>iɡɡuu</td> <td>idduu</td> <td>iyye</td> <td>iyaaha</td> <td>iyaɡɡa</td> <td>iwoy </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:khq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:khq">Koyra Chiini</a></td> <td>foo / a-foo</td> <td>hiŋka</td> <td>hindʒa</td> <td>taatʃi</td> <td>ɡuu</td> <td>iddu</td> <td>iiye</td> <td>yaaha</td> <td>yaɡɡa</td> <td>woy / wey </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ISO_639:dje" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:dje">Zarma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Songhoyboro_Ciine" title="Songhoyboro Ciine">Songhoyboro Ciine</a></td> <td>àˈfó</td> <td>ìˈhíŋká</td> <td>ìˈhínzà</td> <td>ìˈtaːcí</td> <td>ìˈɡú</td> <td>ˈíddù</td> <td>ˈijjè</td> <td>àˈhákˌkù</td> <td>ˈjǽɡɡà</td> <td>ìˈwéɪ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dimmendaal, Gerrit. 2008. Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent. <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i> 2(5): 843<i>ff.</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/french_historical_studies/v027/27.3white.html">Dupuis-Yakouba, Auguste</a>. 1917. <i>Essai pratique de méthode pour l'étude de la langue songoï ou songaï [...]</i>. Paris: Ernest Leroux.</li> <li>Hunwick, John O.; Alida Jay Boye. 2008. <i>The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu</i>. Thames & Hudson.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nicola%C3%AF" title="Robert Nicolaï">Nicolaï, Robert</a>. 1981. <i>Les dialectes du songhay: contribution à l'étude des changements linguistiques</i>. Paris: SELAF. 302 pp.</li> <li>Nicolaï, Robert & Petr Zima. 1997. <i>Songhay</i>. LINCOM-Europa. 52 pp.</li> <li>Prost, R.P.A. [André]. 1956. <i>La langue sonay et ses dialectes</i>. Dakar: IFAN. Series: Mémoires de l'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire; 47. 627 pp.</li></ul> <p>Publisher and publication abbreviations: </p> <ul><li>CSLI = Center for the Study of Language and Information.</li> <li>IFAN = <a href="/wiki/Institut_Fondamental_d%27Afrique_Noire" title="Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire">Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (since renamed the Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire)</a>.</li> <li>SELAF = Société d'études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France.</li> <li><i>SUGIA</i> = <i>Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika</i>, journal published by Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne (Köln).</li> <li>Köppe = Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_genetic_affiliation">On genetic affiliation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: On genetic affiliation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M._Lionel_Bender" class="mw-redirect" title="M. Lionel Bender">Bender, M. Lionel</a>. 1996. <i>The Nilo-Saharan Languages: A Comparative Essay</i>. München: LINCOM-Europa. 253 pp</li> <li>Roger Blench and Colleen Ahland, "The Classification of Gumuz and Koman Languages",<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316221945/http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=433&quality=hd">[1]</a> presented at the <i>Language Isolates in Africa</i> workshop, Lyons, December 4, 2010</li> <li>D. Creissels. 1981. "De la possibilité de rapprochements entre le songhay et les langues Niger–Congo (en particulier Mandé)." In Th. Schadeberg, M. L. Bender, eds., <i>Nilo-Saharan : Proceedings of the First Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, Leiden, September 8–10</i>, pp. 185–199. Foris Publications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Greenberg, Joseph</a>, 1963. <i>The Languages of Africa</i> (International Journal of American Linguistics 29.1). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.</li> <li>Lacroix, Pierre-Francis. 1971. "L'ensemble songhay-jerma: problèmes et thèmes de travail". In <i>Acte du 8ème Congrès de la SLAO (Société Linguistique de l’Afrique Occidentale)</i>, Série H, Fasicule hors série, 87–100. Abidjan: Annales de l’Université d’Abidjan.</li> <li>Mukarovsky, H. G. 1966. "Zur Stellung der Mandesprachen". <i>Anthropos</i>, 61:679-88.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nicola%C3%AF" title="Robert Nicolaï">Nicolaï, Robert</a>. 1977. "Sur l'appartenance du songhay". <i>Annales de la faculté des lettres de Nice</i>, 28:129–145.</li> <li>Nicolaï, Robert. 1984. <i>Préliminaires à une étude sur l'origine du songhay: matériaux, problématique et hypothèses</i>, Berlin: D. Reimer. Series: Marburger Studien zur Afrika- und Asienkunde. Serie A, Afrika; 37. 163 pp</li> <li>Nicolaï, Robert. 1990. <i>Parentés linguistiques (à propos du songhay)</i>. Paris: CNRS. 209 pp</li> <li>Nicolaï, Robert. 2003. <i>La force des choses ou l'épreuve 'nilo-saharienne': questions sur les reconstructions archéologiques et l'évolution des langues</i>. SUGIA – Supplement 13. Köln: Köppe. 577 pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This map is based on classification from Glottolog and data from Ethnologue.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UAgQAQAAMAAJ&q=Ayneha+zarma"><i>Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts: LLBA., Volume 33, Issue 3</i></a>, 1999<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-14</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics+and+Language+Behavior+Abstracts%3A+LLBA.%2C+Volume+33%2C+Issue+3&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUAgQAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DAyneha%2Bzarma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KdorAQAAIAAJ&q=Ayneha+zarma"><i>Etudes de lettres</i></a>, Faculté des lettres de l'Université de Lausanne, 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-14</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etudes+de+lettres&rft.pub=Facult%C3%A9+des+lettres+de+l%27Universit%C3%A9+de+Lausanne&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKdorAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DAyneha%2Bzarma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heath 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.corban.edu/hydra/media/files/2019/09/10/southern-songhay-silesr1999_004-1.pdf"><i>Southern Songhay Speech Varieties In Niger:A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Zarma, Songhay, Kurtey, Wogo, and Dendi Peoples of Niger</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Byron & Annette Harrison and Michael J. Rueck Summer Institute of Linguistics B.P. 10151, Niamey, Niger Republic, 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Songhay+Speech+Varieties+In+Niger%3AA+Sociolinguistic+Survey+of+the+Zarma%2C+Songhay%2C+Kurtey%2C+Wogo%2C+and+Dendi+Peoples+of+Niger&rft.pub=Byron+%26+Annette+Harrison+and+Michael+J.+Rueck+Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics+B.P.+10151%2C+Niamey%2C+Niger+Republic&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.corban.edu%2Fhydra%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2F2019%2F09%2F10%2Fsouthern-songhay-silesr1999_004-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.org/show_country.asp?name=NE">Ethnologue report for Niger</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit (18 September 2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent". <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 840–858. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00085.x">10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00085.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Language+Ecology+and+Linguistic+Diversity+on+the+African+Continent&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=840-858&rft.date=2008-09-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818X.2008.00085.x&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BlenchSouag-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger & Lameen Souag. m.s. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Saharan%20Songhay%20branch.pdf">Saharan and Songhay form a branch of Nilo-Saharan</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heath 1999:2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hunwick and Boye 2008: ____</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A map of the varieties is provided by Ethnologue at its Web site. See the list of External Links.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silewp/abstract.asp?ref=2002-005">SIL Working Papers on Songhay</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacroix 1969: 91–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2011" class="citation book cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011). <i>Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages</i>. John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8722-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8722-9"><bdi>978-90-272-8722-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Linguistics+and+the+Comparative+Study+of+African+Languages&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8722-9&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shopen, T. & Konaré, M. 1970. "Sonrai Causatives and Passives: Transformational versus Lexical Derivations for Propositional Heads", <i>Studies in African Linguistics</i> 1.211–54. Cited in Dixon, R.M.W. (2000). "A Typology of Causatives: Form, Syntax, and Meaning". In Dixon, R.M.W. & Aikhenvald, Alexendra Y. Changing Valency: Case Studies in Transitivity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChanNumeralsNS-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ChanNumeralsNS_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2019" class="citation web cs1">Chan, Eugene (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/channumerals/Nilo-Saharan.htm">"The Nilo-Saharan Language Phylum"</a>. Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nilo-Saharan+Language+Phylum&rft.pub=Numeral+Systems+of+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flingweb.eva.mpg.de%2Fchannumerals%2FNilo-Saharan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolai2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Nicolai, Robert (2019). "Songhay: Une langue Africaine en contact étroit avec le berbère". In Chaker, Salem (ed.). <i>Encyclopedie Berbère</i>. Vol. XLIII: Siga – Syphax. Peeters Publishers. pp. 7523–7537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1q26k1s.28">10.2307/j.ctv1q26k1s.28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042937932" title="Special:BookSources/9789042937932"><bdi>9789042937932</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Songhay%3A+Une+langue+Africaine+en+contact+%C3%A9troit+avec+le+berb%C3%A8re&rft.btitle=Encyclopedie+Berb%C3%A8re&rft.pages=7523-7537&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1q26k1s.28&rft.isbn=9789042937932&rft.aulast=Nicolai&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASonghay+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Songhay_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fr:Cat%C3%A9gorie:songha%C3%AF_koyraboro_senni" class="extiw" title="wikt:fr:Catégorie:songhaï koyraboro senni">Wictionaire, Dictionary Songhai Koyraboro Senni – French, > 3000 Words</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silewp/abstract.asp?ref=2003-003">Relative Clauses in Tadaksahak</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silewp/abstract.asp?ref=2002-005">Some verb morphology features in Tadaksahak</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bisharat.net/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/SonghaiZarma">PanAfrican L10n page on Songhai & Zarma</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070812190630/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jheath/books.html">Publications of linguist Jeffrey Heath on Songhay languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.djerma.nl/">Language and Culture Djerma</a></li> <li>Maps showing the Songhay languages of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.org/show_map.asp?name=ML">Mali</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.org/show_map.asp?name=NE">Niger</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/lameen/northern-songhay">Northern Songhay</a> – bibliography and brief description of this subfamily</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Songhay_languages" title="Template:Songhay languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Songhay_languages" title="Template talk:Songhay languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Songhay_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Songhay languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Songhay_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Songhay languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Songhay_languages" title="Northern Songhay languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tadaksahak" title="Tadaksahak">Tadaksahak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagdal_language" title="Tagdal language">Tagdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korandje_language" title="Korandje language">Korandje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasawaq_language" title="Tasawaq language">Tasawaq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Songhay_languages" title="Southern Songhay languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dendi_language" title="Dendi language">Dendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humburi_Senni_language" title="Humburi Senni language">Humburi Senni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaado_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaado language">Kaado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koyra_Chiini_language" title="Koyra Chiini language">Koyra Chiini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koyraboro_Senni" title="Koyraboro Senni">Koyraboro Senni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tondi_Songway_Kiini" title="Tondi Songway Kiini">Tondi Kiini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nilo-Saharan_branches" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nilo-Saharan_branches" title="Template:Nilo-Saharan branches"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/B%CA%BCaga_languages" title="Bʼaga languages">Bʼaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ongota_language" title="Ongota language">Ongota</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Furan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Songhay</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a></i> ?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bongo%E2%80%93Bagirmi_languages" title="Bongo–Bagirmi languages">Bongo–Bagirmi</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kresh_languages" title="Kresh languages">Kresh</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenduic_languages" title="Lenduic languages">Lendu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbetu_languages" title="Mangbetu languages">Mangbetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbutu%E2%80%93Lese_languages" title="Mangbutu–Lese languages">Mangbutu–Lese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moru%E2%80%93Madi_languages" title="Moru–Madi languages">Moru–Madi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinyar_language" title="Sinyar language">Sinyar</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daju_languages" title="Daju languages">Daju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Eastern Jebel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">Surmic</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Astaboran_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Astaboran languages">Astaboran</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyimang_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyimang languages">Nyimang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Tama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temein_languages" title="Temein languages">Temein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Niger" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Niger" title="Template:Languages of Niger"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Niger" title="Template talk:Languages of Niger"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Niger" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Niger"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Niger" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Niger" title="Languages of Niger">Languages of Niger</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buduma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Buduma language">Buduma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language" title="Fula language">Fulfulde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurma_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurma language">Gurma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasawaq_language" title="Tasawaq language">Tassawaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tebu_languages" title="Tebu languages">Toubou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_languages" title="Tuareg languages">Tamajeq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Tamajeq_language" title="Air Tamajeq language">Air Tamajeq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daza_language" title="Daza language">Daza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaado_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaado language">Kaado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamahaq_language" title="Tamahaq language">Tamahaq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Primary_language_families" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></b>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia<br />(<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a></i>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates <br />(extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in <i>italics</i> have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in 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