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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark,_Norway_and_Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark,_Norway_and_Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Denmark, Norway and Sweden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark,_Norway_and_Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-British_North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>British North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haiti_and_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti_and_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Haiti and Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti_and_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li 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0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this article is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Influence_of_the_French_Revolution##" title="Talk:Influence of the French Revolution">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> had a major impact on Europe and the New World. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in European history.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the short-term, France lost thousands of its countrymen in the form of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="Émigrés">émigrés</a>, or emigrants who wished to escape political tensions and save their lives. A number of individuals settled in the neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany and Austria), while some settled in Russia, and many also went to Canada and the United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating immigration, and a safe haven for <a href="/wiki/Royalist_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalist (France)">Royalists</a> and other counterrevolutionaries to outlast the violence of the French Revolution. The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and politics for more than a century. The closer other countries were, the greater and deeper was the French impact, bringing <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>, but also practices such as <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">revolutionary terror</a> along with the end of many feudal or traditional laws and practices.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was also a <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">conservative counter-reaction</a> that defeated <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">reinstalled the Bourbon kings</a>, and in some ways reversed the new reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-Artz_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artz-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the new nations created by France were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Frederick Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: </p> <dl><dd>For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-Artz_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artz-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Likewise in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a> the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin: </p> <dl><dd>It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The greatest impact came in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized—'left' and 'right' were the new terms for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_France">Impact on France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Impact on France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution#France" title="French Revolution">French Revolution § France</a></div> <p>The changes in France were enormous; some were widely accepted and others were bitterly contested into the late 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the Revolution, the people had little power or voice. The kings had so thoroughly centralized the system that most nobles spent their time at Versailles, and played only a small direct role in their home districts. Thompson says that the kings had: "ruled by virtue of their personal wealth, their patronage of the nobility, their disposal of ecclesiastical offices, their provincial governors (<i>intendants</i>), their control over the judges and magistrates, and their command of the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>" </p><p>After the first year of revolution, this power had been stripped away. The king was a figurehead, the nobility had lost all their titles and most of their land, the Church lost its monasteries and farmlands, bishops, judges and magistrates were elected by the people, the army was almost helpless, with military power in the hands of the new revolutionary National Guard. The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "<i><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i>" and the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a>, which Lefebvre calls "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Victor_Alphonse_Aulard" title="François Victor Alphonse Aulard">Historian François Aulard</a> writes: </p> <dl><dd>From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_Europe">Impact on Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Impact on Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Europe was wracked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, and the opposition of reactionary royalty by the members of the anti-French coalitions. Napoleon was finally defeated and reactionaries took over France. Even so, there were many deep results in terms of political ideas and institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_emigration">French emigration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: French emigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_emigration_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="French emigration (1789–1815)">French emigration (1789–1815)</a></div><p>To escape political tensions and save their lives, a number of individuals, mostly men, emigrated from France. Many settled in neighboring countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria, and Prussia), and quite a few went to the United States. The presence of these thousands of Frenchmen of varying socioeconomic backgrounds who had just fled a hotbed of revolutionary activity posed a problem for the nations that extended refuge to the migrants. The fear was that they brought with them a plot to disrupt the political order, which did lead to increased regulation and documentation of the influx of immigrants in neighboring countries. Still, most nations such as Britain remained magnanimous and welcomed the French. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_conquests">French conquests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: French conquests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In foreign affairs, the French Army at first was quite successful. It conquered the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> (approximately modern-day Belgium) and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> (the present Netherlands), and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and the French Army became trapped in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Republic</a> was centered on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Ligurian Republic</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(18th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (18th century)">Roman Republic</a> was formed out of the papal holdings while the pope himself was sent to France. The <a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1799)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolitan Republic (1799)">Neapolitan Republic</a> was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1805 he formed the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Kingdom of Italy</a>, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>, and Switzerland into the <a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</a>. All these new countries were satellites of France and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />The new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: </p> <dl><dd>For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-Artz_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artz-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalism">Nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalism was emphasized by historian <a href="/wiki/Carlton_J._H._Hayes" title="Carlton J. H. Hayes">Carlton J. H. Hayes</a> as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Revolution_Controversy" title="Revolution Controversy">Revolution Controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aliens_Act_1793" title="Aliens Act 1793">Aliens Act 1793</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1794_Treason_Trials" title="1794 Treason Trials">1794 Treason Trials</a></div> <p>At the beginning of the Revolution, Britain supported the new <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> in France, up until the regicide of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>. The majority of the British establishment was vehemently opposed to the revolution. Britain, guided by <a href="/wiki/Pitt_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitt the Younger">Pitt the Younger</a>, led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and the removal of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> culminated with the (temporary) restoration of the Bourbons. <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i>, a pamphlet notable for its defense of the principle of constitutional monarchy; the events surrounding the <a href="/wiki/London_Corresponding_Society" title="London Corresponding Society">London Corresponding Society</a> were an example of the fevered times.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Ascendancy" title="Protestant Ascendancy">Protestant Ascendancy</a> to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen" title="Society of United Irishmen">Society of United Irishmen</a> consisting of both Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. These efforts culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a>, which was quickly suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This revolt is seen as the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Irish republicanism</a>, which eventually led to the independence and <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland" title="Partition of Ireland">partition of Ireland</a> and the establishment of an <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Irish republic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Influence of the French Revolution">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#French_Revolution_1789–1815" title="History of Germany">History of Germany § French Revolution 1789–1815</a></div> <p>German reaction to the Revolution swung from favorable at first to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of guilds, of serfdom and of the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. There were enemies as well, as the royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. </p><p>By 1793, the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">execution of the French king</a> and the onset of <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">the Terror</a> disillusioned the "Bildungsbürgertum" (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rheinbund_1812,_political_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/300px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/450px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/600px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>, composed of client states under Napoleon's control, 1806 to 1813; most German states belonged except Prussia (in the northeast) and Austria (in the southeast). The map text is in German</figcaption></figure> <p>After Russia was humiliated by Napoleon opinion swung against France and stimulated and shaped German nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France took direct control of the Rhineland 1794–1814 and radically and permanently liberalized the government, society and economy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French swept away centuries' worth of restrictions and introduced unprecedented levels of efficiency<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The chaos and barriers in a land divided and subdivided among many different petty principalities gave way to a simplified, centralized system controlled by Paris and run by Napoleon's relatives. The most important impact came from the abolition of all feudal privileges and historic taxes, the introduction of legal reforms of the Napoleonic Code, and the reorganization of the judicial and local administrative systems. The economic integration of the Rhineland with France increased prosperity, especially in industrial production, while business accelerated with the new efficiency and lowered trade barriers. The Jews were liberated from the ghetto. One sour point was the hostility of the French officials toward the Roman Catholic Church, the choice of most of the residents. Much of South Germany felt a similar but more muted influence of the French Revolution, while in Prussia and areas to the east there was far less impact.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reforms were permanent. Decades later workers and peasants in the Rhineland often appealed to Jacobinism to oppose unpopular government programs, while the intelligentsia demanded the maintenance of the Napoleonic Code (which was stayed in effect for a century).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a></div> <p>When the French invaded Russia, Prussia and Austria, Napoleon carved out a Polish state allied to the French known as The Duchy of Warsaw, the Polish had had their first glimpse of independence for 200 years since the partitions of Poland by Russia Austria and Prussia. This also led to an increase in Polish nationalism that would persist throughout the 19th and 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</a></div> <p>The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "<a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</a>" (1798–1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. Alois Von Reding, a powerful Swiss general, led an army of 10,000 men from the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden against the French. This resulted in the Swiss regaining control of Lucerne, however due to the sheer greatness in size of the French army, Von Reding's movement was eventually suppressed. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideals steadily declined, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization, and the hostility to religion.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The instability of France resulted in the creation of two different revolutionary groups with different ideologies of revolt: The aristocrats, seeking the restoration of the Old Swiss Confederacy and a section of the population wanting a coup. Furthermore, Switzerland became a battleground between the armies of France, Austria and Russia. Ultimately, this instability, frequent coups within the government and the eventual Bourla-papey forced Napoleon to sign the Act of Medallion which led to the fall of the Helvetic Republic and the restoration of the Confederacy. </p><p>The long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin: </p> <dl><dd>It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium">Belgium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_the_long_nineteenth_century#French_rule" title="Belgium in the long nineteenth century">Belgium in the long nineteenth century § French rule</a></div> <p>French invaded the territory of modern-day Belgium and controlled it between 1794 and 1814. The French imposed reforms and incorporated the territory into France. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business center. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> on the Continent.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></div> <p>France turned the Netherlands into a puppet state that had to pay large indemnities.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark,_Norway_and_Sweden"><span id="Denmark.2C_Norway_and_Sweden"></span>Denmark, Norway and Sweden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Denmark, Norway and Sweden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Reforms" title="History of Denmark">History of Denmark § Reforms</a></div> <p>The Kingdom of Denmark (which included Norway) adopted liberalizing reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Danes were aware of French ideas and agreed with them, as it moved from Danish absolutism to a liberal constitutional system between 1750 and 1850. The change of government in 1784 was caused by a power vacuum created when King Christian VII took ill, and power shifted to the crown prince (who later became King Frederik VI) and reform-oriented landowners. In contrast to Old Regime France, agricultural reform was intensified in Denmark, serfdom was abolished and civil rights were extended to the peasants, the finances of the Danish state were healthy, and there were no external or internal crises. That is, reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well-organized liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Sweden, King <a href="/wiki/Gustav_III_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav III of Sweden">Gustav III</a> (reigned 1771–92) was an enlightened despot, who weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He was close to King Louis XVI so he was disgusted with French radicalism. Nevertheless, he decided to promote additional antifeudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the king was assassinated in 1792 his brother <a href="/wiki/Charles_XIII_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles XIII of Sweden">Charles</a> became regent, but real power was with <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Adolf_Reuterholm" title="Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm">Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm</a>, who bitterly opposed the French Revolution and all its supporters. Under <a href="/wiki/Gustav_IV_Adolf_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden">King Gustav IV Adolf</a>, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon, but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, <a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles XIV John of Sweden">Bernadotte</a>, as the heir apparent and army commander. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. Bernadotte served as a quite conservative king Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44),<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his realm included Norway, taken from Denmark in 1814. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Russian public were interested in the French Revolution from the beginning, although strict censorship, absence of political activity in Russia at the time, and the overall low education of the general populace diminished the effects of the revolution regarding cultural and political life, in contrast to other countries. It was not until the late 19th century where the French Revolution became a major discussion topic in Russian politics, with all political groups sharing interest and attention to it. <sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early reactions to the French Revolution were hostile. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>'s monarch <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a>, who reigned at the time, reacted with horror at the French Revolution. This was notable given that she had held quite liberal views for a Russian monarch and had correspondence with leading French intellectuals. She ended up abandoning her liberal standing and both disdained and feared the Revolution. She had the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_from_St._Petersburg_to_Moscow" title="Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow">Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow</a></i> written by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Alexander Radishchev</a> burned as she believed it dangerously promoted the French Revolution and even sent Radischev to exile in Siberia. Radischev had also previously rejected serfdom and was a known social critic, which contributed to Catherine and the court's suspicion of his character.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Decembrist_Revolt_and_its_Aftermath_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Decembrist_Revolt_and_its_Aftermath-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Fyodorov_(philosopher)" title="Nikolai Fyodorov (philosopher)">Nikolai Fyodorov</a> saw sexuality as the primary reason behind the French Revolution. In his book, <i>The Philosophy of the Common Task</i>, he viewed sexuality as the main force driving humanity in revolution and war, listing the French Revolution as an example. Leading editor and art critic of <a href="/wiki/Novoye_Vremya_(newspaper)" title="Novoye Vremya (newspaper)">Novoye Vremya</a> Fedor Bulgakov approached the French Revolution in a similar context, although also seeing faulty advice and badly luck as other partial reasons for the downfall of the French monarchy during the revolution. Other Novoye Vremya contributors described that the sexuality mentioned by Fyodrov and Bulgakov as a destructive phenomenon that plagued the French gentry with absolute cynicism, causing the monarchs to become effeminate and helping in their downfall in the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_outside_Europe">Impact outside Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Impact outside Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia_and_North_Africa">West Asia and North Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: West Asia and North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Ottoman_alliance" title="Franco-Ottoman alliance">Franco-Ottoman alliance</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French campaign in Egypt and Syria</a></div> <p>The impact of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> came in terms of the political and military impact of Napoleon's invasions of <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Syria</a>; and in the eventual influence of revolutionary and liberal ideas and revolutionary movements or rebellions. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_invasion_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon's invasion of Egypt">Napoleon's invasion</a> in 1798, the response by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> officials was highly negative. They warned that traditional religion would be overthrown. Long-standing <a href="/wiki/Franco-Ottoman_alliance" title="Franco-Ottoman alliance">Ottoman friendship with France</a> ended. <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman</a> elites were heavily antithetical to the values of French Revolution and regarded it as a <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> movement hostile to all religions and promoting <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>. Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> immediately realized how far behind his empire was, and started to modernize both his army and his governmental system. In Egypt itself, the ruling elite of <a href="/wiki/Mamluk#Egypt" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a> was permanently displaced, speeding the reforms. In intellectual terms, the immediate impact of the French Revolutionary ideas was nearly invisible, but there was a long-range influence on liberal ideas and the ideal of legal equality, as well as the notion of opposition to a tyrannical government. In this regard, the French Revolution brought such influential themes as constitutionalism, <a href="/wiki/Parliamentarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentarianism">parliamentarianism</a>, individual liberty, legal equality, and the sense of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a>. These came to fruition about 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Portraying the revolution as "a nasty case of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>", an official 1798 report by the Ottoman <i><a href="/wiki/Reis_%C3%BCl-K%C3%BCttab" title="Reis ül-Küttab">Reis ül-Küttab</a></i> states:</p><blockquote><p>"the conflagration of sedition and wickedness that broke out a few years ago in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, scattering sparks and shooting flames of mischief and tumult in all directions, had been conceived many years previously in the minds of certain accursed heretics.. In this way: the known and famous atheists <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, and other materialists like them, had printed and published various works.. of insults and vilification against the pure <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">prophets</a> and great kings, of the removal and abolition of all religion, and of allusions to the sweetness of equality and <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>, all expressed in easily intelligible words and phrases, in the form of mockery, in the language of the common people. Finding the pleasure of novelty in these writings, most of the people, even youths and women, inclined towards them and paid close attention to them, so that heresy and wickedness spread like syphilis to the arteries of their brains and corrupted their beliefs. When the revolution became more intense, none took offence at the closing of <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a>, the killing and expulsion of <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a>, and the abolition of religion and doctrine: they set their hearts on equality and freedom.. the ultimate basis of the order and cohesion of every state is a firm grasp of the roots and branches of holy law, religion, and doctrine; that the tranquillity of the land and the control of the subjects cannot be encompassed by political means alone; that the necessity for the fear of God and the regard for retribution in the hearts of God's slaves is one of the unshakeably established divine decrees.. the leaders of the sedition and evil appearing in France, in a manner without precedent.. have removed the fear of God and the regard for retribution from the common people, made lawful all kinds of abominable deeds, utterly obliterated all shame and-decency, and thus prepared the way for the reduction of the people of France to the state of cattle... Nor were they satisfied with this alone, .. they had their rebellious declaration which they call '<a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">The Rights of Man</a>' translated into all languages and published in all parts, and strove to incite the common people of the nations and religions to rebel against the kings to whom they were subject"<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jabarti" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti">Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Islamic scholar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim historian">historian</a> '<a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jabarti" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti">Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti</a> (1753–1825 C.E) maintained a strict, puritanical tone in reactions to his witnessing of the advanced military technology, material sciences and cultural values of the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French</a> occupiers. As a top-ranking intellectual of Egypt, Al-Jabarti's views on <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a> were also unprecedented; and is reflected in his stance on two major revolutions of his lifetime: French Revolution of 1789 and Wahhabi Revolution of 1798 in the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Jabarti was deeply influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Islah" title="Islah">reformist</a> ideals of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Muwahhidun_(Wahhabi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muwahhidun (Wahhabi)">Muwahhidun</a></i> movement and their calls for <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Fraternity" title="Fraternity">fraternity</a>, revival of past Islamic glory by direct engagement with the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Scriptures</a>, advocacy of <i><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></i>, opposition to <a href="/wiki/Folk_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk Islam">folkish</a> <a href="/wiki/Superstitions_in_Muslim_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstitions in Muslim societies">superstitions</a>, etc. He gave a supportive account of the movement in his seminal <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egyptian history</a> work "<i>Aja'ib al-athar fi al-tarajim wal-akhbar</i>" (The Marvelous Compositions of Biographies and Events) and lamented the fall of <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah" title="Emirate of Diriyah">Emirate of Dirʿiyya</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Wahhabi_War" title="Wahhabi War">Wahhabi Wars</a>. Meanwhile, Jabarti abhorred the <a href="/wiki/French_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="French republicanism">Republican</a> ideas of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French revolution</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality</a>; insisting on the supremacy of <i><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B8%A5y" title="Waḥy">Wahy</a></i> (Islamic Revelation) over <a href="/wiki/European_Rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="European Rationalism">European rationalism</a>. Although he had acknowledged the advances made by <a href="/wiki/Europeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans">Europeans</a> in certain fields, Jabarti firmly believed in the eventual triumph of Islam over the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> and advocated the restoration of Islamic prowess through his works.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In Jabarti's view, only <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a> is the Legislator and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> violated <i><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></i> (Islamic law) by granting this right to the common masses. In his "<i>Tarikh muddat al-faransis bi-misr</i>" (The History of the Period of the French Occupation in Egypt) that chronicled the events of Egypt during June–December 1798, Al-Jabarti gives the following account on the slogans and socio-political values of the French Revolution:</p><blockquote><p>"the French agree with the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">three religions</a>, but at the same time they do not agree with them, nor with any religion... their statement 'On behalf of the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Republic</a>, etc.', that is, this proclamation is sent from their <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a>, that means their body politic, because they have no chief or sultan with whom they all agree, like others, whose function is to speak on their behalf. For when they rebelled against their <a href="/wiki/French_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="French monarch">sultan</a> six years ago and killed him, the people agreed unanimously that there was not to be a single ruler but that their state, territories, laws, and administration of their affairs, should be in the hands of the intelligent and wise men among them. They appointed persons chosen by them and made them heads of the army, and below them generals and commanders of thousands, two hundreds, and tens, administrators and advisers, on condition that they were all to be equal and none superior to any other in view of the equality of creation and nature. They made this the foundation and basis of their system. This is the meaning of their statement 'based upon the foundation of liberty and equality'. Their term '<a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>' means that they are not slaves like the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a>; '<a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality</a>' has the aforesaid meaning... They follow this rule: great and small, high and low, male and female are all equal. Sometimes they break this rule according to their whims and inclinations or reasoning. Their women do not <a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">veil</a> themselves and have no modesty; they do not care whether they uncover their private parts... As for the name 'Bonaparte' this is the title of their general, it is not a name."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_America">Northern America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Northern America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_North_America">British North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: British North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The press in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">colony of Quebec</a> initially viewed the events of the Revolution positively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Press coverage in Quebec on the Revolution was reliant, and reflective of public opinion in London, with the colony's press reliant on newspapers and reprints from journals from the British Isles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199358_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199358-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early positive reception of the French Revolution had made it politically difficult to justify withholding electoral institutions from the colony to both the British and Quebec public; with the British <a href="/wiki/Home_Secretary" title="Home Secretary">Home Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Grenville" class="mw-redirect" title="William Grenville">William Grenville</a> remarking how it was hardly "possible to 'maintain with success' the denial 'to so large a body of British Subjects, the benefits of the British Constitution'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governmental reforms introduced in the <i><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Act_1791" title="Constitutional Act 1791">Constitutional Act 1791</a></i> split Quebec into two separate colonies, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper Canada</a>; and introduced electoral institutions to the two colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Opposition to the French Revolution in Quebec first emerged from its clergy, after the French government confiscated the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9minaire_de_Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Séminaire de Québec">Séminaire de Québec</a>'s properties in France. However, most of the clergy in Quebec did not voice their opposition to the Revolution in its initial years, aware of the prevailing opinion of the colony at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199363-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public opinion in Quebec began to shift against the Revolution after the Flight to Varennes, and as popular accounts of disturbances in France in 1791 made its way to the colony.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199357-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the September Massacres, and the subsequent execution of Louis XVI in January 1793, members of the Canadian clergy, and seigneurs began to openly voice opposition against the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199365_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199365-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A shift in public opinion was also apparent in the first session of the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Lower_Canada" title="Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada">Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada</a>, with the legislature voting against several bills inspired by the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199366_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199366-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1793, nearly all of the legislative assembly's members refused to be identified as "democrats," a term that was used by supporters of the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199370_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199370-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1793, the clergy, seigneurs, and the bourgeoisie of the Canadas were openly opposed to the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199372_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199372-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar sentiments were also found with the "second class of Canadians," who lauded "the French revolution for its principles but detests the crimes it has spawned".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199373_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwood199373-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French migration to the Canadas was decelerated significantly during, and after the French Revolution; with only a small number of artisans, professionals, and religious emigres from France permitted to settle in the Canadas during that period.<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these migrants moved to <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a>, although French nobleman <a href="/wiki/Joseph-Genevi%C3%A8ve_de_Puisaye" title="Joseph-Geneviève de Puisaye">Joseph-Geneviève de Puisaye</a> also led a small group of French royalists to settle lands north of <a href="/wiki/York,_Upper_Canada" title="York, Upper Canada">York</a> (present day <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influx of religious migrants from France reinvigorated the Roman Catholic Church in the Canadas, with the refectory priests who moved to the colonies being responsible for the establishment of a number of parishes throughout <a href="/wiki/The_Canadas" title="The Canadas">the Canadas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-canimmg_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canimmg-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The French Revolution found widespread American support in its early phase, but when the king was executed it polarized American opinion and played a major role in shaping American politics.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President George Washington declared neutrality in the European wars, but the polarization shaped the <a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a>. In 1793, the first "<a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Societies" title="Democratic-Republican Societies">Democratic Societies</a>" were formed. They supported the French Revolution in the wake of the execution of the king. The word "democrat" was proposed by French Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Citizen_Genet" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen Genet">Citizen Genet</a> for the societies, which he was secretly subsidizing. The emerging <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, began to ridicule the supporters of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> as "democrats". Genet now began mobilizing American voters using French money, for which he was expelled by President Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After President Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they faded away. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Jeffersonian Republican Party</a> favored France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war, since they stopped being in favor of the Revolution after they executed the King; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under President Adams, a Federalist, an undeclared naval war took place with France in 1798–99, called the "<a href="/wiki/Quasi_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi War">Quasi War</a>". Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. Nevertheless, he did seize the opportunity to <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">purchase Louisiana in 1803</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The broad similarities but different experiences between the French and American revolutions lead to a certain kinship between France and the United States, with both countries seeing themselves as pioneers of liberty and promoting republican ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-am_&_fre_similarities_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-am_&_fre_similarities-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bond manifested itself in such exchanges as the gift of the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a> by France.<sup id="cite_ref-Statue_of_liberty_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statue_of_liberty-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haiti_and_Mexico">Haiti and Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Haiti and Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The call for modification of society was influenced by the revolution in France, and once the hope for change found a place in the hearts of the Haitian people, there was no stopping the radical reformation that was occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-scholar.library.miami.edu_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholar.library.miami.edu-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Enlightenment ideals and the initiation of the French Revolution were enough to inspire the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, which evolved into the most successful and comprehensive slave rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-scholar.library.miami.edu_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholar.library.miami.edu-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just as the French were successful in transforming their society, so were the Haitians. On April 4, 1792, The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves in Haiti but denied them their independence from France leading to the continuation of the Haitian revolution<sup id="cite_ref-Ghachem,_Malick_W_2012_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghachem,_Malick_W_2012-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the revolution culminated in 1804; Haiti was an independent nation solely of freed peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The activities of the revolutions sparked change across the world. France's transformation was most influential in Europe, and Haiti's influence spanned across every location that continued to practice slavery. John E. Baur honors Haiti as home of the most influential Revolution in history.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 1810, the term "liberal" was coined in Spanish politics to indicate supporters of the French Revolution. This usage passed to Latin America and animated the independence movement against Spain. In the nineteenth century "Liberalism" was the dominant element in Latin American political thought. French liberal ideas were especially influential in Mexico, particularly as seen through the writings of <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Ren%C3%A9_de_Laboulaye" title="Édouard René de Laboulaye">Édouard René de Laboulaye</a>. The Latin American political culture oscillated between two opposite poles: the <i>traditional</i>, as based on highly specific personal and family ties to kin groups, communities, and religious identity; and the <i>modern</i>, based on impersonal ideals of individualism, equality, legal rights, and secularism or anti-clericalism. The French Revolutionary model was the basis for the modern viewpoint, as explicated in Mexico in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Luis_Mora" title="José María Luis Mora">José María Luis Mora</a> (1794–1850). </p><p>In Mexico, modern liberalism was best expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Mexico)" title="Liberal Party (Mexico)">Liberal Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitution_of_the_United_Mexican_States_of_1857" title="Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1857">Constitution of 1857</a>, the policies of <a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Benito Juárez</a>, and finally by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Francisco I. Madero</a>'s democratic movement leading to the Revolution of 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke#French_Revolution:_1688_versus_1789" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke#French Revolution: 1688 versus 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_and_the_English_Gothic_Novel" title="French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel">French Revolution and the English Gothic Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism#French_revolution" title="Liberalism">Liberalism § French revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Napoleonic_era" title="Papal States">Papal States § Napoleonic era</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linda S. Frey and Marsha L. Frey, <i>The French Revolution</i> (2004), Foreword.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, <i>A History of the Modern World</i> (5th ed. 1978), p. 341</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferenc Fehér, <i>The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity</i>, (1990) pp. 117-30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mike Rapport and Peter McPhee. "The International Repercussions of the French Revolution", in <i>A Companion to the French Revolution</i> (2013), pp 379–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKlaitsHaltzelHaltzel2002" class="citation book cs1">Klaits, Joseph; Haltzel, Michael H.; Haltzel, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vVilfUkW5usC"><i>Global Ramifications of the American Revolution</i></a>. Cambridge UP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521524476" title="Special:BookSources/9780521524476"><bdi>9780521524476</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Ramifications+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521524476&rft.aulast=Klaits&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Haltzel%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Haltzel%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvVilfUkW5usC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Artz-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Artz_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Artz_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Artz_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick B. Artz, <i>Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832</i> (Rise of Modern Europe) (1934), pp. 142–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Martin, <i>Histoire de la Suisse</i> (Paris, 1926), pp 187–88, quoted in Crane Brinson, <i>A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799</i> (1934), p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Hall Stewart, <i>A Documentary Survey of the french revolution</i> (1951) pp 783–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.M. Thompson, <i>Robespierre and the French Revolution</i> (1962), p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre2005" class="citation book cs1">Lefebvre, Georges (2005) [1947]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4EYuia7buUC&pg=PA212"><i>The Coming of the French Revolution</i></a>. Princeton UP. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691121885" title="Special:BookSources/0691121885"><bdi>0691121885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Princeton+UP&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0691121885&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4EYuia7buUC%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Aulard_in_Arthur_Tilley1922" class="citation book cs1">A. Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernfrancecomp00tilluoft"><i>Modern France. A Companion to French Studies</i></a>. Cambridge UP. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernfrancecomp00tilluoft/page/115">115</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+France.+A+Companion+to+French+Studies&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1922&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernfrancecomp00tilluoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annie Jourdan, "Napoleon and Europe: the legacy of the French Revolution." in <i>The Routledge Companion to the French Revolution in World History</i> (Routledge, 2015) pp. 221-238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Doyle, <i>The Oxford History of the French Revolution</i> (1989), pp 341–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven T. Ross, <i>European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe</i> (1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander Grab, <i>Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe</i> (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</i> 2:293–326, 365–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannDinwiddy1988" class="citation book cs1">Dann, Otto; Dinwiddy, John (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qrujM36H7qUC&pg=PP13"><i>Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution</i></a>. Continuum. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780907628972" title="Special:BookSources/9780907628972"><bdi>9780907628972</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+in+the+Age+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780907628972&rft.aulast=Dann&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=Dinwiddy%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqrujM36H7qUC%26pg%3DPP13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beatrice Fry Hyslop, <i>French Nationalism in 1789</i> (1968) especially chap. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlton J. H. Hayes, <i>The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism</i> (1931), ch 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeitner2007" class="citation book cs1">Keitner, Chimene I. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4MYLwpOJMnUC"><i>The Paradoxes of Nationalism: The French Revolution and Its Meaning for Contemporary Nation Building</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791469583" title="Special:BookSources/9780791469583"><bdi>9780791469583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paradoxes+of+Nationalism%3A+The+French+Revolution+and+Its+Meaning+for+Contemporary+Nation+Building&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780791469583&rft.aulast=Keitner&rft.aufirst=Chimene+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4MYLwpOJMnUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emma Vincent Macleod, <i>A War of Ideas: British Attitudes to the War against Revolutionary France, 1792–1802</i> (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The Struggle, Volume II</i> (1970), pp 459–505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelling2002" class="citation book cs1">Pelling, Nick (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ttSsGEWW3tcC&pg=PA5"><i>Anglo-Irish Relations: 1798 1922</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 5–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203986554" title="Special:BookSources/9780203986554"><bdi>9780203986554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Irish+Relations%3A+1798+1922&rft.pages=5-10&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780203986554&rft.aulast=Pelling&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DttSsGEWW3tcC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</i> 2: 491–508.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James J. Sheehan, <i>German History, 1770–1866</i> (1993), pp. 207–322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</i> 2:425-58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blanning Blanning, "The French Revolution and the Modernization of Germany", in <i>Central European History</i> (1989) 22#2, pp 109–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamerow1958" class="citation book cs1">Hamerow, Theodore S. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IPNXfV2-DhcC&pg=PA22"><i>Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871</i></a>. Princeton UP. pp. 22–24, 44–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691007551" title="Special:BookSources/0691007551"><bdi>0691007551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restoration%2C+Revolution%2C+Reaction%3A+Economics+and+Politics+in+Germany%2C+1815%E2%80%931871&rft.pages=22-24%2C+44-45&rft.pub=Princeton+UP&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=0691007551&rft.aulast=Hamerow&rft.aufirst=Theodore+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIPNXfV2-DhcC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. C. W. Blanning, <i>The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland 1792–1802</i> (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hajo Holborn, <i>A History of Modern Germany, 1648–1840 (1964), pp 386–87.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Rowe, <i>From Reich to state: the Rhineland in the revolutionary age, 1780–1830</i> (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lerner, Marc H. Lerner, "The Helvetic Republic: An Ambivalent Reception of French Revolutionary Liberty", <i>French History</i> (2004) 18#1, pp 50–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.R. Palmer, <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution</i> 2: 394–421</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannDinwiddy1988" class="citation book cs1">Dann, Otto; Dinwiddy, John (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qrujM36H7qUC&pg=PA194"><i>Nationalism in the Age of the French Revolution</i></a>. 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Keddied, "The French Revolution in the Middle East", in Joseph Klaits and Michael Haltzel, eds. <i>Global Ramifications of the French Revolution</i> (2002), pp 140–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh2004" class="citation book cs1">Moreh, Shmuel (2004). <i>Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti's Chronicle of the French Occupation- Expanded Edition</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-337-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-337-1"><bdi>978-1-55876-337-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+in+Egypt%3A+Al-Jabarti%27s+Chronicle+of+the+French+Occupation-+Expanded+Edition&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-337-1&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Bellaigue2017" class="citation book cs1">De Bellaigue, Christopher (2017). 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New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. pp. 65–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-373-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-373-5"><bdi>978-0-87140-373-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Istanbul&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Enlightenment%3A+The+Struggle+Between+Faith+and+Reason-+1798+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Liveright+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-373-5&rft.aulast=De+Bellaigue&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1967" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1967). 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"1: Cairo". <i>The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason- 1798 to Modern Times</i>. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. pp. 1–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-373-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-373-5"><bdi>978-0-87140-373-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+Cairo&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Enlightenment%3A+The+Struggle+Between+Faith+and+Reason-+1798+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-20&rft.pub=Liveright+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-373-5&rft.aulast=De+Bellaigue&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh2004" class="citation book cs1">Moreh, Shmuel (2004). 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Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 186, 196, 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-337-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-337-1"><bdi>978-1-55876-337-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Napoleon+and+the+French+Impact+on+Egyptian+Society+in+the+Eyes+of+Al-Jabarti&rft.btitle=Napoleon+in+Egypt%3A+Al-Jabarti%27s+Chronicle+of+the+French+Occupation-+Expanded+Edition&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=186%2C+196%2C+199&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-337-1&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh2004" class="citation book cs1">Moreh, Shmuel (2004). <i>Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti's Chronicle of the French Occupation- Expanded Edition</i>. 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Johns Hopkins UP.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+American+Opinion+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+UP&rft.date=1897&rft.au=Charles+Downer+Hazen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_1s0z2bOEUFwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Genet would have been executed if he returned to Paris; he stayed in New York, became an American citizen, and married the daughter of the governor of New York. Eugene R. Sheridan, "The Recall of Edmond Charles Genet: A Study in Transatlantic Politics and Diplomacy", <i>Diplomatic History</i> (1994) 18#4 pp: 463–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Dunn, <i>Sister Revolutions: French Lightning, American Light</i> (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence S. Kaplan, "Jefferson, the Napoleonic Wars, and the Balance of Power", <i>William and Mary Quarterly</i> (1957) 14#2 pp. 196–217 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922110">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220405223614/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922110">Archived</a> 2022-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-am_&_fre_similarities-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-am_&_fre_similarities_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://westerncivguides.umwblogs.org/2012/04/16/similarities-between-the-american-and-french-revolutions/">"Similarities Between the American and French Revolutions : Western Civilization II Guides"</a>. <i>Western Civilization II Guides</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Western+Civilization+II+Guides&rft.atitle=Similarities+Between+the+American+and+French+Revolutions+%3A+Western+Civilization+II+Guides&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesterncivguides.umwblogs.org%2F2012%2F04%2F16%2Fsimilarities-between-the-american-and-french-revolutions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Statue_of_liberty-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Statue_of_liberty_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/the-french-connection.htm">"The French Connection - Statue Of Liberty National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. <i>www.nps.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=The+French+Connection+-+Statue+Of+Liberty+National+Monument+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fstli%2Flearn%2Fhistoryculture%2Fthe-french-connection.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scholar.library.miami.edu-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scholar.library.miami.edu_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scholar.library.miami.edu_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rand, David. "The Haitian Revolution." The Haitian Revolution. Accessed March 25, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://scholar.library.miami.edu/slaves/san_domingo_revolution/">http://scholar.library.miami.edu/slaves/san_domingo_revolution/</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> individual_essay/david.html.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghachem,_Malick_W_2012-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ghachem,_Malick_W_2012_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghachem, Malick W. The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akamefula, Tiye, Camille Newsom, Burgey Marcos, and Jong Ho. "Causes of the Haitian Revolution." Haitian Revolution. September 1, 2012. Accessed March 25, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402133248/http://haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com/causes-of-the-haitian-revolution.html">"Causes of the Haitian Revolution - Haitian Revolution"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://haitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com/causes-of-the-haitian-revolution.html">the original</a> on 2015-04-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Causes+of+the+Haitian+Revolution+-+Haitian+Revolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhaitianrevolutionfblock.weebly.com%2Fcauses-of-the-haitian-revolution.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baur, John. "International Repercussions of the Haitian Revolution." The Americas 26, no. 4 (1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles A. Hale, "The revival of political history and the French Revolution in Mexico", in Joseph Klaits and Michael Haltzel, eds. <i>Global Ramifications of the French Revolution</i> (2002), pp 158–76.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Influence_of_the_French_Revolution&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Amann, Peter H., ed. <i>The Eighteenth-Century Revolution: French or Western?</i> (Heath, 1963) readings from historians</li> <li>Acemoglu, Daron; et al. <i>The consequences of radical reform: the French Revolution</i> (MIT Dept. of Economics, 2009)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consequencesofra00acem">online free</a></li> <li>Artz, Frederick B. <i>Reaction & Revolution: 1814–1832</i> (Rise of Modern Europe) (1934) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499217/page/n5">online free</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilici,_Faruk1991" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bilici, Faruk (October–December 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cemoti.revues.org/374">"La Révolution Française dans l'Historiographie Turque (1789-1927)"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Annales_historiques_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Annales historiques de la Révolution française (page does not exist)">Annales historiques de la Révolution française</a></i> (in French). <b>286</b> (286). <a href="/wiki/Armand_Colin" title="Armand Colin">Armand Colin</a>: 539–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fahrf.1991.1460">10.3406/ahrf.1991.1460</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41914720">41914720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+historiques+de+la+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.atitle=La+R%C3%A9volution+Fran%C3%A7aise+dans+l%27Historiographie+Turque+%281789-1927%29&rft.volume=286&rft.issue=286&rft.pages=539-549&rft.date=1991-10%2F1991-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fahrf.1991.1460&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41914720%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Bilici%2C+Faruk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcemoti.revues.org%2F374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span> - Discusses how the ideals of the French Revolution affected the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a></li> <li>Brinton, Crane. <i>A Decade of Revolution 1789–1799</i> (1934) the Revolution in European context</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Desan" title="Suzanne Desan">Desan, Suzanne</a>, et al. eds. <i>The French Revolution in Global Perspective</i> (2013)</li> <li>Desan, Suzanne. "Internationalizing the French Revolution," <i>French Politics, Culture & Society</i> (2011) 29#2 pp 137–160.</li> <li>Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. <i>The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History</i> (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)</li> <li>Goodwin, A., ed. <i> The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 8: The American and French Revolutions, 1763–93</i> (1965), 764pp</li> <li>Grab, Alexander. <i>Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe</i> (Macmillan, 2003), country by country analysis</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood1993" class="citation book cs1">Greenwood, Frank Murray (1993). <i>Legacies of Fear: Law and Politics in Quebec in the Era of the French Revolution</i>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6974-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-6974-0"><bdi>978-0-8020-6974-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacies+of+Fear%3A+Law+and+Politics+in+Quebec+in+the+Era+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-6974-0&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Frank+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mazlish, Bruce. "The French Revolution in Comparative Perspective," <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> (1970) 85#2 pp. 240–258 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2146945">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Mikaberidze, Alexander. "The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History," (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020).</li> <li>Palmer, R. R. "The World Revolution of the West: 1763–1801," <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> (1954) 69#1 pp. 1–14 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145054">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Palmer, Robert R. <i>The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800.</i> (2 vol 1959), highly influential comparative history; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/22790906">vol 1 online</a></li> <li>Rapport, Mike, and Peter McPhee. "The International Repercussions of the French Revolution." in <i>A Companion to the French Revolution</i> (2013) pp: 379–396.</li> <li>Ross, Steven T. <i>European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe</i> (1969)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothenberg1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gunther_E._Rothenberg" title="Gunther E. Rothenberg">Rothenberg, Gunther E.</a> (Spring 1988). "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Interdisciplinary_History" title="Journal of Interdisciplinary History">Journal of Interdisciplinary History</a></i>. <b>18</b> (4): 771–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F204824">10.2307/204824</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824">204824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=The+Origins%2C+Causes%2C+and+Extension+of+the+Wars+of+the+French+Revolution+and+Napoleon&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=771-93&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F204824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F204824%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rothenberg&rft.aufirst=Gunther+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfluence+of+the+French+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rowe, Michael. "The French revolution, Napoleon, and nationalism in Europe." in <i>The Oxford handbook of the history of nationalism</i> (2013).</li> <li>Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye. <i>Revolutionary Europe, 1783–1815</i> (2000), scholarly survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Revolutionary-Europe-Blackwell-Classic-Histories/dp/0631221905/">excerpt and text search</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryeur00rudg">free to borrow full text</a></li> <li>Schroeder, Paul. <i>The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848.</i> 1996; Thorough coverage of diplomatic history; hostile to Napoleon; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848-by-paul-w-schroeder.jsp">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513035458/http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-transformation-of-european-politics-1763-1848-by-paul-w-schroeder.jsp">Archived</a> 2012-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Skocpol, Theda. <i>States and social revolutions: A comparative analysis of France, Russia and China</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1979.) influential sociological comparison</li> <li>von Guttner, Darius. "The French revolution and Europe-its echoes, its influence, its impact." <i>Agora</i> 51.1 (2016): 34–42. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Darius_Von_Guettner2/publication/305612507_DVG_FrenchRev_Agora_vol_51_1/links/5795574908aed51475d8df97/DVG-FrenchRev-Agora-vol-51-1.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Zamoyski, Adam., <i>Phantom Terror: The Threat of Revolution and the Repression of Liberty, 1789–1848</i> (London: William Collins, 2014).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Revolution" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Revolution" title="Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Revolution" title="Template talk:French Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Constitutional monarchy</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Republic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_journals_appearing_under_the_French_Revolution" title="List of journals appearing under the French Revolution">Journals</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Museum</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Significant_civil_and_political_events_by_year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Significant civil and political events by year</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1788</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Tiles" title="Day of the Tiles">Day of the Tiles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(7 Jun 1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Vizille" title="Assembly of Vizille">Assembly of Vizille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jul 1788)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1789</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">What Is the Third Estate?</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jan 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9veillon_riots" title="Réveillon riots">Réveillon riots</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Apr 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Convocation of the Estates General</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 May 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Dauphin_of_France#Illness" title="Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France">Death of the Dauphin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 June 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jun 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jul 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">Great Fear</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">Abolition of Feudalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–11 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">Women's March on Versailles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Oct 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Nationalization of the Church properties</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Nov 1789)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1790</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parlement#Abolition" title="Parlement">Abolition of the Parlements</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Feb–Jul 1790)</span></li> <li>Abolition of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility#The_abolition_of_privileges_during_the_French_Revolution" title="French nobility">Nobility</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Jun 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i> <small>(14 Jul 1790)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1791</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Jun 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">Champ de Mars massacre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jul 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Aug 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">The Constitution of 1791</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1792</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">France declares war</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Apr 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jul 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(1789%E2%80%931795)" title="Paris Commune (1789–1795)">Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jun 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">10th of August</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Aug 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sep 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First republic declared</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1793</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jan 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security" title="Committee of General Security">Committee of General Security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">Fall of the Girondists</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Jun 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat#Death" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Assassination of Marat</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jul 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Aug 1793)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(painting)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Sep 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#Trial_and_execution_(14–16_October_1793)" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette is guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(16 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution#The_Revolution_and_the_Church" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Anti-clerical laws</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(throughout the year)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1794</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton#Life" title="Georges Danton">Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins#Trial_and_execution" title="Camille Desmoulins">Desmoulins guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> guillotined <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">White Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Fall 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins#Fall_from_power" title="Jacobins">Closing of the Jacobin Club</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Nov 1794)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1795–6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal_Year_III" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III">Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Apr 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Aug 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directoire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1795–99)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">5 Oct 1795</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(May 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1797</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congress_of_Rastatt" title="Second Congress of Rastatt">Second Congress of Rastatt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1798</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Flor%C3%A9al_Year_VI" title="Law of 22 Floréal Year VI">Law of 22 Floréal Year VI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 May 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1799</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_30_Prairial_VII" title="Coup of 30 Prairial VII">Coup of 30 Prairial VII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Nov 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Dec 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Revolutionary_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Revolutionary campaigns</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1792_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1792</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1792)" title="Siege of Thionville (1792)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Valmy</a></li> <li>Royalist Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée</a></li> <li>Dauphiné</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Goddess" title="Column of the Goddess">Lille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1792)" title="Siege of Mainz (1792)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1792)" title="Siege of Namur (1792)">Namur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Namur_(1792)" class="extiw" title="fr:Siège de Namur (1792)">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1793_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1793</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Battle of Neerwinden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Famars" title="Battle of Famars">Battle of Famars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">Expedition to Sardinia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaiserslautern" title="Battle of Kaiserslautern">Battle of Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1793)" title="Siege of Mainz (1793)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Battle of Wattignies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Battle of Hondschoote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bellegarde_(1793)" title="Siege of Bellegarde (1793)">Siege of Bellegarde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peyrestortes" title="Battle of Peyrestortes">Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">First Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Truillas" title="Battle of Truillas">Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">Second Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26–27 Dec 1793)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1794_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1794</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-en-Cauchies" title="Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies">Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Boulou" title="Second Battle of Boulou">Second Battle of Boulou</a> (Pyrenees) <span style="font-size:85%;">(30 Apr – 1 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tourcoing" title="Battle of Tourcoing">Battle of Tourcoing</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tournay_(1794)" title="Battle of Tournay (1794)">Battle of Tournay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June" title="Glorious First of June">Glorious First of June</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Battle of Fleurus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldenhoven_(1794)" title="Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)">Battle of Aldenhoven</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Oct 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1795_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1795 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1795</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1796_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1796</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lonato" title="Battle of Lonato">Battle of Lonato</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3–4 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Theiningen" title="Battle of Theiningen">Battle of Theiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neresheim" title="Battle of Neresheim">Battle of Neresheim</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amberg" title="Battle of Amberg">Battle of Amberg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Battle of Würzburg">Battle of Würzburg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovereto" title="Battle of Rovereto">Battle of Rovereto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">First Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emmendingen" title="Battle of Emmendingen">Battle of Emmendingen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(19 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schliengen" title="Battle of Schliengen">Battle of Schliengen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bassano" title="Second Battle of Bassano">Second Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calliano" title="Battle of Calliano">Battle of Calliano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6–7 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15–17 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Ireland_(1796)" title="French expedition to Ireland (1796)">Ireland expedition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1797_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1797 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1797</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_13_January_1797" title="Action of 13 January 1797">Naval Engagement off Brittany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14–15 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_25_January_1797" title="Action of 25 January 1797">Battle of the Bay of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leoben" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Leoben">Treaty of Leoben</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuwied_(1797)" title="Battle of Neuwied (1797)">Battle of Neuwied</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Oct 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1798_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1798</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 January – 17 May 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French Invasion of Egypt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798#French_landing" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May – 23 Sep 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1799</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Mar – 21 May 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrach" title="Battle of Ostrach">Battle of Ostrach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stockach_(1799)" title="Battle of Stockach (1799)">Battle of Stockach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano" title="Battle of Magnano">Battle of Magnano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)" title="Battle of Cassano (1799)">Battle of Cassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27–28 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Zurich" title="First Battle of Zurich">First Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–7 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)" title="Battle of Trebbia (1799)">Battle of Trebbia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17–20 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_(1799)" title="Battle of Novi (1799)">Battle of Novi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Aug 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Zurich" title="Second Battle of Zurich">Second Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25–26 Sep 1799)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1800_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1800 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1800</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Alessandria" title="Convention of Alessandria">Convention of Alessandria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Battle of Hohenlinden</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Dec 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1800–02)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1801_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1801 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1801</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Feb 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Florence" title="Treaty of Florence">Treaty of Florence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Mar 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_campaign" title="Algeciras campaign">Algeciras campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Jul 1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1802</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1802)" title="Treaty of Paris (1802)">Treaty of Paris</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jun 1802)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Military_leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military leaders</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><img alt="French First Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army" title="French Revolutionary Army">French Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustache_Charles_d%27Aoust" title="Eustache Charles d'Aoust">Eustache Charles d'Aoust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Augereau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Augereau">Pierre Augereau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Beauharnais" title="Alexandre de Beauharnais">Alexandre de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res" title="Jean-Baptiste Bessières">Jean-Baptiste Bessières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Brune" title="Guillaume Brune">Guillaume Brune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Carteaux" title="Jean François Carteaux">Jean François Carteaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Championnet" title="Jean-Étienne Championnet">Jean-Étienne Championnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bertin_Gaston_Chapuis_de_Tourville" title="Charles Bertin Gaston Chapuis de Tourville">Chapuis de Tourville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine" title="Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine">Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout" title="Louis-Nicolas Davout">Louis-Nicolas Davout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Louis Desaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier" title="Jacques François Dugommier">Jacques François Dugommier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas" title="Thomas-Alexandre Dumas">Thomas-Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Charles François Dumouriez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Barth%C3%A9lemy_Ferino" title="Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino">Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_de_Flers" title="Louis-Charles de Flers">Louis-Charles de Flers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grenier" title="Paul Grenier">Paul Grenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Grouchy,_marquis_de_Grouchy" title="Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy">Emmanuel de Grouchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maurice_Hatry" title="Jacques Maurice Hatry">Jacques Maurice Hatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Hoche" title="Lazare Hoche">Lazare Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Jourdan" title="Jean-Baptiste Jourdan">Jean-Baptiste Jourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Christophe_de_Kellermann" title="François Christophe de Kellermann">François Christophe de Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Choderlos_de_Laclos" title="Pierre Choderlos de Laclos">Pierre Choderlos de Laclos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lannes" title="Jean Lannes">Jean Lannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lecourbe" title="Claude Lecourbe">Claude Lecourbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="François Joseph Lefebvre">François Joseph Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald" title="Étienne Macdonald">Étienne Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Marbot" title="Jean-Antoine Marbot">Jean-Antoine Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot" title="Marcellin Marbot">Marcellin Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9verin_Marceau" title="François Séverin Marceau">François Séverin Marceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na" title="André Masséna">André Masséna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon-Adrien_Jeannot_de_Moncey" title="Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey">Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau" title="Jean Victor Marie Moreau">Jean Victor Marie Moreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise" class="mw-redirect" title="Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise">Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Jacques_Osten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Jacques Osten (page does not exist)">Pierre-Jacques Osten</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jacques_Osten" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Jacques Osten">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot" title="Nicolas Oudinot">Nicolas Oudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine-Dominique_de_P%C3%A9rignon" title="Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon">Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr" title="Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr">Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer" title="Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer">Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Mathieu-Philibert_S%C3%A9rurier" title="Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier">Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Souham" title="Joseph Souham">Joseph Souham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gabriel_Suchet" title="Louis-Gabriel Suchet">Louis-Gabriel Suchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Belgrand_de_Vaubois" title="Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois">Belgrand de Vaubois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Victor_Perrin" title="Claude-Victor Perrin">Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Navy#18th_century" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Alexandre_L%C3%A9on_Durand_Linois" title="Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois">Charles-Alexandre Linois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Wars">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Alvinczi" title="József Alvinczi">József Alvinczi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9bastien_Charles_Joseph_de_Croix,_Count_of_Clerfayt" title="François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt">Count of Clerfayt <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Aloys_zu_F%C3%BCrstenberg" title="Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg">Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_von_Hotze" title="Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze">Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze <span style="font-size:85%;">(Swiss)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf,_Count_von_Kalckreuth" title="Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth">Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kray" title="Paul Kray">Pál Kray <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene,_Prince_of_Lambesc" title="Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc">Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc <span style="font-size:85%;">(French)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Anton_Karl,_Count_Baillet_de_Latour" title="Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour">Maximilian Baillet de Latour <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack von Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ritter_von_Otto" title="Rudolf Ritter von Otto">Rudolf Ritter von Otto <span style="font-size:85%;">(Saxon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Josias_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Vitus_von_Quosdanovich" title="Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich">Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heinrich_XV_of_Reuss-Plauen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen">Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_von_Szoboszl%C3%B3" title="Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló">Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_Sebottendorf" title="Karl Philipp Sebottendorf">Karl Philipp Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_Sigmund_von_Wurmser" title="Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser">Dagobert von Wurmser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Kingdom of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abercromby" title="Ralph Abercromby">Ralph Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Saumarez,_1st_Baron_de_Saumarez" title="James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez">James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick,_Duke_of_York_and_Albany" title="Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany">Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V, Prince of Orange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Louis,_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen">Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov" title="Alexander Korsakov">Alexander Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rosenberg" title="Andrei Rosenberg">Andrei Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)#Charles_IV,_decline_and_fall_(1788–1808)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Firm%C3%ADn_de_Carvajal,_Conde_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión">Luis Firmin de Carvajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ricardos" title="Antonio Ricardos">Antonio Ricardos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other_significant_figures_and_factions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other significant figures and factions</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Society_of_1789" title="Patriotic Society of 1789">Patriotic Society of 1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt" class="mw-redirect" title="François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt">François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Ren%C3%A9_Guy_le_Chapelier" title="Isaac René Guy le Chapelier">Isaac René Guy le Chapelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">monarchiens</a></i></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Elliott" title="Grace Elliott">Grace Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaud_II_de_La_Porte" title="Arnaud II de La Porte">Arnaud de La Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas" title="Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas">Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Antoine Barnave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9odore-Victor,_comte_de_Lameth" title="Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth">Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Malo_Fran%C3%A7ois_Lameth" title="Charles Malo François Lameth">Charles Malo François Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ch%C3%A9nier" title="André Chénier">André Chénier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Jordan_(politician)" title="Camille Jordan (politician)">Camille Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Roland_de_la_Plati%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière">Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a></li> <li>Father <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Henri Grégoire">Henri Grégoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Jean_H%C3%A9rault_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles">Marie Jean Hérault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Treilhard" title="Jean Baptiste Treilhard">Jean Baptiste Treilhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victurnien_Vergniaud" title="Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud">Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Debry" title="Jean Debry">Jean Debry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">The Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Cambon" title="Pierre-Joseph Cambon">Pierre-Joseph Cambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Merlin" title="Antoine Christophe Merlin">Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Jean Joseph Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Neufch%C3%A2teau" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Neufchâteau">François de Neufchâteau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Mountain" title="The Mountain">Montagnards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Louis Antoine de Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_le_Peletier,_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois" title="Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois">Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Voulland" title="Jean-Henri Voulland">Jean-Henri Voulland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Antoine_Merlin_de_Douai" title="Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai">Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Quentin_Fouquier-Tinville" title="Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville">Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas" title="Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas">Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Guillaume_Alexis_Vadier" title="Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier">Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Amar" title="Jean-Pierre-André Amar">Jean-Pierre-André Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine,_comte_Prieur-Duvernois" title="Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois">Prieur de la Côte-d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Prieur de la Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Romme" title="Gilbert Romme">Gilbert Romme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bon_Saint-Andr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bon Saint-André">Jean Bon Saint-André</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien" title="Jean-Lambert Tallien">Jean-Lambert Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Enrag%C3%A9s" title="Enragés">Enragés</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne" title="Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne">Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette" title="Pierre Gaspard Chaumette">Pierre Gaspard Chaumette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro" title="Antoine-François Momoro">Antoine-François Momoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent" title="François-Nicolas Vincent">François-Nicolas Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Chabot" title="François Chabot">François Chabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Gobel" title="Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel">Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot" title="François Hanriot">François Hanriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Jacques Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas-Marie_Maillard" title="Stanislas-Marie Maillard">Stanislas-Marie Maillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Varlet" title="Jean-François Varlet">Jean-François Varlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Th%C3%A9ophile_Victor_Leclerc" title="Jean Théophile Victor Leclerc">Theophile Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Lacombe" title="Claire Lacombe">Claire Lacombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVII" title="Louis XVII">Louis XVII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Henri, Prince of Condé">Louis Henri, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé">Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fesch" title="Joseph Fesch">Joseph Fesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A9sa_Tallien" title="Thérésa Tallien">Thérésa Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste_Target" title="Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target">Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Th%C3%A9ot" title="Catherine Théot">Catherine Théot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Louise_of_Savoy,_Princesse_de_Lamballe" title="Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe">Madame de Lamballe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_du_Barry" title="Madame du Barry">Madame du Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Louis de Breteuil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">de Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chouan" title="Jean Chouan">Jean Chouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_Club" title="Panthéon Club">Panthéon Club</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Truth" title="Society of the Friends of Truth">Social Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Influential_thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Influential thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Les Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis_Cloots" title="Anacharsis Cloots">Anacharsis Cloots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Claude François Daunou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Cultural_impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cultural impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_France" title="Cockade of France">Cockade of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag of France</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscadin" title="Muscadin">Muscadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Reason" title="Temple of Reason">Temple of Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incroyables_and_merveilleuses" title="Incroyables and merveilleuses">Incroyables and merveilleuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Influence of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">Films</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" 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