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campaigns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_emergence_of_parties_and_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_from_unpledged_to_pledged_electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_from_unpledged_to_pledged_electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Evolution from unpledged to pledged electors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_from_unpledged_to_pledged_electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_to_the_general_ticket" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_to_the_general_ticket"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Evolution to the general ticket </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_to_the_general_ticket-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_selection_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_selection_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Evolution of selection plans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_selection_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correlation_between_popular_vote_and_electoral_college_votes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correlation_between_popular_vote_and_electoral_college_votes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Correlation between popular vote and electoral college votes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correlation_between_popular_vote_and_electoral_college_votes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-fifths_clause_and_the_role_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-fifths_clause_and_the_role_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Three-fifths clause and the role of slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-fifths_clause_and_the_role_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourteenth_amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourteenth_amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Fourteenth amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourteenth_amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meeting_of_electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meeting_of_electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Meeting of electors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meeting_of_electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modern mechanics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_mechanics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern mechanics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Summary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Electors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apportionment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apportionment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Apportionment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apportionment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nominations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Nominations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selection_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selection_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Selection process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selection_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meetings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meetings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Meetings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meetings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Faithless_electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faithless_electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.5 Faithless electors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faithless_electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joint_session_of_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joint_session_of_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Joint session of Congress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joint_session_of_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_objections_and_rejections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_objections_and_rejections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Historical objections and rejections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_objections_and_rejections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contingencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contingencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Contingencies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contingencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contingent_presidential_election_by_House" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contingent_presidential_election_by_House"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Contingent presidential election by House </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contingent_presidential_election_by_House-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contingent_vice_presidential_election_by_Senate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contingent_vice_presidential_election_by_Senate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Contingent vice presidential election by Senate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contingent_vice_presidential_election_by_Senate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deadlocked_election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deadlocked_election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Deadlocked election </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deadlocked_election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuity_of_government_and_peaceful_transitions_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuity_of_government_and_peaceful_transitions_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4 Continuity of government and peaceful transitions of power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuity_of_government_and_peaceful_transitions_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_electoral_vote_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_electoral_vote_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Current electoral vote distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_electoral_vote_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronological_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronological_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Chronological table </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronological_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Alternative methods of choosing electors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternative methods of choosing electors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appointment_by_state_legislature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointment_by_state_legislature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Appointment by state legislature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointment_by_state_legislature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electoral_districts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electoral_districts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Electoral districts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electoral_districts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congressional_district_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_district_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Congressional district method </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congressional_district_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Implementation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_abandoned_adoption_in_other_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_abandoned_adoption_in_other_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Recent abandoned adoption in other states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_abandoned_adoption_in_other_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proportional_vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proportional_vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Proportional vote </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proportional_vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_and_reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_and_reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Impacts and reception </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_and_reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts and reception subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_and_reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polling_~40%" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polling_~40%"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Polling ~40% </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polling_~40%-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difference_with_popular_vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_with_popular_vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Difference with popular vote </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_with_popular_vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Notable elections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Favors_largest_swing_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Favors_largest_swing_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Favors largest swing states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Favors_largest_swing_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Not_all_votes_count_the_same" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Not_all_votes_count_the_same"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Not all votes count the same </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Not_all_votes_count_the_same-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lowers_turnout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lowers_turnout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Lowers turnout </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lowers_turnout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obscures_disenfranchisement_within_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obscures_disenfranchisement_within_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Obscures disenfranchisement within states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obscures_disenfranchisement_within_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americans_in_U.S._territories_cannot_vote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americans_in_U.S._territories_cannot_vote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Americans in U.S. territories cannot vote </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americans_in_U.S._territories_cannot_vote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages_third_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages_third_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Disadvantages third parties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages_third_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalism_and_state_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism_and_state_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Federalism and state power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalism_and_state_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efforts_to_abolish_or_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_to_abolish_or_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Efforts to abolish or reform </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Efforts_to_abolish_or_reform-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Efforts to abolish or reform subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Efforts_to_abolish_or_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1969–1970:_Bayh–Celler_amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1969–1970:_Bayh–Celler_amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 1969–1970: Bayh–Celler amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1969–1970:_Bayh–Celler_amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carter_proposal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carter_proposal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Carter proposal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carter_proposal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_proposals_to_abolish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_proposals_to_abolish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Recent proposals to abolish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_proposals_to_abolish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 National Popular Vote Interstate Compact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Litigation_based_on_the_14th_amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Litigation_based_on_the_14th_amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Litigation based on the 14th amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Litigation_based_on_the_14th_amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" > 60 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curgyld_%C3%BE%C4%81ra_Ge%C4%81ndena_R%C4%ABca_American" title="Curgyld þāra Geāndena Rīca American – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Curgyld þāra Geāndena Rīca American" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9)" title="المجمع الانتخابي (الولايات المتحدة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المجمع الانتخابي (الولايات المتحدة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80_(%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0)" title="নির্বাচক মণ্ডলী (মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্র) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নির্বাচক মণ্ডলী (মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্র)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90)" title="Электаральная калегія (ЗША) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электаральная калегія (ЗША)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botong_elektoral" title="Botong elektoral – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Botong elektoral" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9)" title="Избирателна колегия (САЩ) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Избирателна колегия (САЩ)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C2%B7legi_Electoral_dels_Estats_Units" title="Col·legi Electoral dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Col·legi Electoral dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%B3%D1%80%D0%B5-%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%C3%A7%C4%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Тӳре-суйлавçăсен коллегийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тӳре-суйлавçăсен коллегийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleg_Etholiadol_UDA" title="Coleg Etholiadol UDA – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Coleg Etholiadol UDA" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgmandskollegiet_(USA)" title="Valgmandskollegiet (USA) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Valgmandskollegiet (USA)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College" title="Electoral College – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Electoral College" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF_(%CE%97%CE%A0%CE%91)" title="Εκλεκτορικό Κολέγιο (ΗΠΑ) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκλεκτορικό Κολέγιο (ΗΠΑ)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colegio_Electoral_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Colegio Electoral de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Colegio Electoral de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektantaro_(Usono)" title="Elektantaro (Usono) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektantaro (Usono)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="مجمع گزینندگان ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مجمع گزینندگان ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_%C3%A9lectoral_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Collège électoral des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Collège électoral des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College" title="Electoral College – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Electoral College" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%84%A0%EA%B1%B0%EC%9D%B8%EB%8B%A8" title="미국 선거인단 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 선거인단" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B2_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF)" title="निर्वाचक मण्डल (संयुक्त राज्य) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="निर्वाचक मण्डल (संयुक्त राज्य)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektorski_kolegij_(SAD)" title="Elektorski kolegij (SAD) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektorski kolegij (SAD)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolese_Elektoral_Amerika_Serikat" title="Kolese Elektoral Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kolese Elektoral Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikolishi_Lokhetho_Lase-United_States" title="Ikolishi Lokhetho Lase-United States – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ikolishi Lokhetho Lase-United States" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B6rmannar%C3%A1%C3%B0_(Bandar%C3%ADkin)" title="Kjörmannaráð (Bandaríkin) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjörmannaráð (Bandaríkin)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegio_elettorale_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Collegio elettorale degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Collegio elettorale degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="חבר האלקטורים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חבר האלקטורים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9A%D0%A8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="АҚШ Сайлаушылар алқасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="АҚШ Сайлаушылар алқасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baraza_la_Uchaguzi_la_Marekani" title="Baraza la Uchaguzi la Marekani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Baraza la Uchaguzi la Marekani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASV_elektoru_kol%C4%93%C4%A3ija" title="ASV elektoru kolēģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ASV elektoru kolēģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAV_rinkik%C5%B3_kolegija" title="JAV rinkikų kolegija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="JAV rinkikų kolegija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegi_Elettoral_di_Stat_Unii" title="Collegi Elettoral di Stat Unii – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Collegi Elettoral di Stat Unii" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Amerikai_Egyes%C3%BClt_%C3%81llamok_elektori_koll%C3%A9giuma" title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok elektori kollégiuma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok elektori kollégiuma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC_(%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94)" title="Изборен колегиум (САД) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Изборен колегиум (САД)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badan_Pemilih_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Badan Pemilih Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Badan Pemilih Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiescollege_(Verenigde_Staten)" title="Kiescollege (Verenigde Staten) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kiescollege (Verenigde Staten)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E9%81%B8%E6%8C%99%E4%BA%BA%E5%9B%A3" title="アメリカ選挙人団 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ選挙人団" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College" title="Electoral College – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Electoral College" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgmannskollegiet_i_USA" title="Valgmannskollegiet i USA – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Valgmannskollegiet i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC_(%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%92_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%DB%81)" title="الیکٹورل کالج (ریاست ہائے متحدہ) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیکٹورل کالج (ریاست ہائے متحدہ)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolegium_Elektor%C3%B3w_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="Kolegium Elektorów Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kolegium Elektorów Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C3%A9gio_eleitoral_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Colégio eleitoral dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Colégio eleitoral dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colegiul_electoral_(Statele_Unite_ale_Americii)" title="Colegiul electoral (Statele Unite ale Americii) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Colegiul electoral (Statele Unite ale Americii)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Коллегия выборщиков США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коллегия выборщиков США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA_(%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA)" title="මැතිවරණමය පර්ෂදය (එක්සත් ජනපදය) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මැතිවරණමය පර්ෂදය (එක්සත් ජනපදය)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="United States Electoral College" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidential_elector&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential elector">Presidential elector</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electors of the U.S. president and vice president</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For electoral colleges in general, see <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">Electoral college</a>. For other uses and regions, see <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Electoral college (disambiguation)">Electoral college (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electoral_College_2028.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Electoral_College_2028.svg/300px-Electoral_College_2028.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Electoral_College_2028.svg/450px-Electoral_College_2028.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Electoral_College_2028.svg/600px-Electoral_College_2028.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>The number of electoral votes, out of 538, allocated to each <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> and the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a> for <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">presidential elections</a> held in <a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024</a> and to be held in 2028 based on the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_census" title="2020 United States census">2020 census</a>. Every jurisdiction is entitled to at least 3.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege2024.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/ElectoralCollege2024.svg/220px-ElectoralCollege2024.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/ElectoralCollege2024.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege2024.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/ElectoralCollege2024.svg/440px-ElectoralCollege2024.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024 presidential election</a>, held using <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_census" title="2020 United States census">2020 census</a> data, <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> is projected to receive 226 (●) and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> is projected to receive 312 (●) of the total 538 electoral votes. <hr />In <a href="/wiki/Maine%27s_congressional_districts" title="Maine's congressional districts">Maine</a> (upper-right) and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska%27s_congressional_districts" title="Nebraska's congressional districts">Nebraska</a> (center), the small circled numbers indicate congressional districts. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-politics-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/110px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/165px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/220px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal government</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_United_States_treaties" title="List of the United States treaties">Treaties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/File:(118th)_US_House_of_Representatives.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/49px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png" decoding="async" width="49" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/74px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg/98px-%28118th%29_US_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:118th_United_States_Senate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/118th_United_States_Senate.svg/54px-118th_United_States_Senate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="54" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/118th_United_States_Senate.svg/82px-118th_United_States_Senate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/118th_United_States_Senate.svg/108px-118th_United_States_Senate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="320" /></a> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Majority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Steve_Scalise" title="Steve Scalise">Steve Scalise</a> (R)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Minority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Hakeem_Jeffries" title="Hakeem Jeffries">Hakeem Jeffries</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_district" class="mw-redirect" title="United States congressional district">Congressional districts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">list</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives">Non-voting members</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President Pro Tempore</a> <a href="/wiki/Patty_Murray" title="Patty Murray">Patty Murray</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Majority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Minority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">Mitch McConnell</a> (R)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Executive_branch_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch of the United States">Executive</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (D)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (D)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_agencies_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal agencies in the United States">Federal agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judiciary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Jackson</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Inferior Courts of the United States</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade"> Court of International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Alien_Terrorist_Removal_Court" title="United States Alien Terrorist Removal Court">Alien Terrorist Removal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Judicial_Panel_on_Multidistrict_Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation">Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court">Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review">Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li> National elections</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">Presidential elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_midterm_election" title="United States midterm election">Midterm elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-year_election" title="Off-year election">Off-year elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">Primary elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary" title="United States presidential primary">Presidential primary</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li> Elections by state and territory</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Alabama" title="Elections in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Alaska" title="Elections in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Arizona" title="Elections in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Arkansas" title="Elections in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_California" title="Elections in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Colorado" title="Elections in Colorado"> Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Connecticut" title="Elections in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Delaware" title="Elections in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Florida" title="Elections in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Elections in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Hawaii" title="Elections in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Idaho" title="Elections in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Illinois" title="Elections in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Indiana" title="Elections in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iowa" title="Elections in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Kansas" title="Elections in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Politics of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Politics of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the Electoral College is the group of presidential electors that is formed every four years during the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">presidential election</a> for the sole purpose of voting for the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a>. The process is described in <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article Two of the Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The number of electoral votes exercised by each <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> is equal to that state's <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">congressional delegation</a> which is the number of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senators</a> (two) plus the number of <a href="/wiki/US_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="US Representatives">Representatives</a> for that state. Each state <a href="/wiki/Article_II_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" class="mw-redirect" title="Article II of the United States Constitution">appoints electors</a> using legal procedures determined by its <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">legislature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal office holders</a>, including senators and representatives, cannot be electors. Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a> granted the federal <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a> three electors (bringing the total number from 535 to 538). A <a href="/wiki/Supermajority#Majority_of_the_entire_membership" title="Supermajority">simple majority</a> of electoral votes (270 or more) is required to elect the president and vice president. If no candidate achieves a majority, a <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">contingent election</a> is held by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, to elect the president, and by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>, to elect the vice president. The states and the District of Columbia hold a statewide or district-wide popular vote on <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a> in November to choose electors based upon how they have pledged to vote for president and vice president, with some state laws prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">faithless electors</a>. All states except <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> use a <a href="/wiki/Party_block_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Party block voting">party block voting</a>, or general ticket method, to choose their electors, meaning all their electors go to one winning ticket. Maine and Nebraska choose <a href="#Congressional_district_method">one elector per congressional district</a> and two electors for the <a href="/wiki/Ticket_(election)" title="Ticket (election)">ticket</a> with the highest statewide vote. The <a href="#Meetings">electors meet and vote</a> in December, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_inauguration" title="United States presidential inauguration">inaugurations of the president and vice president</a> take place in January. The merit of the electoral college system has been a matter of ongoing debate in the United States since its inception at the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> in 1787, becoming more controversial by the latter years of the 19th century, up to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> More resolutions have been submitted to amend the Electoral College mechanism than any other part of the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-:03-4">[4]</a> An amendment that would have abolished the system was approved by the House in 1969, but failed to move past the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-:2-5">[5]</a> Supporters argue that it requires presidential candidates to have broad appeal across the country to win, while critics argue that it is not representative of the popular will of the nation.<a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a> Winner-take-all systems, especially with representation not proportional to population, do not align with the principle of "<a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one person, one vote</a>".<a href="#cite_note-10">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto8-11">[9]</a> Critics object to the inequity that, due to the distribution of electors, individual citizens in states with <a href="/wiki/US_states_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="US states by population">smaller populations</a> have more voting power than those in larger states. Because the number of electors each state appoints is equal to the size of its congressional delegation, each state is entitled to at least three electors regardless of its population, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">apportionment</a> of the statutorily fixed number of the rest is only roughly proportional. This allocation has contributed to runners-up of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election#Popular_vote_results" title="United States presidential election">nationwide popular vote</a> being elected president in <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a>, <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016.</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto7-13">[11]</a> In addition, faithless electors may not vote in accord with their pledge.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[c]</a> A further objection is that <a href="/wiki/Swing_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Swing states">swing states</a> receive the most attention from candidates.<a href="#cite_note-auto5-17">[14]</a> By the end of the 20th century, electoral colleges had been abandoned by all other democracies around the world in favor of direct elections for an <a href="/wiki/Executive_president" title="Executive president">executive president</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:06-19">[16]</a>:215 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedure">Procedure</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-New_York_electoral_college_casting_vote_for_Harrison_-_DPLA_-_c4d90aa3c45b2c8142c6c52235bf2645_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3343" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The New York electoral college delegation voting for <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> for president. In the <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888 election</a>, Harrison became one of the five presidents elected without winning the popular vote.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> directs each <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> to appoint a number of electors equal to that state's congressional delegation (the number of members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> plus two <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">senators</a>). The same clause empowers each <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a> to determine the manner by which that state's electors are chosen but prohibits federal office holders from being named electors. Following the national presidential <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">election day</a> on Tuesday after the first Monday in November,<a href="#cite_note-ElecDay-20">[17]</a> each state, and the federal district, selects its electors according to its laws. After a popular election, the states identify and record their appointed electors in a <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Ascertainment" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of Ascertainment">Certificate of Ascertainment</a>, and those appointed electors then meet in their respective jurisdictions and produce a Certificate of Vote for their candidate; both certificates are then sent to Congress to be opened and counted.<a href="#cite_note-crs-IF11641-21">[18]</a> In 48 of the 50 states, state laws mandate that the winner of the <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">plurality</a> of the statewide popular vote receives all of that state's electoral votes.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-22">[19]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, two electoral votes are assigned in this manner, while the remaining electoral votes are allocated based on the plurality of votes in each of their <a href="/wiki/Congressional_districts" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional districts">congressional districts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> The federal district, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, allocates its 3 electoral votes to the winner of its single district election. States generally require electors to pledge to vote for that state's winning ticket; to prevent electors from being <a href="/wiki/Faithless_electors" class="mw-redirect" title="Faithless electors">faithless electors</a>, most states have adopted various laws to enforce the electors' pledge.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> The electors of each state meet in their respective <a href="/wiki/State_capital_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State capital (United States)">state capital</a> on the first Tuesday after the second Wednesday of December, between December 14 and 20, to cast their votes.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-electoral2022-25">[22]</a> The results are sent to and counted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, where they are tabulated in the first week of January before a <a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress#Counting_electoral_votes" title="Joint session of the United States Congress">joint meeting of the Senate and the House of Representatives</a>, presided over by the current vice president, as president of the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-CRS-26">[23]</a> Should a majority of votes not be cast for a candidate, a <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">contingent election</a> takes place: the House holds a presidential election session, where one vote is cast by each of the fifty states. The Senate is responsible for electing the vice president, with each senator having one vote.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> The elected president and vice president are <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_inauguration" title="United States presidential inauguration">inaugurated</a> on January 20. Since 1964, there have been 538 electors. States select 535 of the electors, this number matches the aggregate total of their congressional delegations.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2017THN-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Art2ERE-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> The additional three electors come from the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a>, ratified in 1961, providing that the district established pursuant to <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 8, Clause 17</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">seat of the federal government</a> (namely, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>) is entitled to the same number of electors as the least populous state.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> In practice, that results in Washington D.C. being entitled to three electors.<a href="#cite_note-Murriel-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a>. Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22">"United States Electoral College"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (February 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Electoral College was officially selected as the means of electing president towards the end of the Constitutional Convention, due to pressure from slave states wanting to increase their voting power, since they could count slaves as 3/5 of a person when allocating electors, and by small states who increased their power given the minimum of three electors per state.<a href="#cite_note-:3-34">[31]</a> The compromise was reached after other proposals, including a <a href="/wiki/Direct_election" title="Direct election">direct election</a> for president (as proposed by Hamilton among others), failed to get traction among slave states.<a href="#cite_note-:3-34">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Levitsky" title="Steven Levitsky">Steven Levitsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ziblatt" title="Daniel Ziblatt">Daniel Ziblatt</a> describe it as "not a product of constitutional theory or farsighted design. Rather, it was adopted by default, after all other alternatives had been rejected."<a href="#cite_note-:3-34">[31]</a> In 1787, the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> used the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a> as the basis for discussions, as the Virginia proposal was the first. The Virginia Plan called for Congress to elect the president.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Delegates from a majority of states agreed to this mode of election. After being debated, delegates came to oppose nomination by Congress for the reason that it could violate the separation of powers. <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> then made a motion for electors for the purpose of choosing the president.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Later in the convention, a committee formed to work out various details. They included the mode of election of the president, including final recommendations for the electors, a group of people apportioned among the states in the same numbers as their representatives in Congress (the formula for which had been resolved in lengthy debates resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a>), but chosen by each state "in such manner as its Legislature may direct". Committee member <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> explained the reasons for the change. Among others, there were fears of "intrigue" if the president were chosen by a small group of men who met together regularly, as well as concerns for the independence of the president if he were elected by Congress.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> Once the Electoral College had been decided on, several delegates (Mason, Butler, Morris, Wilson, and Madison) openly recognized its ability to protect the election process from cabal, corruption, intrigue, and faction. Some delegates, including James Wilson and James Madison, preferred popular election of the executive.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> Madison acknowledged that while a popular vote would be ideal, it would be difficult to get consensus on the proposal given the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> in the South: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">There was one difficulty, however of a serious nature attending an immediate choice by the people. The right of suffrage was much more diffusive in the Northern than the Southern States; and the latter could have no influence in the election on the score of Negroes. The substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to the fewest objections.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a></blockquote> The convention approved the committee's Electoral College proposal, with minor modifications, on September 4, 1787.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Delegates from states with smaller populations or limited land area, such as Connecticut, New Jersey, and Maryland, generally favored the Electoral College with some consideration for states.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] At the compromise providing for a runoff among the top five candidates, the small states supposed that the House of Representatives, with each state delegation casting one vote, would decide most elections.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> explained his views on the selection of the president and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._39" title="Federalist No. 39">Federalist No. 39</a>, Madison argued that the Constitution was designed to be a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">state-based</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">population-based</a> government. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> would have two houses: the state-based <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> and the population-based <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. Meanwhile, the president would be elected by a mixture of the two modes.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._68" title="Federalist No. 68">Federalist No. 68</a>, published on March 12, 1788, laid out what he believed were the key advantages to the Electoral College. The electors come directly from the people and them alone, for that purpose only, and for that time only. This avoided a party-run legislature or a permanent body that could be influenced by foreign interests before each election.<a href="#cite_note-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68-49">[46]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Hamilton explained that the election was to take place among all the states, so no corruption in any state could taint "the great body of the people" in their selection. The choice was to be made by a majority of the Electoral College, as majority rule is critical to the principles of <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican government</a>. Hamilton argued that electors meeting in the state capitals were able to have information unavailable to the general public, in a time before telecommunications. Hamilton also argued that since no federal officeholder could be an elector, none of the electors would be beholden to any presidential candidate.<a href="#cite_note-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68-49">[46]</a> Another consideration was that the decision would be made without "tumult and disorder", as it would be a broad-based one made simultaneously in various locales where the decision makers could deliberate reasonably, not in one place where decision makers could be threatened or intimidated. If the Electoral College did not achieve a decisive majority, then the House of Representatives was to choose the president from among the top five candidates,<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] ensuring selection of a presiding officer administering the laws would have both ability and good character. Hamilton was also concerned about somebody unqualified but with a talent for "low intrigue, and the little arts of popularity" attaining high office.<a href="#cite_note-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68-49">[46]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._10" title="Federalist No. 10">Federalist No. 10</a>, James Madison argued against "an interested and overbearing majority" and the "mischiefs of faction" in an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">electoral system</a>. He defined a faction as "a number of citizens whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." A republican government (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democracy</a>, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a>) combined with the principles of <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> (with distribution of voter rights and separation of government powers), would countervail against factions. Madison further postulated in the Federalist No. 10 that the greater the population and expanse of the Republic, the more difficulty factions would face in organizing due to such issues as <a href="/wiki/Sectionalism" title="Sectionalism">sectionalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> Although the United States Constitution refers to "Electors" and "electors", neither the phrase "Electoral College" nor any other name is used to describe the electors collectively. It was not until the early 19th century that the name "Electoral College" came into general usage as the collective designation for the electors selected to cast votes for president and vice president. The phrase was first written into federal law in 1845, and today the term appears in <a href="/wiki/Title_3_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 3 of the United States Code">3 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/3/4">§ 4</a>, in the section heading and in the text as "college of electors".<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a>. Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22">"United States Electoral College"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22United+States+Electoral+College%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (February 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_plan">Original plan</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Electoral_College" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 3</a> of the Constitution provided the original plan by which the electors voted for president. Under the original plan, each elector cast two votes for president; electors did not vote for vice president. Whoever received a majority of votes from the electors would become president, with the person receiving the second most votes becoming vice president. According to Stanley Chang, the original plan of the Electoral College was based upon several assumptions and anticipations of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#Framers_of_the_Constitution" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Framers of the Constitution</a>:<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <ol><li>Choice of the president should reflect the "sense of the people" at a particular time, not the dictates of a faction in a "pre-established body" such as Congress or the State legislatures, and independent of the influence of "foreign powers".<a href="#cite_note-auto1-54">[51]</a></li> <li>The choice would be made decisively with a "full and fair expression of the public will" but also maintaining "as little opportunity as possible to tumult and disorder".<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a></li> <li>Individual electors would be elected by citizens on a district-by-district basis. Voting for president would include the widest electorate allowed in each state.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a></li> <li>Each presidential elector would exercise independent judgment when voting, deliberating with the most complete information available in a system that over time, tended to bring about a good administration of the laws passed by Congress.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-54">[51]</a></li> <li>Candidates would not pair together on the same <a href="/wiki/Ticket_(election)" title="Ticket (election)">ticket</a> with assumed placements toward each office of president and vice president.</li></ol> Election expert, William C. Kimberling, reflected on the original intent as follows: <blockquote>"The function of the College of Electors in choosing the president can be likened to that in the Roman Catholic Church of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" title="College of Cardinals">College of Cardinals</a> selecting the Pope. The original idea was for the most knowledgeable and informed individuals from each State to select the president based solely on merit and without regard to State of origin or political party."<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a></blockquote> According to Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, in a dissenting opinion, the original intention of the framers was that the electors would not feel bound to support any particular candidate, but would vote their conscience, free of external pressure. <blockquote>"No one faithful to our history can deny that the plan originally contemplated, what is implicit in its text, that electors would be free agents, to exercise an independent and nonpartisan judgment as to the men best qualified for the Nation's highest offices."<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a></blockquote> In support for his view, Justice Jackson cited <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._68" title="Federalist No. 68">Federalist No. 68</a>: <blockquote>'It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was to be confided. This end will be answered by committing the right of making it, not to any pre-established body, but to men chosen by the people for the special purpose, and at the particular conjuncture... It was equally desirable, that the immediate election should be made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station, and acting under circumstances favorable to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their choice. A small number of persons, selected by their fellow citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated investigations.'</blockquote> Philip J. VanFossen of <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a> explains that the original purpose of the electors was not to reflect the will of the citizens, but rather to "serve as a check on a public who might be easily misled."<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Randall Calvert, the Eagleton Professor of Public Affairs and Political Science at <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, stated, "At the framing the more important consideration was that electors, expected to be more knowledgeable and responsible, would actually do the choosing."<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> Constitutional expert Michael Signer explained that the electoral college was designed "to provide a mechanism where intelligent, thoughtful and statesmanlike leaders could deliberate on the winner of the popular vote and, if necessary, choose another candidate who would not put Constitutional values and practices at risk."<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schlesinger" title="Robert Schlesinger">Robert Schlesinger</a>, writing for <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_and_World_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. News and World Report">U.S. News and World Report</a>, similarly stated, "The original conception of the Electoral College, in other words, was a body of men who could serve as a check on the uninformed mass electorate."<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Breakdown_and_revision">Breakdown and revision</h4></div> In spite of Hamilton's assertion that electors were to be chosen by mass election, initially, state legislatures chose the electors in most of the states.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> States progressively changed to selection by popular election. In <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, there were six states in which electors were still legislatively appointed. By <a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832</a>, only <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> had not transitioned. Since <a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a> (with the sole exception of newly admitted Colorado in 1876 for logistical reasons), electors in every state have been chosen based on a popular election held on <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2017THN-28">[25]</a> The popular election for electors means the president and vice president are in effect chosen through <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">indirect election</a> by the citizens.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_emergence_of_parties_and_campaigns">The emergence of parties and campaigns</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Political parties in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address#Political_parties" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">George Washington's Farewell Address § Political parties</a></div> The framers of the Constitution did not anticipate <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political parties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-65">[62]</a> Indeed <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>'s Farewell Address in 1796 included an urgent appeal to avert such parties. Neither did the framers anticipate candidates "running" for president. Within just a few years of the ratification of the Constitution, however, both phenomena became permanent features of the political landscape of the United States.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The emergence of <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political parties</a> and nationally coordinated election campaigns soon complicated matters in the elections of <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a> and <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a>. In 1796, <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> won the presidential election. Finishing in second place was <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, the Federalists' opponent, who became the vice president. This resulted in the president and vice president being of different political parties.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1800, the Democratic-Republican Party again nominated Jefferson for president and also again nominated <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a> for vice president. After the electors voted, Jefferson and Burr were tied with one another with 73 electoral votes each. Since ballots did not distinguish between votes for president and votes for vice president, every ballot cast for Burr technically counted as a vote for him to become president, despite Jefferson clearly being his party's first choice. Lacking a clear winner by constitutional standards, the election had to be decided by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> pursuant to the Constitution's contingency election provision.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Having already lost the presidential contest, Federalist Party representatives in the <a href="/wiki/Lame_duck_(politics)" title="Lame duck (politics)">lame duck</a> House session seized upon the opportunity to embarrass their opposition by attempting to elect Burr over Jefferson. The House deadlocked for 35 ballots as neither candidate received the necessary majority vote of the state delegations in the House (The votes of nine states were needed for a conclusive election.). On the 36th ballot, Delaware's lone Representative, <a href="/wiki/James_A._Bayard_(politician,_born_1767)" title="James A. Bayard (politician, born 1767)">James A. Bayard</a>, made it known that he intended to break the impasse for fear that failure to do so could endanger the future of the Union. Bayard and other Federalists from South Carolina, Maryland, and Vermont abstained, breaking the deadlock and giving Jefferson a majority.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Responding to the problems from those elections, Congress proposed on December 9, 1803, and three-fourths of the states ratified by June 15, 1804, the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a>. Starting with the <a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804 election</a>, the amendment requires electors to cast separate ballots for president and vice president, replacing the system outlined in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_from_unpledged_to_pledged_electors">Evolution from unpledged to pledged electors</h3></div> Some Founding Fathers hoped that each elector would be elected by the citizens of a district<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> and that elector was to be free to analyze and deliberate regarding who is best suited to be president.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._68" title="Federalist No. 68">Federalist No. 68</a> Alexander Hamilton described the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers'</a> view of how electors would be chosen: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A small number of persons, selected by their fellow-citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated [tasks]... They [the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)#Framers_of_the_Constitution" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">framers of the constitution</a>] have not made the appointment of the President to depend on any preexisting bodies of men [i.e. Electors pledged to vote one way or another], who might be tampered with beforehand to prostitute their votes [i.e., to be told how to vote]; but they have referred it in the first instance to an immediate act of the people of America, to be exerted in the choice of persons [Electors to the Electoral College] for the temporary and sole purpose of making the appointment. And they have EXCLUDED from eligibility to this trust, all those who from situation might be suspected of too great devotion to the President in office [in other words, no one can be an Elector who is prejudiced toward the president]... Thus without corrupting the body of the people, the immediate agents in the election will at least enter upon the task free from any sinister bias [Electors must not come to the Electoral College with bias]. Their transient existence, and their detached [unbiased] situation, already taken notice of, afford a satisfactory prospect of their continuing so, to the conclusion of it."<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton,_Federalist_68-69">[66]</a></blockquote> However, when electors were pledged to vote for a specific candidate, the slate of electors chosen by the state were no longer free agents, independent thinkers, or deliberative representatives. They became, as Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> wrote, "voluntary party lackeys and intellectual non-entities."<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> According to Hamilton, writing in 1788, the selection of the president should be "made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station [of president]."<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton,_Federalist_68-69">[66]</a> Hamilton stated that the electors were to analyze the list of potential presidents and select the best one. He also used the term "deliberate." In a 2020 opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court, the court additionally cited <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a>'s view that the electors' choices would reflect "discretion and discernment."<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> Reflecting on this original intention, a U.S. Senate report in 1826 critiqued the evolution of the system: <blockquote>It was the intention of the Constitution that these electors should be an independent body of men, chosen by the people from among themselves, on account of their superior discernment, virtue, and information; and that this select body should be left to make the election according to their own will, without the slightest control from the body of the people. That this intention has failed of its object in every election, is a fact of such universal notoriety that no one can dispute it. Electors, therefore, have not answered the design of their institution. They are not the independent body and superior characters which they were intended to be. They are not left to the exercise of their own judgment: on the contrary, they give their vote, or bind themselves to give it, according to the will of their constituents. They have degenerated into mere agents, in a case which requires no agency, and where the agent must be useless...<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a></blockquote> In 1833, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> detailed how badly from the framers' intention the Electoral Process had been "subverted": <blockquote>In no respect have the views of the framers of the constitution been so completely frustrated as relates to the independence of the electors in the electoral colleges. It is notorious, that the electors are now chosen wholly with reference to particular candidates, and are silently pledged to vote for them. Nay, upon some occasions the electors publicly pledge themselves to vote for a particular person; and thus, in effect, the whole foundation of the system, so elaborately constructed, is subverted.<a href="#cite_note-auto12-73">[70]</a></blockquote> Story observed that if an elector does what the framers of the Constitution expected him to do, he would be considered immoral: <blockquote>So, that nothing is left to the electors after their choice, but to register votes, which are already pledged; and an exercise of an independent judgment would be treated, as a political usurpation, dishonorable to the individual, and a fraud upon his constituents.<a href="#cite_note-auto12-73">[70]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_to_the_general_ticket">Evolution to the general ticket</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a> of the Constitution states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.</blockquote> According to Hamilton, Madison and others, the original intent was that this would take place district by district.<a href="#cite_note-auto11-74">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto10-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> The district plan was last carried out in <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election_in_Michigan" title="1892 United States presidential election in Michigan">Michigan in 1892</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-77">[74]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> in 1820, the rule stated "the people shall vote by ballot, on which shall be designated who is voted for as an Elector for the district."<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> In other words, the name of a candidate for president was not on the ballot. Instead, citizens voted for their local elector. Some state leaders began to adopt the strategy that the favorite partisan presidential candidate among the people in their state would have a much better chance if all of the electors selected by their state were sure to vote the same way—a "general ticket" of electors pledged to a party candidate.<a href="#cite_note-fairvote.org-80">[77]</a> Once one state took that strategy, the others felt compelled to follow suit in order to compete for the strongest influence on the election.<a href="#cite_note-fairvote.org-80">[77]</a> When <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, two of the most important architects of the Electoral College, saw this strategy being taken by some states, they protested strongly.<a href="#cite_note-auto11-74">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto10-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> Madison said that when the Constitution was written, all of its authors assumed individual electors would be elected in their districts, and it was inconceivable that a "general ticket" of electors dictated by a state would supplant the concept. Madison wrote to <a href="/wiki/George_Hay_(Virginia_judge)" title="George Hay (Virginia judge)">George Hay</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The district mode was mostly, if not exclusively in view when the Constitution was framed and adopted; & was exchanged for the general ticket [many years later].<a href="#cite_note-Madison_to_Hay,_1823-82">[79]</a></blockquote> Each state government was free to have its own plan for selecting its electors, and the Constitution does not explicitly require states to popularly elect their electors. However, <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._68" title="Federalist No. 68">Federalist No. 68</a>, insofar as it reflects the intent of the founders, states that Electors will be "selected by their fellow-citizens from the general mass," and with regard to choosing Electors, "they [the framers] have referred it in the first instance to an immediate act of the people of America." Several methods for selecting electors are described <a href="#Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors">below</a>. Madison and Hamilton were so upset by the trend to "general tickets" that they advocated a constitutional amendment to prevent anything other than the district plan. Hamilton drafted an amendment to the Constitution mandating the district plan for selecting electors.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Hamilton's <a href="/wiki/Burr%E2%80%93Hamilton_duel" title="Burr–Hamilton duel">untimely death</a> in a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804 prevented him from advancing his proposed reforms any further. "[T]he election of Presidential Electors by districts, is an amendment very proper to be brought forward," Madison told George Hay in 1823.<a href="#cite_note-Madison_to_Hay,_1823-82">[79]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Madison also drafted a constitutional amendment that would insure the original "district" plan of the framers.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Jefferson agreed with Hamilton and Madison saying, "all agree that an election by districts would be the best."<a href="#cite_note-auto3-77">[74]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Jefferson explained to Madison's correspondent why he was doubtful of the amendment being ratified: "the states are now so numerous that I despair of ever seeing another amendment of the constitution."<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_selection_plans">Evolution of selection plans</h3></div> In 1789, the at-large popular vote, the winner-take-all method, began with Pennsylvania and Maryland. Massachusetts, Virginia and Delaware used a district plan by popular vote, and state legislatures chose in the five other states participating in the election (Connecticut, Georgia, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and South Carolina).<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] New York, North Carolina and Rhode Island did not participate in the election. New York's legislature deadlocked over the method of choosing electors and abstained;<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified the Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> By 1800, Virginia and Rhode Island voted at large; Kentucky, Maryland, and North Carolina voted popularly by district; and eleven states voted by state legislature. Beginning in 1804 there was a definite trend towards the winner-take-all system for statewide popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[86]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] By 1832, only South Carolina legislatively chose its electors, and it abandoned the method after 1860.<a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[86]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Maryland was the only state using a district plan, and from 1836 district plans fell out of use until the 20th century, though Michigan used a district plan for 1892 only. States using popular vote by district have included ten states from all regions of the country.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Since 1836, statewide winner-take-all popular voting for electors has been the almost universal practice.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Currently, Maine (since 1972) and Nebraska (since 1992) use a district plan, with two at-large electors assigned to support the winner of the statewide popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correlation_between_popular_vote_and_electoral_college_votes">Correlation between popular vote and electoral college votes</h3></div> Since the mid-19th century, when all electors have been popularly chosen, the Electoral College has elected the candidate who received the most (though not necessarily a majority) popular votes nationwide, except in four elections: <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a>, <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016</a>. A case has also been made that it happened in 1960. In <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, when there were six states in which electors were legislatively appointed, rather than popularly elected, the true national popular vote is uncertain. The electors in 1824 failed to select a winning candidate, so the matter was decided by the House of Representatives.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-fifths_clause_and_the_role_of_slavery">Three-fifths clause and the role of slavery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this section is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a>. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:United_States_Electoral_College##" title="Talk:United States Electoral College">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>. (February 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> After the initial estimates agreed to in the original Constitution, Congressional and Electoral College reapportionment was made according to a decennial census to reflect population changes, modified by counting <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">three-fifths of slaves</a>. On this basis after the first census, the Electoral College still gave the free men of slave-owning states (but never slaves) extra power (Electors) based on a count of these disenfranchised people, in the choice of the U.S. president.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a>, the college composition, in theory, amounted to 49 votes for northern states (in the process of abolishing slavery) and 42 for slave-holding states (including Delaware). In the event, the first (i.e. 1788) presidential election lacked votes and electors for unratified Rhode Island (3) and North Carolina (7) and for New York (8) which reported too late; the Northern majority was 38 to 35.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] For the next two decades, the three-fifths clause led to electors of free-soil Northern states numbering 8% and 11% more than Southern states. The latter had, in the compromise, relinquished counting two-fifths of their slaves and, after 1810, were outnumbered by 15.4% to 23.2%.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> While House members for Southern states were boosted by an average of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄3,<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> a free-soil majority in the college maintained over this early republic and Antebellum period.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Scholars conclude that the three-fifths clause had low impact on sectional proportions and factional strength, until denying the North a pronounced supermajority, as to the Northern, federal initiative to abolish slavery. The seats that the South gained from such "slave bonus" were quite evenly distributed between the parties. In the First Party System (1795–1823), the Jefferson Republicans gained 1.1 percent more adherents from the slave bonus, while the Federalists lost the same proportion. At the Second Party System (1823–1837) the emerging Jacksonians gained just 0.7% more seats, versus the opposition loss of 1.6%.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> The three-fifths slave-count rule is associated with three or four outcomes, 1792–1860: <ul><li>The clause, having reduced the South's power, led to John Adams's win in 1796 over Thomas Jefferson.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a></li> <li>In 1800, historian <a href="/wiki/Garry_Wills" title="Garry Wills">Garry Wills</a> argues, Jefferson's victory over Adams was due to the slave bonus count in the Electoral College as Adams would have won if citizens' votes were used for each state.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> However, historian <a href="/wiki/Sean_Wilentz" title="Sean Wilentz">Sean Wilentz</a> points out that Jefferson's purported "slave advantage" ignores an offset by electoral manipulation by anti-Jefferson forces in Pennsylvania. Wilentz concludes that it is a myth to say that the Electoral College was a pro-slavery ploy.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a></li> <li>In 1824, the presidential selection was passed to the House of Representatives, and John Quincy Adams was chosen over Andrew Jackson, who won fewer citizens' votes. Then Jackson won in 1828, but would have lost if the college were citizen-only apportionment. Scholars conclude that in the 1828 race, Jackson benefited materially from the Three-fifths clause by providing his margin of victory.</li></ul> The first "Jeffersonian" and "Jacksonian" victories were of great importance as they ushered in sustained party majorities of several Congresses and presidential party eras.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> Besides the Constitution prohibiting Congress from regulating foreign or domestic slave trade before 1808 and a duty on states to return escaped "persons held to service",<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Reed Amar</a> argues that the college was originally advocated by slaveholders as a bulwark to prop up slavery. In the Congressional apportionment provided in the text of the Constitution with its Three-Fifths Compromise estimate, "Virginia emerged as the big winner [with] more than a quarter of the [votes] needed to win an election in the first round [for Washington's first presidential election in 1788]." Following the <a href="/wiki/1790_United_States_census" title="1790 United States census">1790 United States census</a>, the most populous state was Virginia, with 39.1% slaves, or 292,315 counted three-fifths, to yield a calculated number of 175,389 for congressional apportionment.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] "The "free" state of Pennsylvania had 10% more free persons than Virginia but got 20% fewer electoral votes."<a href="#cite_note-amar2-106">[103]</a> Pennsylvania split eight to seven for Jefferson, favoring Jefferson with a majority of 53% in a state with 0.1% slave population.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a> agrees the Constitution's Three-Fifths Compromise gave protection to slavery.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> Supporters of the College have provided many counterarguments to the charges that it defended slavery. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, the president who helped abolish slavery, won a College majority in <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860</a> despite winning 39.8% of citizen's votes.<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> This, however, was a clear plurality of a popular vote divided among four main candidates. Benner notes that Jefferson's first margin of victory would have been wider had the entire slave population been counted on a per capita basis.<a href="#cite_note-benner-110">[107]</a> He also notes that some of the most vociferous critics of a national popular vote at the constitutional convention were delegates from free states, including <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> of Pennsylvania, who declared that such a system would lead to a "great evil of cabal and corruption," and <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts, who called a national popular vote "radically vicious".<a href="#cite_note-benner-110">[107]</a> Delegates <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut, a state which had adopted a gradual emancipation law three years earlier, also criticized a national popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-benner-110">[107]</a> Of like view was <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a>, a member of Adams' <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>, presidential candidate in 1800. He hailed from South Carolina and was a slaveholder.<a href="#cite_note-benner-110">[107]</a> In <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>, a slaveholder from Tennessee, was similarly defeated by <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a>, a strong <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">critic of slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-benner-110">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourteenth_amendment">Fourteenth amendment</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_2" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment</a> requires a state's representation in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> to be reduced if the state denies the right to vote to any male citizen aged 21 or older, unless on the basis of "participation in rebellion, or other crime". The reduction is to be proportionate to such people denied a vote. This amendment refers to "the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States" (among other elections). It is the only part of the Constitution currently alluding to electors being selected by popular vote. On May 8, 1866, during a debate on the Fourteenth Amendment, <a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> in the House of Representatives, delivered a speech on the amendment's intent. Regarding Section 2, he said:<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The second section I consider the most important in the article. It fixes the basis of representation in Congress. If any State shall exclude any of her adult male citizens from the elective franchise, or abridge that right, she shall forfeit her right to representation in the same proportion. The effect of this provision will be either to compel the States to grant universal suffrage or so shear them of their power as to keep them forever in a hopeless minority in the national Government, both legislative and executive.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a></blockquote> Federal law (<a href="/wiki/Title_2_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 2 of the United States Code">2 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/2/6">§ 6</a>) implements Section 2's mandate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meeting_of_electors">Meeting of electors</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg/220px-2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg/330px-2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg/440px-2020_presidential_election_US_electoral_college_certificates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Cases of certificates of the electoral college votes confirming the results of the 2020 US election, after they had been removed from the House Chambers by congressional staff during the <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 United States Capitol attack</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_4:_Election_day" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 4</a> of the Constitution authorizes Congress to fix the day on which the electors shall vote, which must be the same day throughout the United States. And both <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Electoral_College" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 3</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a> that replaced it specifies that "the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted." In 1887, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a>, now codified in <a href="/wiki/Title_3_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 3 of the United States Code">Title 3, Chapter 1</a> of the United States Code, establishing specific procedures for the counting of the electoral votes. The law was passed in response to the disputed <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 presidential election</a>, in which several states submitted competing slates of electors. Among its provisions, the law established deadlines that the states must meet when selecting their electors, resolving disputes, and when they must cast their electoral votes.<a href="#cite_note-CRS-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> From 1948 to 2022, the date fixed by Congress for the meeting of the Electoral College was "on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December next following their appointment".<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> As of 2022, with the passing of "S.4573 - Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act of 2022", this was changed to be "on the first Tuesday after the second Wednesday in December next following their appointment".<a href="#cite_note-electoral2022-25">[22]</a> Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, disqualifies all elected and appointed <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal officials</a> from being electors. The <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Federal_Register" title="Office of the Federal Register">Office of the Federal Register</a> is charged with administering the Electoral College.<a href="#cite_note-Zak-115">[112]</a> After the vote, each state sends to Congress a certified record of their electoral votes, called the Certificate of Vote. These certificates are opened during a <a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint session of Congress">joint session of Congress</a>, held on January 6<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] unless another date is specified by law, and read aloud by the incumbent vice president, acting in his capacity as president of the Senate. If any person receives an absolute majority of electoral votes, that person is declared the winner.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] If there is a tie, or if no candidate for either or both offices receives an absolute majority, then choice falls to Congress in a procedure known as a <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">contingent election</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_mechanics">Modern mechanics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oregon_Electors_2012.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Oregon_Electors_2012.png/220px-Oregon_Electors_2012.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Oregon_Electors_2012.png/330px-Oregon_Electors_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Oregon_Electors_2012.png/440px-Oregon_Electors_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="1986" /></a><figcaption>After the popular election in November, a state's <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Ascertainment" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of Ascertainment">Certificate of Ascertainment</a> officially announces the state's electors for the Electoral College. The appointed Electoral College members later meet in the state capital in December to cast their votes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary">Summary</h3></div> Even though the aggregate national popular vote is calculated by state officials, media organizations, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission" title="Federal Election Commission">Federal Election Commission</a>, the people only <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">indirectly elect</a> the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice president</a>. The president and vice president of the United States are elected by the Electoral College, which consists of 538 electors from the fifty states and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> Electors are selected state-by-state, as determined by the laws of each state. Since the <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 election</a>, the majority of states have chosen their presidential electors based on <a href="/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Winner-takes-all voting">winner-take-all</a> results in the statewide popular vote on <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FVWTA-118">[115]</a> As of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Electoral_College&action=edit">[update]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> are exceptions as both use the <a href="#Congressional_district_method">congressional district method</a>, Maine since 1972 and in Nebraska since 1992.<a href="#cite_note-ecollege-119">[116]</a> In most states, the popular vote <a href="/wiki/Ballot" title="Ballot">ballots</a> list the names of the presidential and vice presidential candidates (who run on a <a href="/wiki/Ticket_(election)" title="Ticket (election)">ticket</a>). The slate of electors that represent the winning ticket will vote for those two offices. Electors are nominated by the party and, usually, they vote for the ticket to which are promised.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> Many states require an elector to vote for the candidate to which the elector is pledged, but some "faithless electors" have voted for other candidates or refrained from voting. A candidate must receive an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_majority" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute majority">absolute majority</a> of electoral votes (currently 270) to win the presidency or the vice presidency. If no candidate receives a majority in the election for president or vice president, the election is determined via a <a href="#Contingencies">contingency procedure</a> established by the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a>. In such a situation, the House chooses one of the top three presidential electoral vote winners as the president, while the Senate chooses one of the top two vice presidential electoral vote winners as vice president. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electors">Electors</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Apportionment">Apportionment</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">United States congressional apportionment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png/310px-US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png/465px-US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png/620px-US_2020_Census_State_Population_Per_Electoral_Vote.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>The population per electoral vote for each state and Washington, D.C., 2020 census. A single elector could represent more than 700,000 people, or under 200,000.</figcaption></figure> A state's number of electors equals the number of representatives plus two electors for the senators the state has in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> Each state is entitled to at least one representative, the remaining number of representatives per state is <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">apportioned</a> based on their respective populations, determined every ten years by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_census" title="United States census">United States census</a>. In summary, 153 electors are divided equally among the states and the District of Columbia (3 each), and the remaining 385 are assigned by an apportionment among states.<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Under the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, is allocated as many electors as it would have if it were a state but no more electors than the least populous state. Because the least populous state (<a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>, in the 2020 census) has three electors, D.C. cannot have more than three electors. Even if D.C. were a state, its population would entitle it to only three electors. Based on its population per electoral vote, D.C. has the third highest per capita Electoral College representation, after Wyoming and Vermont.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Currently, there are 538 electors, based on 435 representatives, 100 senators from the fifty states and three electors from Washington, D.C. The six states with the most electors are <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> (54), <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> (40), <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> (30), <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> (28), <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> (19), and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> (19). The District of Columbia and the six least populous states—<a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>—have three electors each.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nominations">Nominations</h4></div> The custom of allowing recognized <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">political parties</a> to select a <a href="/wiki/Slate_(elections)" title="Slate (elections)">slate</a> of prospective electors developed early. In contemporary practice, each <a href="/wiki/Ticket_(election)" title="Ticket (election)">presidential-vice presidential ticket</a> has an associated slate of potential electors. Then on Election Day, the voters select a ticket and thereby select the associated electors.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2017THN-28">[25]</a> Candidates for elector are nominated by state chapters of nationally oriented political parties in the months prior to <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a>. In some states, the electors are nominated by voters in primaries the same way other presidential candidates are nominated. In some states, such as <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, electors are nominated in party conventions. In <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, the campaign committee of each candidate names their respective electoral college candidates, an attempt to discourage <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">faithless electors</a>. Varying by state, electors may also be elected by state legislatures or appointed by the parties themselves.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Fringe_theories#Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Fringe theories">unreliable fringe source?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selection_process">Selection process</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a> of the Constitution requires each state legislature to determine how electors for the state are to be chosen, but it disqualifies any person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, from being an elector.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Participants_in_rebellion" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment</a>, any person who has sworn an <a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">oath</a> to support the United States Constitution in order to hold either a state or federal office, and later rebelled against the United States directly or by giving assistance to those doing so, is disqualified from being an elector. Congress may remove this disqualification by a two-thirds vote in each house. All states currently choose presidential electors by popular vote. As of 2020, eight states<a href="#cite_note-128">[d]</a> name the electors on the ballot. Mostly, the "short ballot" is used. The short ballot displays the names of the candidates for president and vice president, rather than the names of prospective electors.<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> Some states support voting for <a href="/wiki/Write-in_candidate" title="Write-in candidate">write-in candidates</a>. Those that do may require pre-registration of write-in candidacy, with designation of electors being done at that time.<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[127]</a> Since 1992, all but two states have followed the <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting" title="Plurality voting">winner takes all</a> method of allocating electors by which every person named on the slate for the ticket winning the statewide popular vote are named as presidential electors.<a href="#cite_note-fairvote20180801-132">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> are the only states not using this method.<a href="#cite_note-ecollege-119">[116]</a> In those states, the winner of the popular vote in each of its <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">congressional districts</a> is awarded one elector, and the winner of the statewide vote is then awarded the state's remaining two electors.<a href="#cite_note-fairvote20180801-132">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> This method has been used in Maine since 1972 and in Nebraska since 1992. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> previously upheld the power for a state to choose electors on the basis of congressional districts, holding that states possess <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> to decide how electors are appointed in <a href="/wiki/McPherson_v._Blacker" title="McPherson v. Blacker">McPherson v. Blacker</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_146" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 146">146</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/146/1/">1</a> (1892). The Tuesday following the first Monday in November has been fixed as the day for holding federal elections, called the <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> After the election, each state prepares seven Certificates of Ascertainment, each listing the candidates for president and vice president, their pledged electors, and the total votes each candidacy received.<a href="#cite_note-electcollinstr-136">[132]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] One certificate is sent, as soon after Election Day as practicable, to the <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">National Archivist</a> in Washington. The Certificates of Ascertainment are mandated to carry the state seal and the signature of the governor, or <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Mayor of the District of Columbia">mayor</a> of D.C.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meetings">Meetings</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/220px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/330px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg/440px-A_certificate_for_the_electoral_vote_for_Rutherford_B._Hayes_and_William_A._Wheeler_for_the_State_of_Louisiana_dated_1876_part_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2793" data-file-height="4376" /></a><figcaption>When a state's electors meet in December, they cast their ballots and record their vote on a Certificate of Vote, which is then sent to the U.S. Congress. The certificate shown is from the 1876 election.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External media</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Images</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/us-electoral-college-formally-confirms-j-idUSRTX8G4HR">A 2020 Pennsylvania elector holds a ballot for Joe Biden</a> (Biden's name is handwritten on the blank line). Reuters. December 14, 2020.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-outdated-law-that-republicans-could-use-to-upend-the-electoral-college-vote-next-time">A closeup of the 2020 Georgia Electoral College ballot for Kamala Harris</a> (using a format in which Harris's name is checked on the pre-printed card). The New Yorker. December 18, 2020.</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Video</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83zDGB5oceg">2020 California State Electoral College meeting</a>, YouTube video. Reuters. December 14, 2020.</td></tr></tbody></table> The Electoral College never meets as one body. Electors meet in their respective <a href="/wiki/List_of_capitals_in_the_United_States#State_capitals" title="List of capitals in the United States">state capitals</a> (electors for the District of Columbia meet within the District) on the same day (set by Congress as the Tuesday after the second Wednesday in December) at which time they cast their electoral votes on separate ballots for president and vice president.<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-electoral2022-25">[22]</a> Although procedures in each state vary slightly, the electors generally follow a similar series of steps, and the Congress has constitutional authority to regulate the procedures the states follow.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The meeting is opened by the election certification official—often that state's <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">secretary of state</a> or equivalent—who reads the <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_ascertainment" title="Certificate of ascertainment">certificate of ascertainment</a>. This document sets forth who was chosen to cast the electoral votes. The attendance of the electors is taken and any vacancies are noted in writing. The next step is the selection of a president or chairman of the meeting, sometimes also with a vice chairman. The electors sometimes choose a secretary, often not an elector, to take the minutes of the meeting. In many states, political officials give short speeches at this point in the proceedings.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] When the time for balloting arrives, the electors choose one or two people to act as tellers. Some states provide for the placing in nomination of a candidate to receive the electoral votes (the candidate for president of the political party of the electors). Each elector submits a written ballot with the name of a candidate for president. Ballot formats vary between the states: in <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> for example, the electors cast ballots by checking the name of the candidate on a pre-printed card. In <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, the electors write the name of the candidate on a blank card. The tellers count the ballots and announce the result. The next step is the casting of the vote for vice president, which follows a similar pattern.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Under the Electoral Count Act (updated and codified in <a href="/wiki/Title_3_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 3 of the United States Code">3 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/3/9">§ 9</a>), each state's electors must complete six certificates of vote. Each Certificate of Vote (or Certificate of the Vote) must be signed by all of the electors and a certificate of ascertainment must be attached to each of the certificates of vote. Each Certificate of Vote must include the names of those who received an electoral vote for either the office of president or of vice president. The electors certify the Certificates of Vote, and copies of the certificates are then sent in the following fashion:<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <ul><li>One is sent by <a href="/wiki/Registered_mail" title="Registered mail">registered mail</a> to the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Senate" title="President of the Senate">President of the Senate</a> (who usually is the incumbent <a href="/wiki/Vice_president_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice president of the United States">vice president of the United States</a>);</li> <li>Two are sent by registered mail to the <a href="/wiki/Archivist_of_the_United_States" title="Archivist of the United States">Archivist of the United States</a>;</li> <li>Two are sent to the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">state's secretary of state</a>; and</li> <li>One is sent to the chief judge of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">United States district court</a> where those electors met.</li></ul> A staff member of the president of the Senate collects the certificates of vote as they arrive and prepares them for the joint session of the Congress. The certificates are arranged—unopened—in alphabetical order and placed in two special mahogany boxes. <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> through <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a>) are placed in one box and <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> through <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> are placed in the other box.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> Before 1950, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>'s office oversaw the certifications. Since then, the Office of Federal Register in the Archivist's office reviews them to make sure the documents sent to the archive and Congress match, and that all formalities have been followed, sometimes requiring states to correct the documents.<a href="#cite_note-Zak-115">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Faithless_electors">Faithless electors</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">Faithless elector</a></div> An elector votes for each office, but at least one of these votes (president or vice president) must be cast for a person who is not a resident of the same state as that elector.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> A "faithless elector" is one who does not cast an electoral vote for the candidate of the party for whom that elector pledged to vote. Faithless electors are comparatively rare because electors are generally chosen among those who are already personally committed to a party and party's candidate.<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> Thirty-three <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> plus the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a> have laws against faithless electors,<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> which were first enforced after the 2016 election, where <a href="/wiki/Faithless_electors_in_the_2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="Faithless electors in the 2016 United States presidential election">ten electors voted or attempted to vote contrary</a> to their pledges. Faithless electors have never changed the outcome of a U.S. election for president. Altogether, 23,529 electors have taken part in the Electoral College as of the 2016 election. Only 165 electors have cast votes for someone other than their party's nominee. Of that group, 71 did so because the nominee had died – 63 Democratic Party electors in <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872</a>, when presidential nominee <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> died; and eight Republican Party electors in <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a>, when vice presidential nominee <a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">James S. Sherman</a> died.<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> While faithless electors have never changed the outcome of any presidential election, there are two occasions where the vice presidential election has been influenced by faithless electors: <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 election</a>, 18 electors pledged to the Federalist Party ticket cast their first vote as pledged for John Adams, electing him president, but did not cast their second vote for his running mate Thomas Pinckney. As a result, Adams attained 71 electoral votes, Jefferson received 68, and Pinckney received 59, meaning Jefferson, rather than Pinckney, became vice president.<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1836 election</a>, Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">Richard Mentor Johnson</a>, voted instead for former U.S. senator <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(South_Carolina_senator)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Smith (South Carolina senator)">William Smith</a>, which left Johnson one vote short of the majority needed to be elected. In accordance with the Twelfth Amendment, a contingent election was held in the Senate between the top two receivers of electoral votes, Johnson and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Granger" title="Francis Granger">Francis Granger</a>, for vice president, with Johnson being elected on the first ballot.<a href="#cite_note-SB12192016NCC-148">[144]</a></li></ul> Some constitutional scholars argued that state restrictions would be struck down if challenged based on Article II and the Twelfth Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> has consistently ruled that state restrictions are allowed under the Constitution. In <a href="/wiki/Ray_v._Blair" title="Ray v. Blair">Ray v. Blair</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_343" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 343">343</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/343/214/">214</a> (1952), the court ruled in favor of state laws requiring electors to pledge to vote for the winning candidate, as well as removing electors who refuse to pledge. As stated in the ruling, electors are acting as a functionary of the state, not the federal government. In <a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/19-465_i425.pdf">591 U.S. ___</a> (2020), and a related case, the court held that electors must vote in accord with their state's laws.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> Faithless electors also may face censure from their political party, as they are usually chosen based on their perceived party loyalty.<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joint_session_of_Congress">Joint session of Congress</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Reform_and_Presidential_Transition_Improvement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act">Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9foQYGJ8Ug8">A joint session of Congress confirms the 2020 electoral college results</a>, YouTube video. Global News. January 6, 2021.</td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a> mandates Congress assemble in <a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Joint session of the United States Congress">joint session</a> to count the electoral votes and declare the winners of the election.<a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> The session is ordinarily required to take place on January 6 in the calendar year immediately following the meetings of the presidential electors.<a href="#cite_note-3USC15-154">[150]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twentieth Amendment</a>, the newly elected joint Congress declares the winner of the election. All elections before <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a> were determined by the outgoing House. The <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Federal_Register" title="Office of the Federal Register">Office of the Federal Register</a> is charged with administering the Electoral College.<a href="#cite_note-Zak-115">[112]</a> The meeting is held at 1 p.m. in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives.<a href="#cite_note-3USC15-154">[150]</a> The sitting vice president is expected to preside, but in several cases the <a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">president pro tempore of the Senate</a> has chaired the proceedings. The vice president and the <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">speaker of the House</a> sit at the podium, with the vice president sitting to the right of the speaker of the House. Senate pages bring in two mahogany boxes containing each state's certified vote and place them on tables in front of the senators and representatives. Each house appoints two tellers to count the vote, normally one member of each political party. Relevant portions of the certificate of vote are read for each state, in alphabetical order. Before <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Reform_and_Presidential_Transition_Improvement_Act_of_2022" title="Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act of 2022">an amendment</a> to the law in 2022, members of Congress could object to any state's vote count, provided objection is presented in writing and is signed by at least one member of each house of Congress. In 2022, the number of members required to make an objection was raised to one-fifth of each house. An appropriately made objection is followed by the suspension of the joint session and by separate debates and votes in each house of Congress. After both houses deliberate on the objection, the joint session is resumed. A state's certificate of vote can be rejected only if both houses of Congress vote to accept the objection via a simple majority,<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> meaning the votes from the state in question are not counted. Individual votes can also be rejected, and are also not counted. If there are no objections or all objections are overruled, the presiding officer simply includes a state's votes, as declared in the certificate of vote, in the official tally. After the certificates from all states are read and the respective votes are counted, the presiding officer simply announces the final state of the vote. This announcement concludes the joint session and formalizes the recognition of the president-elect and of the vice president-elect. The senators then depart from the House chamber. The final tally is printed in the Senate and House journals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_objections_and_rejections">Historical objections and rejections</h4></div> Objections to the electoral vote count are rarely raised, although it has occurred a few times. <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a>, all votes from Louisiana and Tennessee were rejected because of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election#Disputed_votes" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872</a>, all votes from Arkansas and Louisiana plus three of the eleven electoral votes from Georgia were rejected, due to allegations of electoral fraud, and due to submitting votes for <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">a candidate who had died</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a></li> <li>After the crises of the <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876 election</a>, where in a few states it was claimed there were two competing state governments, and thus competing slates of electors, Congress adopted the Electoral Count Act to regularize objection procedure.<a href="#cite_note-157">[153]</a></li> <li>During the vote count in 2001 after the close <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 presidential election</a> between Governor <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> of Texas and Vice President <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a>. The election had been controversial, and its outcome was decided by the court case <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a>. Gore, who as vice president was required to preside over his own Electoral College defeat (by five electoral votes), denied the objections, all of which were raised by representatives and would have favored his candidacy, after no senators would agree to jointly object.</li> <li>Objections were raised in the vote count of the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 election</a>, alleging voter suppression and machine irregularities in Ohio, and on that occasion one representative and one senator objected, following protocols mandated by the Electoral Count Act. The joint session was suspended as outlined in these protocols, and the objections were quickly disposed of and rejected by both houses of Congress.</li> <li>Eleven objections were raised during <a href="/wiki/2017_United_States_Electoral_College_vote_count" title="2017 United States Electoral College vote count">the vote count</a> for the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 election</a>, all by various Democratic representatives. As no senator joined the representatives in any objection, all objections were blocked by Vice President <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 election</a>, there were <a href="/wiki/2021_United_States_Electoral_College_vote_count#Joint_session_of_Congress" title="2021 United States Electoral College vote count">two objections</a>, and the proceeding was interrupted by an <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">attack on the U.S. Capitol</a> by supporters of outgoing President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>. Objections to the votes from Arizona and Pennsylvania were each raised by a House member and a senator, and triggered separate debate in each chamber, but were soundly defeated.<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> A few House members raised objections to the votes from Georgia, Michigan, Nevada, and Wisconsin, but they could not move forward because no senator joined in those objections.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contingencies">Contingencies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent election</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contingent_presidential_election_by_House">Contingent presidential election by House</h4></div> If no candidate for president receives an absolute majority of the electoral votes (since 1964, 270 of the 538 electoral votes), then the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a> requires the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> to go into session immediately to choose a president. In this event, the House of Representatives is limited to choosing from among the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for president. Each state delegation votes en bloc—each delegation having a single vote. The District of Columbia does not get to vote. A candidate must receive an absolute majority of state delegation votes (i.e., from 1959, which is the last time a new state was admitted to the union, a minimum of 26 votes) in order for that candidate to become the president-elect. Delegations from at least two thirds of all the states must be present for voting to take place. The House continues balloting until it elects a president. The House of Representatives has been required to choose the president only twice: in <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1801</a> under Article II, Section 1, Clause 3; and in <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1825</a> under the Twelfth Amendment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contingent_vice_presidential_election_by_Senate">Contingent vice presidential election by Senate</h4></div> If no candidate for vice president receives an absolute majority of electoral votes, then the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> must go into session to choose a vice president. The Senate is limited to choosing from the two candidates who received the most electoral votes for vice president. Normally this would mean two candidates, one less than the number of candidates available in the House vote. However, the text is written in such a way that all candidates with the most and second-most electoral votes are eligible for the Senate election—this number could theoretically be larger than two. The Senate votes in the normal manner in this case (i.e., ballots are individually cast by each senator, not by state delegations). Two-thirds of the senators must be present for voting to take place. The Twelfth Amendment states a "majority of the whole number" of senators, currently 51 of 100, is necessary for election.<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a> The language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie that might occur,<a href="#cite_note-162">[158]</a> although some academics and journalists have speculated to the contrary.<a href="#cite_note-163">[159]</a> The only time the Senate chose the vice president was in <a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election#1837_contingent_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1837</a>. In that instance, the Senate adopted an alphabetical <a href="/wiki/Voting_methods_in_deliberative_assemblies" title="Voting methods in deliberative assemblies">roll call</a> and voting aloud. The rules further stated, "[I]f a majority of the number of senators shall vote for either the said <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">Richard M. Johnson</a> or <a href="/wiki/Francis_Granger" title="Francis Granger">Francis Granger</a>, he shall be declared by the presiding officer of the Senate constitutionally elected Vice President of the United States"; the Senate chose Johnson.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deadlocked_election">Deadlocked election</h4></div> Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment specifies that if the House of Representatives has not chosen a president-elect in time for the inauguration (noon <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone" title="Eastern Time Zone">EST</a> on January 20), then the vice president-elect becomes <a href="/wiki/Acting_President_of_the_United_States" title="Acting President of the United States">acting president</a> until the House selects a president. Section 3 also specifies that Congress may statutorily provide for who will be acting president if there is neither a president-elect nor a vice president-elect in time for the inauguration. Under the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act#Presidential_Succession_Act_of_1947" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1947</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker of the House</a> would become acting president until either the House selects a president or the Senate selects a vice president. Neither of these situations has ever arisen to this day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continuity_of_government_and_peaceful_transitions_of_power">Continuity of government and peaceful transitions of power</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_assassination_attempts_and_plots" title="List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots">United States presidential assassination attempts and plots</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_government_continuity_of_operations" title="United States federal government continuity of operations">United States federal government continuity of operations</a></div> In Federalist No. 68, Alexander Hamilton argued that one concern that led the Constitutional Convention to create the Electoral College was to ensure <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_transition_of_power" title="Peaceful transition of power">peaceful transitions of power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">continuity of government</a> during <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_transition" title="United States presidential transition">transitions between presidential administrations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003410-165">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[e]</a> While recognizing that the question had not been presented in the case, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> stated in the majority opinion in <a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a> (2020) that "nothing in this opinion should be taken to permit the States to bind electors to a deceased candidate" after noting that more than one-third of the cumulative faithless elector votes in U.S. presidential elections history were cast during the <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872 presidential election</a> when <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Liberal Republican Party (United States)">Liberal Republican Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> nominee <a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Horace Greeley</a> died after the <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">polls were held</a> and vote tabulations were completed by the states but before the Electoral College cast its ballots, and acknowledging the petitioners concern about the potential turmoil that the death of a presidential candidate between Election Day and the Electoral College meetings could cause.<a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> In 1872, Greeley carried the popular vote in 6 states (<a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Georgia" title="1872 United States presidential election in Georgia">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Kentucky" title="1872 United States presidential election in Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Maryland" title="1872 United States presidential election in Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Missouri" title="1872 United States presidential election in Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Tennessee" title="1872 United States presidential election in Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election_in_Texas" title="1872 United States presidential election in Texas">Texas</a>) and had 66 electoral votes pledged to him. After his death on November 29, 1872, 63 of the electors pledged to him voted faithlessly, while 3 votes (from Georgia) that remained pledged to him were rejected at the Electoral College vote count on February 12, 1873, on the grounds that he had died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b4-169">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)334–337-170">[165]</a> Greeley's running mate, <a href="/wiki/B._Gratz_Brown" title="B. Gratz Brown">B. Gratz Brown</a>, still received the 3 electoral votes from Georgia for vice president that were rejected for Greeley. This brought Brown's number of electoral votes for vice president to 47 since he still received all 28 electoral votes from Maryland, Tennessee, and Texas, and 16 other electoral votes from Georgia, Kentucky, and Missouri in total. The other 19 electors from the latter states voted faithlessly for vice president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)346-171">[166]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidential transition of Abraham Lincoln">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> had to arrive in Washington, D.C. in disguise and on an altered train schedule after the <a href="/wiki/Pinkerton_(detective_agency)" title="Pinkerton (detective agency)">Pinkerton National Detective Agency</a> found evidence that suggested a <a href="/wiki/Baltimore_Plot" title="Baltimore Plot">secessionist plot to assassinate Lincoln would be attempted in Baltimore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[168]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928 presidential election</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Argentines" title="Argentines">Argentine</a> anarchist group plotted to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> while Hoover was traveling through <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and crossing the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> by train. The plotters were arrested before the attempt was made.<a href="#cite_note-LifeHH-174">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[170]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zangara" title="Giuseppe Zangara">Giuseppe Zangara</a> attempted to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> by gunshot while Roosevelt was giving an impromptu speech in a car in <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, but instead killed <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Chicago" title="Mayor of Chicago">Chicago Mayor</a> <a href="/wiki/Anton_Cermak" title="Anton Cermak">Anton Cermak</a>, who was a passenger in the car, and wounded 5 bystanders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200931–32-176">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Paul_Pavlick" title="Richard Paul Pavlick">Richard Paul Pavlick</a> plotted to assassinate <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> while Kennedy was vacationing in <a href="/wiki/Palm_Beach,_Florida" title="Palm Beach, Florida">Palm Beach, Florida</a>, by detonating a dynamite-laden car where Kennedy was staying. Pavlick delayed his attempt and was arrested and <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">committed</a> to a mental hospital.<a href="#cite_note-postman-178">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-children-179">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-hate-180">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidential transition of Barack Obama">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">2008 presidential election</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> was targeted in separate security incidents by <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_assassination_attempts_and_plots#Barack_Obama" title="List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots">an assassination plot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Security_incidents_involving_Barack_Obama#Maine_"dirty_bomb"_threat" title="Security incidents involving Barack Obama">a death threat</a>,<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a> after an <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_assassination_plot_in_Denver" title="Barack Obama assassination plot in Denver">assassination plot in Denver</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2008_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2008 Democratic National Convention">2008 Democratic National Convention</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama_assassination_plot_in_Tennessee" title="Barack Obama assassination plot in Tennessee">assassination plot in Tennessee</a> during the election were prevented.<a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABC1027-185">[180]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidential transition of Joe Biden">presidential transition</a> following the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 presidential election</a>, as a result of former president <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>'s false insistence that he had won the election, the <a href="/wiki/General_Services_Administration" title="General Services Administration">General Services Administration</a> did not declare Biden the winner until November 23.<a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">attack on the United States Capitol</a> on January 6 caused delays in the <a href="/wiki/2021_United_States_Electoral_College_vote_count" title="2021 United States Electoral College vote count">counting of electoral votes</a> to certify Joe Biden's victory in the 2020 election, but was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the count from occurring.<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a> Ratified in 1933, Section 3 of the 20th Amendment requires that if a <a href="/wiki/President-elect_of_the_United_States" title="President-elect of the United States">president-elect</a> dies before <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_inauguration" title="United States presidential inauguration">Inauguration Day</a>, that the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President-elect_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President-elect of the United States">vice president-elect</a> becomes the president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b5–6-188">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003564-189">[184]</a> Akhil Amar has noted that the explicit text of the 20th Amendment does not specify when the candidates of the winning presidential ticket officially become the president-elect and vice president-elect, and that the text of Article II, Section I and the 12th Amendment suggests that candidates for president and vice president are only formally elected upon the Electoral College vote count.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> Conversely, a 2020 report issued by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> (CRS), stated that the balance of scholarly opinion has concluded that the winning presidential ticket is formally elected as soon as the majority of the electoral votes they receive are cast, according to the 1932 House committee report on the 20th Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b5–6-188">[183]</a> If a vacancy on a presidential ticket occurs before Election Day—as in <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a> when <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Republican_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets">Republican nominee for Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">James S. Sherman</a> died less than a week before the election and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Nicholas Murray Butler</a> at the Electoral College meetings, and in <a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a> when <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets">Democratic nominee for Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eagleton" title="Thomas Eagleton">Thomas Eagleton</a> withdrew his nomination less than three weeks after the <a href="/wiki/1972_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1972 Democratic National Convention">Democratic National Convention</a> and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Sargent_Shriver" title="Sargent Shriver">Sargent Shriver</a>—the internal rules of the political parties apply for filling vacancies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b2–3-191">[186]</a> If a vacancy on a presidential ticket occurs between Election Day and the Electoral College meetings, the 2020 CRS report notes that most legal commentators have suggested that political parties would still follow their internal rules for filling the vacancies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b3–4-192">[187]</a> However, in 1872, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee" title="Democratic National Committee">Democratic National Committee</a> did not meet to name a replacement for Horace Greeley,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b4-169">[164]</a> and the 2020 CRS report notes that presidential electors may argue that they are permitted to vote faithlessly if a vacancy occurs between Election Day and the Electoral College meetings since they were pledged to vote for a specific candidate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b3–4-192">[187]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_6:_Vacancy_and_disability" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Presidential Succession Clause of Article II, Section I</a>, Congress is delegated the power to "by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003551-193">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[g]</a> Pursuant to the Presidential Succession Clause, the <a href="/wiki/2nd_United_States_Congress" title="2nd United States Congress">2nd United States Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act#Presidential_Succession_Act_of_1792" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1792</a> that required a <a href="/wiki/By-election" title="By-election">special election</a> by the Electoral College in the case of a dual vacancy in the presidency and vice presidency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200925–26-199">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a3-200">[193]</a> Despite vacancies in the Vice Presidency from 1792 to 1886,<a href="#cite_note-203">[h]</a> the special election requirement would be repealed with the rest of the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 by the <a href="/wiki/49th_United_States_Congress" title="49th United States Congress">49th United States Congress</a> in passing the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act#Presidential_Succession_Act_of_1886" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1886</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200926–30-204">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a4-205">[197]</a> In a special message to the <a href="/wiki/80th_United_States_Congress" title="80th United States Congress">80th United States Congress</a> calling for revisions to the Presidential Succession Act of 1886, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> proposed restoring special elections for dual vacancies in the Presidency and Vice Presidency. While most of Truman's proposal was included in the final version of the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act#Presidential_Succession_Act_of_1947" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1947</a>, the restoration of special elections for dual vacancies was not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200932–33,_64–65-206">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a4–6-207">[199]</a> Along with six other recommendations related to presidential succession,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200945–49-208">[200]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_Government_Commission" title="Continuity of Government Commission">Continuity of Government Commission</a> recommended restoring special elections for president in the event of a dual vacancy in the presidency and vice presidency due to a catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist attack</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear strike</a>, in part because all members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">presidential line of succession</a> live and work in Washington, D.C.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200939,_47-209">[201]</a> Under the 12th Amendment, presidential electors are still required to meet and cast their ballots for president and vice president within their respective states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003560-210">[202]</a> The CRS noted in a separate 2020 report that members of the presidential line of succession, after the vice president, only become an acting president under the Presidential Succession Clause and Section 3 of the 20th Amendment, rather than fully succeeding to the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a1–7-211">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_electoral_vote_distribution">Current electoral vote distribution</h3></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Electoral votes (EV) allocations for the 2024 and 2028 presidential elections.<a href="#cite_note-2020census01-212">[204]</a> Triangular markers (<img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />) indicate gains or losses following the 2020 census.<a href="#cite_note-213">[205]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>EV × States</th> <th>States* </th></tr> <tr> <td align="right">54 × 1 = 54</td> <td><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />California </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">40 × 1 = 40</td> <td><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Texas </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">30 × 1 = 30</td> <td><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Florida </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">28 × 1 = 28</td> <td><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />New York </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">19 × 2 = 38</td> <td><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Illinois, <img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Pennsylvania </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">17 × 1 = 17</td> <td><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Ohio </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">16 × 2 = 32</td> <td>Georgia, <img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />North Carolina </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">15 × 1 = 15</td> <td><img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Michigan </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">14 × 1 = 14</td> <td>New Jersey </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">13 × 1 = 13</td> <td>Virginia </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">12 × 1 = 12</td> <td>Washington </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">11 × 4 = 44</td> <td>Arizona, Indiana, Massachusetts, Tennessee </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">10 × 5 = 50</td> <td><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Colorado, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Wisconsin </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">9 × 2 = 18</td> <td>Alabama, South Carolina </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">8 × 3 = 24</td> <td>Kentucky, Louisiana, <img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Oregon </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">7 × 2 = 14</td> <td>Connecticut, Oklahoma </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">6 × 6 = 36</td> <td>Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Mississippi, Nevada, Utah </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">5 × 2 = 10</td> <td>Nebraska**, New Mexico </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">4 × 7 = 28</td> <td>Hawaii, Idaho, Maine**, <img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />Montana, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, <img alt="Decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/17px-Decrease2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/22px-Decrease2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />West Virginia </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">3 × 7 = 21</td> <td>Alaska, Delaware, District of Columbia*, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, Wyoming </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right">= 538</td> <td>Total electors </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>* The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a> grants <abbr title="District of Columbia">D.C.</abbr> the same number of electors as the least populous state. This has always been three.</dd> <dd>** Maine's four electors and Nebraska's five are distributed using the <a href="#Congressional_district_method">Congressional district method</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronological_table">Chronological table</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_vote_changes_between_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Electoral vote changes between United States presidential elections">Electoral vote changes between United States presidential elections</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size:80%;line-height:1.1;"> <caption><big><big>Number of presidential electors by state and year</big></big> </caption> <tbody><tr valign="bottom"> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align:right">Election year </th> <th colspan="3">1788–1800 </th> <th colspan="18">1804–1900 </th> <th colspan="11">1904–2000 </th> <th colspan="3">2004– </th></tr> <tr valign="bottom"> <th><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">'88</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">'92</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">'96</a> <a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">'00</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">'04</a> <a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">'08</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">'12</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">'16</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1820_United_States_presidential_election" title="1820 United States presidential election">'20</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">'24</a> <a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">'28</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">'32</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">'36</a> <a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">'40</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">'44</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1848_United_States_presidential_election" title="1848 United States presidential election">'48</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1852_United_States_presidential_election" title="1852 United States presidential election">'52</a> <a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">'56</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">'60</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">'64</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">'68</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">'72</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">'76</a> <a href="/wiki/1880_United_States_presidential_election" title="1880 United States presidential election">'80</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">'84</a> <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">'88</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">'92</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">'96</a> <a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_presidential_election" title="1900 United States presidential election">'00</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1904_United_States_presidential_election" title="1904 United States presidential election">'04</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">'08</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">'12</a> <a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">'16</a> <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">'20</a> <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">'24</a> <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">'28</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">'32</a> <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">'36</a> <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">'40</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">'44</a> <a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">'48</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">'52</a> <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">'56</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">'60</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_presidential_election" title="1964 United States presidential election">'64</a> <a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">'68</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">'72</a> <a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">'76</a> <a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">'80</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">'84</a> <a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">'88</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">'92</a> <a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election" title="1996 United States presidential election">'96</a> <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">'00</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">'04</a> <a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">'08</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election" title="2012 United States presidential election">'12</a> <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">'16</a> <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">'20</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">'24</a> <a href="/wiki/2028_United_States_presidential_election" title="2028 United States presidential election">'28</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>#</th> <th style="text-align:right">Total </th> <th>81 </th> <th>135 </th> <th>138 </th> <th>176 </th> <th>218 </th> <th>221 </th> <th>235 </th> <th>261 </th> <th>288 </th> <th>294 </th> <th>275 </th> <th>290 </th> <th>296 </th> <th>303 </th> <th>234 251 </th> <th>294 </th> <th>366 </th> <th>369 </th> <th>401 </th> <th>444 </th> <th>447 </th> <th>476 </th> <th>483 </th> <th colspan="4">531 </th> <th>537 </th> <th colspan="7">538 </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th style="text-align:left">State</th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>22</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <th>49</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>48</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <th>25</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>31</th> <th><a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>47 </td> <td>54 </td> <td>55 </td> <td>55 </td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <th>38</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <th>5</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> </th> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <th>–</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">D.C.</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> </th> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>27</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <th>4</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> </th> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <th>50</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>43</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>21</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <th>19</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <th>29</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>34</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>15</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>18</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>23</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>7</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> </th> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <th>6</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> </th> <td>10 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <th>26</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <th>32</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <th>20</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>24</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <th>41</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>37</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>36</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>9</th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> </th> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>3</th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> </th> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td></tr> <tr> <th>47</th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>11</th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> </th> <td>8 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>42 </td> <td>42 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>39 </td> <td>39 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>47 </td> <td>47 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>45 </td> <td>43 </td> <td>41 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>28 </td></tr> <tr> <th>12</th> <th><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <th>39</th> <th><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>17</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>22 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <th>46</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>7 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <th>33</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>2</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> </th> <td>10 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>30 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>38 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>27 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <th>13</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>8</th> <th><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> </th> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <th>40</th> <th><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>16</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <th>28</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>20 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>32 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>38 </td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <th>45</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>14</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>10</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> </th> <td>12 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>25 </td> <td>24 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>15 </td> <td>15 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td style="background:#cccccc">0 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td></tr> <tr> <th>42</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>9 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <th>35</th> <th><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>7 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <th>30</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>8 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <th>44</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> </th> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td style="background:#cccccc"> </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom"> <th>#</th> <th style="text-align:right">Total </th> <th>81 </th> <th>135 </th> <th>138 </th> <th>176 </th> <th>218 </th> <th>221 </th> <th>235 </th> <th>261 </th> <th>288 </th> <th>294 </th> <th>275 </th> <th>290 </th> <th>296 </th> <th>303 </th> <th>234 251 </th> <th>294 </th> <th>366 </th> <th>369 </th> <th>401 </th> <th>444 </th> <th>447 </th> <th>476 </th> <th>483 </th> <th colspan="4">531 </th> <th>537 </th> <th colspan="7">538 </th></tr></tbody></table> Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/u/usa/pres.shtml">Presidential Elections 1789–2000</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psephos.adam-carr.net/">Psephos (Adam Carr's Election Archive)</a> Note: In 1788, 1792, 1796, and 1800, each elector <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Background" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">cast two votes for president</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg/660px-USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="489" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg/990px-USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg/1320px-USA_electoral_college_since_2024_hex_cartogram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Cartogram" title="Cartogram">cartogram</a> shows the number of electors from each state for the 2024 and 2028 presidential elections. Following the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_census" title="2020 United States census">2020 census</a>, 7 states <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_redistricting_cycle" title="2020 United States redistricting cycle">lost</a> one electoral vote,<a href="#cite_note-214">[i]</a> 5 states gained one,<a href="#cite_note-215">[j]</a> and Texas gained two.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_methods_of_choosing_electors">Alternative methods of choosing electors</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:80%;"> <caption>Methods of presidential elector selection, by state, 1789–1832.<a href="#cite_note-216">[206]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">AL</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">CT</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">DE</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">IL</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">IN</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">KY</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">LA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">ME</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">MD</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">MS</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">MO</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">NH</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">NJ</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NY</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">NC</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">OH</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">PA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">RI</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">SC</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">TN</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">VT</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">VA</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">1789</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td>–</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">1808</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">1816</a></td> <td> </td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1820_United_States_presidential_election" title="1820 United States presidential election">1820</a></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828</a></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832</a></td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td></td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td> </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A </td></tr> <tr> <th>Year </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">AL</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">CT</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">DE</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">IL</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">IN</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">KY</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">LA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">ME</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">MD</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">MS</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">MO</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">NH</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">NJ</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NY</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">NC</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">OH</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">PA</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">RI</a> </th> <th></th> <th><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">SC</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">TN</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">VT</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">VA</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:80%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Key </th> <td style="background:#FFBA00">A</td> <td>Popular vote, At-large </td> <td style="background:green; color:white">D</td> <td>Popular vote, Districting </td> <td style="background:#082567; color:white">L</td> <td>Legislative selection </td> <td style="background:#B87333; color:white">H</td> <td>Hybrid system </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></div> Before the advent of the "short ballot" in the early 20th century (as described in <a href="#Selection_process">Selection process</a>) the most common means of electing the presidential electors was through the general ticket. The general ticket is quite similar to the current system and is often confused with it. In the general ticket, voters cast ballots for individuals running for presidential elector. In the short ballot, voters cast ballots for an entire slate of electors. In the general ticket, the state canvass would report the number of votes cast for each candidate for elector, a complicated process in states like New York with multiple positions to fill. Both the general ticket and the short ballot are often considered <a href="/wiki/At-large" title="At-large">at-large</a> or <a href="/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Winner-takes-all voting">winner-takes-all voting</a>. The short ballot was adopted by the various states at different times. It was adopted for use by <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> in 1932. <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> was still using the general ticket as late as 1960 and was one of the last states to switch to the short ballot. The question of the extent to which state constitutions may constrain the legislature's choice of a method of choosing electors has been touched on in two U.S. Supreme Court cases. In <a href="/wiki/McPherson_v._Blacker" title="McPherson v. Blacker">McPherson v. Blacker</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_146" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 146">146</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/146/1/">1</a> (1892), the Court cited Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 which states that a state's electors are selected "in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct" and wrote these words "operat[e] as a limitation upon the state in respect of any attempt to circumscribe the legislative power". In Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_531" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 531">531</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/531/70/">70</a> (2000), a Florida Supreme Court decision was vacated (not reversed) based on McPherson. On the other hand, three dissenting justices in <a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_531" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 531">531</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/531/98/">98</a> (2000), wrote: "[N]othing in Article II of the Federal Constitution frees the state legislature from the constraints in the State Constitution that created it."<a href="#cite_note-217">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appointment_by_state_legislature">Appointment by state legislature</h3></div> In the earliest presidential elections, state legislative choice was the most common method of choosing electors. A majority of the state legislatures selected presidential electors in both 1792 (9 of 15) and 1800 (10 of 16), and half of them did so in 1812.<a href="#cite_note-218">[208]</a> Even in the <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824 election</a>, a quarter of state legislatures (6 of 24) chose electors. In that election, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> lost in spite of having a plurality of both the popular vote and the number of electoral votes representing them.<a href="#cite_note-CongPres-219">[209]</a> Yet, as six states did not hold a popular election for their electoral votes, the full expression of the popular vote nationally cannot be known.<a href="#cite_note-CongPres-219">[209]</a> Some state legislatures simply chose electors. Other states used a hybrid method in which state legislatures chose from a group of electors elected by popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-Kazin-220">[210]</a> By 1828, with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian democracy</a>, only <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> used legislative choice.<a href="#cite_note-CongPres-219">[209]</a> Delaware ended its practice the following election (1832). South Carolina continued using the method until it seceded from the Union in December 1860.<a href="#cite_note-CongPres-219">[209]</a> South Carolina used the popular vote for the first time in the <a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">1868 election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EBlack-221">[211]</a> Excluding South Carolina, legislative appointment was used in only four situations after 1832: <ul><li>In 1848, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> statute awarded the state's electoral votes to the winner of the at-large popular vote, but only if that candidate won an absolute majority. When the vote produced no winner between the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_Soil_Party" title="Free Soil Party">Free Soil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)" title="Whig Party (United States)">Whig</a> parties, the state legislature selected the electors, giving all 12 electoral votes to the Whigs, which had won the plurality of votes in the state.<a href="#cite_note-CongQrt-222">[212]</a></li> <li>In 1864, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, having joined the Union only a few days prior to Election Day, had no choice but to legislatively appoint.<a href="#cite_note-CongQrt-222">[212]</a></li> <li>In 1868, the newly reconstructed state of <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> legislatively appointed its electors, having been readmitted too late to hold elections.<a href="#cite_note-CongQrt-222">[212]</a></li> <li>In 1876, the legislature of the newly admitted state of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> used legislative choice due to a lack of time and money to hold a popular election.<a href="#cite_note-CongQrt-222">[212]</a></li></ul> Legislative appointment was brandished as a possibility in the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 election</a>. Had the recount continued, the Florida legislature was prepared to appoint the Republican slate of electors to avoid missing the federal safe-harbor deadline for choosing electors.<a href="#cite_note-223">[213]</a> The Constitution gives each state legislature the power to decide how its state's electors are chosen<a href="#cite_note-CongPres-219">[209]</a> and it can be easier and cheaper for a state legislature to simply appoint a slate of electors than to create a legislative framework for holding elections to determine the electors. As noted above, the two situations in which legislative choice has been used since the Civil War have both been because there was not enough time or money to prepare for an election. However, appointment by state legislature can have negative consequences: <a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">bicameral</a> legislatures can deadlock more easily than the electorate. This is precisely what happened to New York in 1789 when the legislature failed to appoint any electors.<a href="#cite_note-224">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electoral_districts">Electoral districts</h3></div> Another method used early in U.S. history was to divide the state into <a href="/wiki/Electoral_district" title="Electoral district">electoral districts</a>. By this method, voters in each district would cast their ballots for the electors they supported and the winner in each district would become the elector. This was similar to how states are currently separated into congressional districts. The difference stems from the fact that every state always had two more electoral districts than congressional districts. As with congressional districts, this method is vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">gerrymandering</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congressional_district_method">Congressional district method</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg/330px-2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg/495px-2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg/660px-2020_Congressional_District_Method_Results.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Projected results of the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 United States presidential election</a> using one of the Congressional district methods</figcaption></figure> There are two versions of the congressional district method: one has been implemented in Maine and Nebraska; another was used in New York in 1828 and proposed for use in Virginia. Under the implemented method, electors are awarded the way seats in Congress are awarded. One electoral vote goes per the plurality of the popular votes of each <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">congressional district</a> (for the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_Of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House Of Representatives">U.S. House Of Representatives</a>), and two per the statewide popular vote. This may result in greater proportionality. But it can give results similar to the winner-takes-all states, as in 1992, when <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> won all five of Nebraska's electoral votes with a clear plurality on 47% of the vote; in a truly proportional system, he would have received three and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ross_Perot" title="Ross Perot">Ross Perot</a> each would have received one.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-225">[215]</a> In 2013, the Virginia proposal was tabled. Like the other congressional district methods, this would have distributed the electoral votes based on the popular vote winner within each of Virginia's 11 congressional districts; the two statewide electoral votes would be awarded based on which candidate won the most congressional districts.<a href="#cite_note-226">[216]</a> A similar method was used in New York in 1828: the two at large electors were elected by the electors selected in districts. A congressional district method is more likely to arise than other alternatives to the winner-takes-whole-state method, in view of the main two parties' resistance to scrap first-past-the-post. State legislation is sufficient to use this method.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated5-227">[217]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Advocates of the method believe the system encourages higher <a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout" title="Voter turnout">voter turnout</a> or incentivizes candidates, to visit and appeal to some states deemed <a href="/wiki/Safe_seat" title="Safe seat">safe</a>, overall, for one party.<a href="#cite_note-228">[218]</a> Winner-take-all systems ignore thousands of votes. In Democratic California there are Republican districts, in Republican Texas there are Democratic districts. Because candidates have an incentive to campaign in competitive districts, with a district plan, candidates have an incentive to actively campaign in over thirty states versus about seven "swing" states.<a href="#cite_note-229">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[220]</a> Opponents of the system argue that candidates might only spend time in certain battleground districts instead of the entire state and cases of gerrymandering could become exacerbated as political parties attempt to draw as many safe districts as they can.<a href="#cite_note-231">[221]</a> Unlike simple congressional district comparisons, the district plan popular vote bonus in the 2008 election would have given Obama 56% of the Electoral College versus the 68% he did win; it "would have more closely approximated the percentage of the popular vote won [53%]".<a href="#cite_note-232">[222]</a> However, the district plan would have given Obama 49% of the Electoral College in 2012, and would have given Romney a win in the Electoral College even though Obama won the popular vote by nearly 4% (51.1–47.2) over Romney.<a href="#cite_note-233">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Implementation">Implementation</h4></div> Of the 44 multi-district states whose 517 electoral votes are amenable to the method, only <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> (4 EV) and <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> (5 EV) apply it.<a href="#cite_note-234">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[225]</a> Maine began using the congressional district method in the <a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">election of 1972</a>. Nebraska has used the congressional district method since the <a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">election of 1992</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[227]</a> Michigan used the system for the <a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892 presidential election</a>,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-225">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skelley-238">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lansing-239">[229]</a> and several other states used various forms of the district plan before 1840: Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, North Carolina, Massachusetts, Illinois, Maine, Missouri, and New York.<a href="#cite_note-240">[230]</a> The congressional district method allows a state the chance to split its electoral votes between multiple candidates. Prior to 2008, Nebraska had never split its electoral votes, while Maine had only done so once under its previous district plan in <a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election_in_Maine" title="1828 United States presidential election in Maine">the 1828 election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-225">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[232]</a> Nebraska split its electoral votes for the first time in 2008, giving John McCain its statewide electors and those of two congressional districts, while Barack Obama won the electoral vote of <a href="/wiki/Nebraska%27s_2nd_congressional_district" title="Nebraska's 2nd congressional district">Nebraska's 2nd congressional district</a>, centered on the state's largest city, <a href="/wiki/Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-243">[233]</a> Following the 2008 split, some Nebraska Republicans made efforts to discard the congressional district method and return to the winner-takes-all system.<a href="#cite_note-foxne-244">[234]</a> In January 2010, a bill was introduced in the Nebraska legislature to revert to a winner-take-all system;<a href="#cite_note-billne-245">[235]</a> the bill died in committee in March 2011.<a href="#cite_note-246">[236]</a> Republicans had passed bills in 1995 and 1997 to do the same, which were <a href="/wiki/Veto_power_in_the_United_States" title="Veto power in the United States">vetoed</a> by Democratic Governor <a href="/wiki/Ben_Nelson" title="Ben Nelson">Ben Nelson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-foxne-244">[234]</a> More recently, Maine split its electoral votes for the first time under the congressional district method in 2016. Hillary Clinton won its two statewide electors and its <a href="/wiki/Maine%27s_1st_congressional_district" title="Maine's 1st congressional district">1st congressional district</a>, which covers the state's southwestern coastal region and its largest city of <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Maine" title="Portland, Maine">Portland</a>, while Donald Trump won the electoral vote of <a href="/wiki/Maine%27s_2nd_congressional_district" title="Maine's 2nd congressional district">Maine's 2nd congressional district</a>, which takes in the remainder of the state and is much larger by area. In the 2020 election, both Nebraska and Maine split their electoral votes, following the same pattern of congressional district differences that were seen in 2008 and 2016 respectively: Nebraska's 2nd congressional district voted for Democrat Joe Biden while the remainder of the state voted for Republican Donald Trump; and Maine's 2nd congressional district voted for Trump while the remainder of the state voted for Biden.<a href="#cite_note-247">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recent_abandoned_adoption_in_other_states">Recent abandoned adoption in other states</h4></div> In 2010, Republicans in Pennsylvania, who controlled both houses of the legislature as well as the governorship, put forward a plan to change the state's winner-takes-all system to a congressional district method system. Pennsylvania had voted for the Democratic candidate in the five previous presidential elections, so this was seen an attempt to take away Democratic electoral votes. Democrat <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> won Pennsylvania in <a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">2008</a> with 55% of its vote. The district plan would have awarded him 11 of its 21 electoral votes, a 52.4% which was much closer to the popular vote percentage.<a href="#cite_note-248">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[239]</a> The plan later lost support.<a href="#cite_note-250">[240]</a> Other Republicans, including Michigan state representative <a href="/wiki/Pete_Lund" title="Pete Lund">Pete Lund</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PLund-251">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Committee" title="Republican National Committee">RNC</a> Chairman <a href="/wiki/Reince_Priebus" title="Reince Priebus">Reince Priebus</a>, and Wisconsin Governor <a href="/wiki/Scott_Walker_(politician)" title="Scott Walker (politician)">Scott Walker</a>, have floated similar ideas.<a href="#cite_note-LJacobson-252">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-RWilson-253">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proportional_vote">Proportional vote</h3></div> In a <a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional system</a>, electors would be selected in proportion to the votes cast for their candidate or party, rather than being selected by the statewide plurality vote.<a href="#cite_note-254">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_and_reception">Impacts and reception</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png/300px-US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png/450px-US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png/600px-US_Electoral_College._Polling_timeline_graph._Pew_Research_Center.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Polling. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pew2024-255">[245]</a></figcaption></figure> Gary Bugh's research of congressional debates over proposed constitutional amendments to abolish the Electoral College reveals reform opponents have often appealed to tradition and the preference for indirect elections, whereas reform advocates often champion a more egalitarian <a href="/wiki/One_Person_One_Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="One Person One Vote">one person, one vote</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-256">[246]</a> Electoral colleges have been scrapped by all other democracies around the world in favor of direct elections for an <a href="/wiki/Executive_president" title="Executive president">executive president</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-257">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-18">[15]</a> Critics argue that the Electoral College is less democratic than a national direct popular vote and is subject to manipulation because of <a href="/wiki/Faithless_electors" class="mw-redirect" title="Faithless electors">faithless electors</a>;<a href="#cite_note-auto4-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto6-15">[13]</a> that the system is antithetical to a democracy that strives for a standard of "<a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one person, one vote</a>";<a href="#cite_note-auto8-11">[9]</a> and there can be elections where one candidate wins the national popular vote but another wins the electoral vote, as in the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a> and <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 elections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto7-13">[11]</a> Individual citizens in less populated states with 5% of the Electoral College have proportionately more voting power than those in more populous states,<a href="#cite_note-auto9-258">[248]</a> and candidates can win by focusing on just a few "<a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">swing states</a>".<a href="#cite_note-auto5-17">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polling_~40%">Polling ~40%</h3></div> 21st century polling data shows that a majority of Americans consistently favor having a direct popular vote for presidential elections. The popularity of the Electoral College has hovered between 35% and 44%.<a href="#cite_note-Pew2024-255">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-PewResearch-260">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_with_popular_vote">Difference with popular vote</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_ElectoralCollege.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/USA_ElectoralCollege.svg/300px-USA_ElectoralCollege.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/USA_ElectoralCollege.svg/450px-USA_ElectoralCollege.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/USA_ElectoralCollege.svg/600px-USA_ElectoralCollege.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>This graphic demonstrates how the winner of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_vote_(representative_democracy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular vote (representative democracy)">popular vote</a> can still lose in an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">electoral college</a> system similar to the U.S. Electoral College.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PartyVotes-Presidents.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PartyVotes-Presidents.png/500px-PartyVotes-Presidents.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PartyVotes-Presidents.png/750px-PartyVotes-Presidents.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/PartyVotes-Presidents.png/1000px-PartyVotes-Presidents.png 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A bar graph of popular votes in presidential elections, to 2020. Black stars mark the five cases where the winner did not have the plurality of the popular vote. Black squares mark the two cases where the electoral vote resulted in a tie, or the winner did not have the majority of electoral votes. An H marks each of two cases where the election was decided by the House. An S marks the one case where the election was finalized by the Supreme Court.</figcaption></figure> Opponents of the Electoral College claim such outcomes do not logically follow the normative concept of how a democratic system should function. One view is the Electoral College violates the principle of political equality, since presidential elections are not decided by the one-person one-vote principle.<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-262">[251]</a> While many assume the national popular vote observed under the Electoral College system would reflect the popular vote observed under a National Popular Vote system, supporters contend that is not necessarily the case as each electoral institution produces different incentives for, and strategy choices by, presidential campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-263">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Notable_elections">Notable elections</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_in_which_the_winner_lost_the_popular_vote" title="List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote">List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote</a></div> The elections of <a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a>, <a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a>, <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016</a> produced an Electoral College winner who did not receive at least a <a href="/wiki/Plurality_(voting)" title="Plurality (voting)">plurality</a> of the nationwide <a href="/wiki/Popular_vote_(representative_democracy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular vote (representative democracy)">popular vote</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-262">[251]</a> In <a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a>, there were six states in which electors were legislatively appointed, rather than popularly elected, so it is uncertain what the national popular vote would have been if all presidential electors had been popularly elected. When no presidential candidate received a majority of electoral votes in 1824, the election was decided by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> and so could be considered distinct from the latter four elections in which all of the states had popular selection of electors.<a href="#cite_note-265">[254]</a> The true national popular vote was also uncertain in the <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960</a> election, and the plurality for the winner depends on how votes for Alabama electors are allocated.<a href="#cite_note-trende-266">[255]</a> Elections where the popular vote and electoral college results differed <ul><li>1800: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a> won with 61.4% of the popular vote; <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a> had 38.6%*</li> <li>1824: <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">Adams</a> won with 30.9% of the popular vote; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> had 41.4%*</li> <li>1836 (only for vice president): <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mentor_Johnson" title="Richard Mentor Johnson">Johnson</a> won with 63.5% of the popular vote; <a href="/wiki/Francis_Granger" title="Francis Granger">Granger</a> had 30.8%*</li> <li>1876: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Tilden" title="Samuel J. Tilden">Tilden</a> (D) received 50.9% of the vote, <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a> (R) received 47.9%</li> <li>1888: <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a> (D) received 48.6% of the vote, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a> (R) received 47.8%</li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Gore</a> (D) received 48.4% of the vote, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush</a> (R) received 47.9%</li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Clinton</a> (D) received 48.2% of the vote, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> (R) received 46.1%</li></ul> *These popular vote tallies are partial because several of the states still used their legislature to choose electors not a popular vote. In both elections a tied electoral college threw the contest over to Congress to decide. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Favors_largest_swing_states">Favors largest swing states</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">Swing state</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2004CampaignAttention_(edit).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png/300px-2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png/450px-2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png/600px-2004CampaignAttention_%28edit%29.png 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>These maps show the amount of attention given to each state by the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">Kerry</a> campaigns, combined, during the final five weeks of the <a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004 election</a>. Each waving hand (purple map) represents a visit from a presidential or vice presidential candidate. Each dollar sign (green map) represents one million dollars spent on TV advertising.<a href="#cite_note-267">[256]</a></figcaption></figure> The Electoral College encourages political campaigners to focus on a few so-called swing states while ignoring the rest of the country. Populous states in which pre-election poll results show no clear favorite are inundated with campaign visits, saturation television advertising, get-out-the-vote efforts by party organizers, and debates, while four out of five voters in the national election are "absolutely ignored", according to one assessment.<a href="#cite_note-268">[257]</a> Since most states use a <a href="/wiki/Plurality_voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Plurality voting system">winner-takes-all</a> arrangement in which the candidate with the most votes in that state receives all of the state's electoral votes, there is a clear incentive to focus almost exclusively on only a few key undecided states.<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-262">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Not_all_votes_count_the_same">Not all votes count the same</h3></div> Each state gets a minimum of three electoral votes, regardless of population, which has increasingly given low-population states more electors per voter (or more voting power).<a href="#cite_note-:0-269">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[259]</a> For example, an electoral vote represents nearly four times as many people in California as in Wyoming.<a href="#cite_note-:0-269">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[260]</a> On average, voters in the ten least populated states have 2.5 more electors per person compared with voters in the ten most populous states.<a href="#cite_note-:0-269">[258]</a> In 1968, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Banzhaf_III" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Banzhaf III">John F. Banzhaf III</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Banzhaf_power_index" title="Banzhaf power index">Banzhaf power index</a> (BPI) which argued that a voter in the state of New York had, on average, 3.3 times as much voting power in presidential elections as the average voter outside New York.<a href="#cite_note-272">[261]</a> Mark Livingston used a similar method and estimated that individual voters in the largest state, based on the 1990 census, had 3.3 times more individual power to choose a president than voters of Montana.<a href="#cite_note-273">[262]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] However, others argue that Banzhaf's method ignores the demographic makeup of the states and treats votes like independent coin-flips. Critics of Banzhaf's method say <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirically</a> based models used to analyze the Electoral College have consistently found that sparsely populated states benefit from having their resident's votes count for more than the votes of those residing in the more populous states.<a href="#cite_note-274">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lowers_turnout">Lowers turnout</h3></div> Except in closely fought swing states, voter turnout does not affect the election results due to entrenched political party domination in most states. The Electoral College decreases the advantage a political party or campaign might gain for encouraging voters to turn out, except in those swing states.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-275">[264]</a> If the presidential election were decided by a national popular vote, in contrast, campaigns and parties would have a strong incentive to work to increase turnout everywhere.<a href="#cite_note-276">[265]</a> Individuals would similarly have a stronger incentive to persuade their friends and neighbors to turn out to vote. The differences in turnout between swing states and non-swing states under the current electoral college system suggest that replacing the Electoral College with direct election by popular vote would likely increase turnout and participation significantly.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-275">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obscures_disenfranchisement_within_states">Obscures disenfranchisement within states</h3></div> According to this criticism, the electoral college reduces elections to a mere count of electors for a particular state, and, as a result, it obscures any voting problems within a particular state. For example, if a particular state blocks some groups from voting, perhaps by <a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">voter suppression</a> methods such as imposing reading tests, poll taxes, registration requirements, or legally <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disfranchising</a> specific groups (like women or people of color), then voting inside that state would be reduced, but as the state's electoral count would be the same, disenfranchisement has no effect on its overall electoral power. Critics contend that such disenfranchisement is not penalized by the Electoral College. A related argument is the Electoral College may have a dampening effect on voter turnout: there is no incentive for states to reach out to more of its citizens to include them in elections because the state's electoral count remains fixed in any event. According to this view, if elections were by popular vote, then states would be motivated to include more citizens in elections since the state would then have more political clout nationally. Critics contend the electoral college system insulates states from negative publicity as well as possible federal penalties for disenfranchising subgroups of citizens. Legal scholars <a href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Amar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vikram_Amar" title="Vikram Amar">Vikram Amar</a> have argued that the original Electoral College compromise was enacted partially because it enabled Southern states to disenfranchise their slave populations.<a href="#cite_note-amar-277">[266]</a> It permitted Southern states to disfranchise large numbers of slaves while allowing these states to maintain political clout and prevent Northern dominance within the federation by using the <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a>. They noted that <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> believed the question of counting slaves had presented a serious challenge, but that "the substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to the fewest objections."<a href="#cite_note-tws2H14-278">[267]</a> Akhil and Vikram Amar added: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The founders' system also encouraged the continued disfranchisement of women. In a direct national election system, any state that gave women the vote would automatically have doubled its national clout. Under the Electoral College, however, a state had no such incentive to increase the franchise; as with slaves, what mattered was how many women lived in a state, not how many were empowered ... a state with low voter turnout gets precisely the same number of electoral votes as if it had a high turnout. By contrast, a well-designed direct election system could spur states to get out the vote.<a href="#cite_note-amar-277">[266]</a></blockquote> After the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, white voters in Southern states benefited from elimination of the Three-Fifths Compromise because with all former slaves counted as one person, instead of 3/5, Southern states increased their share of electors in the Electoral College. Southern states also enacted laws that restricted access to voting by former slaves, thereby increasing the electoral weight of votes by southern whites.<a href="#cite_note-279">[268]</a> Minorities tend to be disproportionately located in noncompetitive states, reducing their impact on the overall election and over-representing white voters who have tended to live in the swing states that decide elections.<a href="#cite_note-280">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americans_in_U.S._territories_cannot_vote">Americans in U.S. territories cannot vote</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States#Overseas_and_nonresident_citizens" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights in the United States § Overseas and nonresident citizens</a></div> Roughly four million Americans in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, do not have a vote in presidential elections.<a href="#cite_note-Murriel-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-269">[258]</a> Only U.S. states (per <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> (per the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment</a>) are entitled to electors. Various scholars consequently conclude that the U.S. national-electoral process is not fully democratic.<a href="#cite_note-282">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[272]</a> Guam has held non-binding <a href="/wiki/Straw_poll" title="Straw poll">straw polls</a> for president since the 1980s to draw attention to this fact.<a href="#cite_note-284">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[274]</a> The Democratic and Republican parties, as well as other third parties, have, however, made it possible for people in U.S. territories to vote in <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary" title="United States presidential primary">party presidential primaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-286">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages_third_parties">Disadvantages third parties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Duverger%27s_law" title="Duverger's law">Duverger's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Two-party_system#Causes" title="Two-party system">Causes of a two-party system</a></div> In practice, the winner-take-all manner of allocating a state's electors generally decreases the importance of minor parties.<a href="#cite_note-288">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federalism_and_state_power">Federalism and state power</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png/440px-50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png/660px-50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png/880px-50_of_the_U_S_population_lives_in_143_counties_based_on_2019_American_Community_Survey_-_Copy.png 2x" data-file-width="6900" data-file-height="4275" /></a><figcaption>In 2019, half the U.S. population lived in 143 urban / suburban counties, out of <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">3,143 counties or county equivalents</a></figcaption></figure> For many years early in the nation's history, up until the <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacksonian Era">Jacksonian Era</a> (1830s), many states appointed their electors by a vote of the <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a>, and proponents argue that, in the end, the election of the president must still come down to the decisions of each state, or the federal nature of the United States will give way to a single massive, centralized government, to the detriment of the States.<a href="#cite_note-FEC-289">[278]</a> In his 2007 book <a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Constitution" title="A More Perfect Constitution">A More Perfect Constitution</a>, Professor <a href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</a> preferred allocating the electoral college (and Senate seats) in stricter proportion to population while keeping the Electoral College for the benefit of lightly populated swing states and to strengthen the role of the states in federalism.<a href="#cite_note-290">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FEC-289">[278]</a> <a href="/wiki/Willamette_University_College_of_Law" title="Willamette University College of Law">Willamette University College of Law</a> professor Norman R. Williams has argued that the Constitutional Convention delegates chose the Electoral College to choose the president largely in reaction to the experience during the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> where state governors were often chosen by state legislatures and wanting the new federal government to have an <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">executive branch that was effectively independent of the legislative branch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2012_pp._1539–1570-291">[280]</a> For example, Alexander Hamilton argued that the Electoral College would prevent, sinister bias, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_electoral_intervention" title="Foreign electoral intervention">foreign interference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cabal" title="Cabal">domestic intrigue</a> in presidential elections by not permitting members of Congress or any other <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Officer of the United States">officer of the United States</a> to serve as electors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003411-292">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efforts_to_abolish_or_reform">Efforts to abolish or reform</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_reform_the_United_States_Electoral_College" title="Efforts to reform the United States Electoral College">Efforts to reform the United States Electoral College</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition amendment</a></div> More resolutions have been submitted to amend the U.S. Electoral College mechanism than any other part of the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-:03-4">[4]</a> Since 1800, over 700 proposals to reform or eliminate the system have been introduced in Congress. Proponents of these proposals argued that the electoral college system does not provide for direct democratic election, affords less-populous states an advantage, and allows a candidate to win the presidency without winning the most votes. None of these proposals has received the approval of two thirds of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> and three fourths of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> required to amend the Constitution.<a href="#cite_note-293">[282]</a> Ziblatt and Levitsky argue that America has by far the most difficult constitution to amend, which is why reform efforts have only stalled in America.<a href="#cite_note-294">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1969–1970:_Bayh–Celler_amendment">1969–1970: Bayh–Celler amendment</h3></div> The closest the United States has come to abolishing the Electoral College occurred during the <a href="/wiki/91st_United_States_Congress" title="91st United States Congress">91st Congress</a> (1969–1971).<a href="#cite_note-295">[284]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a> election resulted in <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> receiving 301 electoral votes (56% of electors), <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> 191 (35.5%), and <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> 46 (8.5%) with 13.5% of the popular vote. However, Nixon had received only 511,944 more popular votes than Humphrey, 43.5% to 42.9%, less than 1% of the national total.<a href="#cite_note-296">[285]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Representative <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Celler" title="Emanuel Celler">Emanuel Celler</a> (D–New York), chairman of the <a href="/wiki/House_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="House Judiciary Committee">House Judiciary Committee</a>, responded to public concerns over the disparity between the popular vote and electoral vote by introducing House Joint Resolution 681, a proposed Constitutional amendment that would have replaced the Electoral College with a simpler plurality system based on the national popular vote. With this system, the pair of candidates (running for president and vice-president) who had received the highest number of votes would win the presidency and vice presidency provided they won at least 40% of the national popular vote. If no pair received 40% of the popular vote, a runoff election would be held in which the choice of president and vice president would be made from the two pairs of persons who had received the highest number of votes in the first election.<a href="#cite_note-297">[286]</a> On April 29, 1969, the House Judiciary Committee voted 28 to 6 to approve the proposal.<a href="#cite_note-298">[287]</a> Debate on the proposal before the full House of Representatives ended on September 11, 1969<a href="#cite_note-299">[288]</a> and was eventually passed with bipartisan support on September 18, 1969, by a vote of 339 to 70.<a href="#cite_note-300">[289]</a> On September 30, 1969, President Nixon gave his endorsement for adoption of the proposal, encouraging the Senate to pass its version of the proposal, which had been sponsored as Senate Joint Resolution 1 by Senator <a href="/wiki/Birch_Bayh" title="Birch Bayh">Birch Bayh</a> (D–Indiana).<a href="#cite_note-301">[290]</a> On October 8, 1969, the New York Times reported that 30 state legislatures were "either certain or likely to approve a constitutional amendment embodying the direct election plan if it passes its final Congressional test in the Senate." Ratification of 38 state legislatures would have been needed for adoption. The paper also reported that six other states had yet to state a preference, six were leaning toward opposition, and eight were solidly opposed.<a href="#cite_note-302">[291]</a> On August 14, 1970, the Senate Judiciary Committee sent its report advocating passage of the proposal to the full Senate. The Judiciary Committee had approved the proposal by a vote of 11 to 6. The six members who opposed the plan, Democratic senators <a href="/wiki/James_Eastland" title="James Eastland">James Eastland</a> of Mississippi, <a href="/wiki/John_Little_McClellan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Little McClellan">John Little McClellan</a> of Arkansas, and <a href="/wiki/Sam_Ervin" title="Sam Ervin">Sam Ervin</a> of North Carolina, along with Republican senators <a href="/wiki/Roman_Hruska" title="Roman Hruska">Roman Hruska</a> of Nebraska, <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Fong" title="Hiram Fong">Hiram Fong</a> of Hawaii, and <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a> of South Carolina, all argued that although the present system had potential loopholes, it had worked well throughout the years. Senator Bayh indicated that supporters of the measure were about a dozen votes shy from the 67 needed for the proposal to pass the full Senate.<a href="#cite_note-303">[292]</a> He called upon President Nixon to attempt to persuade undecided Republican senators to support the proposal.<a href="#cite_note-304">[293]</a> However, Nixon, while not reneging on his previous endorsement, chose not to make any further personal appeals to back the proposal.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-9-18-70-305">[294]</a> On September 8, 1970, the Senate commenced openly debating the proposal,<a href="#cite_note-306">[295]</a> and the proposal was quickly <a href="/wiki/Filibuster#United_States" title="Filibuster">filibustered</a>. The lead objectors to the proposal were mostly Southern senators and conservatives from small states, both Democrats and Republicans, who argued that abolishing the Electoral College would reduce their states' political influence.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-9-18-70-305">[294]</a> On September 17, 1970, a motion for <a href="/wiki/Cloture" title="Cloture">cloture</a>, which would have ended the filibuster, received 54 votes to 36 for cloture,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-9-18-70-305">[294]</a> failing to receive the then-required two-thirds majority of senators voting.<a href="#cite_note-307">[296]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] A second motion for cloture on September 29, 1970, also failed, by 53 to 34. Thereafter, the Senate majority leader, <a href="/wiki/Mike_Mansfield" title="Mike Mansfield">Mike Mansfield</a> of Montana, moved to lay the proposal aside so the Senate could attend to other business.<a href="#cite_note-308">[297]</a> However, the proposal was never considered again and died when the 91st Congress ended on January 3, 1971. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carter_proposal">Carter proposal</h3></div> On March 22, 1977, President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> wrote a letter of reform to Congress that also included his expression of abolishing the Electoral College. The letter read in part:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">My fourth recommendation is that the Congress adopt a Constitutional amendment to provide for direct popular election of the President. Such an amendment, which would abolish the Electoral College, will ensure that the candidate chosen by the voters actually becomes president. Under the Electoral College, it is always possible that the winner of the popular vote will not be elected. This has already happened in three elections, 1824, 1876, and 1888. In the last election, the result could have been changed by a small shift of votes in Ohio and Hawaii, despite a popular vote difference of 1.7 million. I do not recommend a Constitutional amendment lightly. I think the amendment process must be reserved for an issue of overriding governmental significance. But the method by which we elect our President is such an issue. I will not be proposing a specific direct election amendment. I prefer to allow the Congress to proceed with its work without the interruption of a new proposal.<a href="#cite_note-309">[298]</a></blockquote> President Carter's proposed program for the reform of the Electoral College was very liberal for a modern president during this time, and in some aspects of the package, it went beyond original expectations.<a href="#cite_note-CarterNYTimes77-310">[299]</a> Newspapers like <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> saw President Carter's proposal at that time as "a modest surprise" because of the indication of Carter that he would be interested in only eliminating the electors but retaining the electoral vote system in a modified form.<a href="#cite_note-CarterNYTimes77-310">[299]</a> Newspaper reaction to Carter's proposal ranged from some editorials praising the proposal to other editorials, like that in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a>, criticizing the president for proposing the end of the Electoral College.<a href="#cite_note-311">[300]</a> In a letter to The New York Times, Representative <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_B._Bingham" title="Jonathan B. Bingham">Jonathan B. Bingham</a> (D-New York) highlighted the danger of the "flawed, outdated mechanism of the Electoral College" by underscoring how a shift of fewer than 10,000 votes in two key states would have led to President Gerald Ford winning the <a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">1976</a> election despite Jimmy Carter's nationwide 1.7 million-vote margin.<a href="#cite_note-312">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_proposals_to_abolish">Recent proposals to abolish</h3></div> Since January 3, 2019, <a href="/wiki/Joint_resolution" title="Joint resolution">joint resolutions</a> have been made proposing constitutional amendments that would replace the Electoral College with the popular election of the president and vice president.<a href="#cite_note-313">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[303]</a> Unlike the Bayh–Celler amendment, with its 40% threshold for election, these proposals do not require a candidate to achieve a certain percentage of votes to be elected.<a href="#cite_note-315">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[306]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact">National Popular Vote Interstate Compact</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact" title="National Popular Vote Interstate Compact">National Popular Vote Interstate Compact</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality_of_the_National_Popular_Vote_Interstate_Compact" title="Constitutionality of the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact">Constitutionality of the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact</a></div> As of April 2024, seventeen states plus the District of Columbia have joined the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact.<a href="#cite_note-ssn-318">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[308]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Those joining the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">compact</a> will, acting together <a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">if and when</a> reflecting a majority of electors (at least 270), pledge their electors to the winner of the national <a href="/wiki/Direct_election" title="Direct election">popular vote</a>. The compact applies <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Method_of_choosing_electors" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a> of the Constitution, which gives each state legislature the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> to determine how it chooses electors. Some scholars have suggested that <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_10:_Limits_on_the_States" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I, Section 10, Clause 3</a> of the Constitution requires <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">congressional</a> consent before the compact could be enforceable;<a href="#cite_note-320">[309]</a> thus, any attempted implementation of the compact without congressional consent could face court challenges to its constitutionality. Others have suggested that the compact's legality was strengthened by <a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a>, in which the Supreme Court upheld the power of states to enforce electors' pledges.<a href="#cite_note-321">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[311]</a> The eighteen adherents of the compact have 209 electors, which is 77% of the 270 required for it to take effect, or be considered justiciable.<a href="#cite_note-ssn-318">[307]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Litigation_based_on_the_14th_amendment">Litigation based on the 14th amendment</h3></div> It has been argued by the advocacy group <a href="/wiki/Equal_Citizens" title="Equal Citizens">Equal Citizens</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> bars the winner-takes-all apportionment of electors by the states. According to this argument, the votes of the losing party are discarded entirely, thereby leading to an unequal position between different voters in the same state.<a href="#cite_note-:1-323">[312]</a> Lawsuits have been filed to this end in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, though all have been unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-:1-323">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">Democratic backsliding in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_Electoral_College_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by Electoral College margin">List of United States presidential elections by Electoral College margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by population">List of U.S. states and territories by population</a></li> <li>Lists of United States presidential electors (<a href="/wiki/List_of_2000_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2000 United States presidential electors">2000</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_2004_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2004 United States presidential electors">2004</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_2008_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2008 United States presidential electors">2008</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_2012_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2012 United States presidential electors">2012</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_2016_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2016 United States presidential electors">2016</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_2020_United_States_presidential_electors" title="List of 2020 United States presidential electors">2020</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_fake_electors_plot" title="Trump fake electors plot">Trump fake electors plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Voter turnout in United States presidential elections">Voter turnout in United States presidential elections</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">constitutional convention of 1787</a> had rejected presidential selection by direct popular vote.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> That being the case, election mechanics based on an electoral college were devised to render selection of the president independent of both state legislatures and the national legislature.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Writing in the policy journal <a href="/wiki/National_Affairs" title="National Affairs">National Affairs</a>, Allen Guelzo argues, "it is worthwhile to deal directly with three popular arguments against the Electoral College. The first, that the Electoral College violates the principle of "one man, one vote". In assigning electoral college votes by winner-take-all, the states themselves violate the one-person-one-vote principle. Hillary Clinton won 61.5% of the California vote, and she received all 55 of California's electoral votes as a result. The disparity in Illinois was "even more dramatic". Clinton won that state's popular vote 3.1 million to 2.1 million, and that 59.6% share granted her Illinois's 20 electoral votes.<a href="#cite_note-NationalAffairs-9">[8]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Although faithless electors have never changed the outcome of a state popular vote, or the national total, that scenario was further weakened by the 2020 court case <a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto6-15">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Arizona, Idaho, Louisiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> "It was ... peculiarly desirable to afford as little opportunity as possible [in the election of the President] to tumult and disorder. ... [The] precautions which have been so happily concerted in the system under consideration, promise an effectual security against this mischief. The choice of several, to form an intermediate body of Electors, will be much less apt to convulse the community, with any extraordinary or violent movements... [As] the Electors, chosen in each State, are to assemble and vote in the State in which they are chosen, this detached and divided situation will expose them much less to heats and ferments, which might be communicated [to] them [by] the People, than if they were all to be convened at one time, in one place." </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Section 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25th Amendment</a> superseded the text of the Presidential Succession Clause of Article II, Section I that stated "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President". Instead, Section 1 of the 25th Amendment provides that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President." Section 2 of the 25th Amendment authorizes the president to nominate a vice president in the event of a vacancy subject to confirmation by both houses of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a6–7-194">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003567-195">[190]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> In 1841, the death of <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> as president caused debate in Congress about whether <a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> had formally succeeded to the Presidency or whether he was an acting president. Tyler took the <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">oath of office</a> and Congress implicitly ratified Tyler's decision in documents published subsequent to his ascension that referred to him as "the President of the United States". Tyler's ascension set the precedent that the vice president becomes the president in the event of a vacancy until the ratification of the 25th Amendment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a3–4-197">[191]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> For nearly one-fourth of the period of time from 1792 to 1886, the Vice Presidency was vacant due to the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">assassinations of Abraham Lincoln</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> in 1865 and 1881 respectively, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_died_in_office" title="List of presidents of the United States who died in office">deaths of Presidents</a> William Henry Harrison and <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> in 1841 and 1850 respectively, the deaths of vice presidents <a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)" title="George Clinton (vice president)">George Clinton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_R._King" title="William R. King">William R. King</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Henry Wilson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Hendricks" title="Thomas A. Hendricks">Thomas A. Hendricks</a> in 1812, 1814, 1853, 1875, and 1885 respectively, and the resignation of the vice presidency by <a href="/wiki/John_C._Calhoun" title="John C. Calhoun">John C. Calhoun</a> in 1832.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContinuity_of_Government_Commission200966–67-201">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020a25–26-202">[195]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> California, Illinois, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Colorado, Florida, Montana, North Carolina, Oregon </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Americans favored a Constitutional Amendment to elect the president by a nationwide popular vote on average 61% and those for electoral college selection 35%. In 2016 polling, the gap closed to 51% direct election versus 44% electoral college. By 2020, American thinking had again diverged with 58% for direct election versus 40% for the electoral college choosing a president.<a href="#cite_note-PewResearch-260">[250]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii">"Article II"</a>. 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New York: Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1"><bdi>978-0-593-44307-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=Tyranny+of+the+Minority%3A+why+American+democracy+reached+the+breaking+point&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-593-44307-1&rft.aulast=Levitsky&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Ziblatt%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_529.asp">"Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787: May 29"</a>. Avalon Project. Retrieved April 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787%3A+May+29&rft.pub=Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_529.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/civics/common/generic/Virginia_Plan_item.htm">Senate.gov</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_602.asp">"Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787: June 2"</a>. Avalon Project. Retrieved April 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787%3A+June+2&rft.pub=Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_602.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/james-wilson-popular-sovereignty-and-the-electoral-college">Matt Riffe, "James Wilson," Constitution Center</a>> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_904.asp">"Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787: September 4"</a>. Avalon Project. Retrieved April 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787%3A+September+4&rft.pub=Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_904.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2008" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, William G. (November 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zXMdcTVStnsC&pg=PA216">The Making of the Presidential Candidates 2008</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4719-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4719-3"><bdi>978-0-7425-4719-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Presidential+Candidates+2008&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-4719-3&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzXMdcTVStnsC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/james-wilson-popular-sovereignty-and-the-electoral-college">"James Wilson, popular sovereignty, and the Electoral College"</a>. National Constitution Center. November 28, 2016. Retrieved April 9, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Wilson%2C+popular+sovereignty%2C+and+the+Electoral+College&rft.pub=National+Constitution+Center&rft.date=2016-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Fblog%2Fjames-wilson-popular-sovereignty-and-the-electoral-college&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ashbrook.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/madisons_debates.pdf">"The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 by James Madison"</a> (PDF). Ashland University. Retrieved July 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787+by+James+Madison&rft.pub=Ashland+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fashbrook.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F09%2Fmadisons_debates.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/llscdam.llfr002/?sp=61&st=image&r=-0.437,-0.019,1.83,0.87,0">Records of the Federal Convention, p. 57</a> Farrand's Records, Volume 2, A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875, Library of Congress </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_906.asp">"Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787: September 6"</a>. Avalon Project. Retrieved April 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787%3A+September+6&rft.pub=Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_906.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/constitutionalconvention-september4.htm">"September 4, 1787: The Electoral College (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. www.nps.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nps.gov&rft.atitle=September+4%2C+1787%3A+The+Electoral+College+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farticles%2F000%2Fconstitutionalconvention-september4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1966" class="citation book cs1">Madison, James (1966). Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787. The Norton Library. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003G6AKX2">B003G6AKX2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+of+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pages=294&rft.pub=The+Norton+Library&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB003G6AKX2%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrickPiousRitchie2001" class="citation book cs1">Patrick, John J.; Pious, Richard M.; Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9nYh3RocaG8C">The Oxford Guide to the United States Government</a>. Oxford University Press, USA. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9nYh3RocaG8C&dq=%22small+states%22+%22large+states%22+%22electoral+college%22&pg=PA208">208</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514273-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514273-0"><bdi>978-0-19-514273-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Guide+to+the+United+States+Government&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514273-0&rft.aulast=Patrick&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Pious%2C+Richard+M.&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+Donald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9nYh3RocaG8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed39.asp">"The Federalist 39"</a>. Avalon Project. Retrieved April 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Federalist+39&rft.pub=Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Ffed39.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68_49-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Federalist_Papers:_No._68_49-2">c</a> Hamilton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed68.asp">The Federalist Papers: No. 68</a> The Avalon Project, Yale Law School. viewed November 10, 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twelfth Amendment</a> changed this to the top three candidates, </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> The Federalist Papers: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay The New American Library, 1961. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/faq.html">"U. S. Electoral College: Frequently Asked Questions"</a>. archives.gov. September 19, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=U.+S.+Electoral+College%3A+Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft.date=2019-09-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffederal-register%2Felectoral-college%2Ffaq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Chang" title="Stanley Chang">Chang, Stanley</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220304214934/http://archive.fairvote.org/media/documents/chang.pdf">"Updating the Electoral College: The National Popular Vote Legislation"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Journal_on_Legislation" title="Harvard Journal on Legislation">Harvard Journal on Legislation</a>. 44 (205, at 208). Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Harvard College. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.fairvote.org/media/documents/chang.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 4, 2022. Retrieved May 28, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+on+Legislation&rft.atitle=Updating+the+Electoral+College%3A+The+National+Popular+Vote+Legislation&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=205%2C+at+208&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.fairvote.org%2Fmedia%2Fdocuments%2Fchang.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_54-1">b</a> Hamilton, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed68.asp">"The Federalist Papers : No. 68"</a>, The Avalon Project, 2008. From the Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 22 Jan 2022. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Hamilton, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-25-02-0289">Draft of a Resolution for the Legislature of New York for the Amendment of the Constitution of the United States, 29 January 1802</a>, National Archives, Founders Online, viewed March 2, 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Describing how the Electoral College was designed to work, Alexander Hamilton wrote, "A small number of persons, selected by their fellow-citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated investigations [decisions regarding the selection of a president]." (Hamilton, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa68.htm">Federalist 68</a>). Hamilton strongly believed this was to be done district by district, and when states began doing otherwise, he proposed a constitutional amendment to mandate the district system (Hamilton, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-25-02-0289">Draft of a Constitutional Amendment</a>). Madison concurred, "The district mode was mostly, if not exclusively in view when the Constitution was framed and adopted." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/99-02-02-0023">Madison to Hay, 1823</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525182347/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/99-02-02-0023">Archived</a> May 25, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> William C. Kimberling, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uselectionatlas.org/INFORMATION/INFORMATION/electcollege_history.php">Essays in Elections: The Electoral College</a> (1992). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/343/214">"Ray v. Blair"</a>. LII / Legal Information Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Ray+v.+Blair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F343%2F214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanFossen2020" class="citation web cs1">VanFossen, Phillip J. (November 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/who-invented-the-electoral-college-147083">"Who invented the Electoral College?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Who+invented+the+Electoral+College%3F&rft.date=2020-11-04&rft.aulast=VanFossen&rft.aufirst=Phillip+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fwho-invented-the-electoral-college-147083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://source.wustl.edu/2020/07/washu-expert-electoral-college-ruling-contradicts-founders-original-intent/">"WashU Expert: Electoral College ruling contradicts Founders' 'original intent' – The Source – Washington University in St. Louis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Source" title="The Source">The Source</a>. 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U. S. Electoral College. U.S. National Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/votes/1789_1821.html#1788">the original</a> on June 1, 2006. 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Congressional Quarterly, Inc. 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5680-2065-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5680-2065-5">978-1-5680-2065-5</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGore2016" class="citation web cs1">Gore, D'Angelo (December 23, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.factcheck.org/2008/03/presidents-winning-without-popular-vote/">"Presidents Winning Without Popular Vote"</a>. <a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Presidents+Winning+Without+Popular+Vote&rft.pub=FactCheck.org&rft.date=2016-12-23&rft.aulast=Gore&rft.aufirst=D%27Angelo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.factcheck.org%2F2008%2F03%2Fpresidents-winning-without-popular-vote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130103115308/http://history.house.gov/Institution/Apportionment/Apportionment/">Apportionment by State (PDF)</a>, House of Representatives, History, Art & Archives, viewed January 27, 2019. Unlike composition in the College, from 1803 to 1846, the U.S. Senate sustained parity between free-soil and slave-holding states. Later a run of free-soil states, including Iowa, Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, Oregon and Kansas, were admitted before the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution-transcript">U.S. Constitution Transcript</a>, held at the U.S. National Archives, viewed online on February 5, 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Brian D. Humes, Elaine K. Swift, Richard M. Valelly, Kenneth Finegold, and Evelyn C. Fink, "Representation of the Antebellum South in the House of Representatives: Measuring the Impact of the Three-Fifths Clause" in David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds., Party, Process and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002), Stanford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0">978-0-8047-4571-0</a> p. 453, and Table 15.1, "Impact of the Three-Fifths Clause on Slave and Nonslave Representation (1790–1861)", p. 454. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Leonard L. Richards, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=5564%7CThe">Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860</a> (2001), referenced in a review at Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online, viewed February 2, 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Brian D. Humes, et al. "Representation of the Antebellum South in the House of Representatives: Measuring the Impact of the Three-Fifths Clause" in David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins, eds., Party, Process and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002), Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0">978-0-8047-4571-0</a>, pp. 464–65, Table 16.6, "Impact of the Three-fifths Clause on the Electoral College, 1792–1860". The continuing, uninterrupted northern free-soil majority margin in the Electoral College would have been significantly smaller had slaves been counter-factually counted as whole persons, but still the South would have been a minority in the Electoral College over these sixty-eight years. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Brian D. Humes, et al. "Representation of the Antebellum South in the House of Representatives: Measuring the Impact of the Three-Fifths Clause" in David W. Brady and Mathew D. 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McCubbins, eds., Party, Process and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002), Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4571-0">978-0-8047-4571-0</a>, p. 464. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/constitution-transcript">Constitution of the United States: A Transcription</a>, online February 9, 2019. See Article I, Section 9, and in Article IV, Section 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H9KwtRkiO1YC&pg=PA42">First Census of the United States</a>, Chapter III in "A Century of Population Growth from the first Census", volume 900, United States Census Office, 1909 In the 1790, Virginia's...population was 747,610, Pennsylvania was 433,633. (p. 8). Virginia had 59.1 percent white and 1.7 percent free black counted whole, and 39.1 percent, or 292,315 counted three-fifths, or a 175,389 number for congressional apportionment. Pennsylvania had 97.5 percent white and 1.6 percent free black, and 0.9 percent slave, or 7,372 persons, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-amar2-106"><a href="#cite_ref-amar2_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmar2016" class="citation magazine cs1">Amar, Akhil (November 10, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/4558510/electoral-college-history-slavery/">"The Troubling Reason the Electoral College Exists"</a>. 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The Atlantic. Retrieved November 9, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Deadline+That+Could+Hand+Trump+the+Election&rft.pub=The+Atlantic&rft.date=2020-09-09&rft.aulast=Dovere&rft.aufirst=Edward-Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2020%2F09%2Ftrump-biden-electoral-count-act-1887%2F615994%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2011-title3/html/USCODE-2011-title3-chap1-sec7.htm">"U.S.C. Title 3 - THE PRESIDENT"</a>. 2011. Retrieved June 28, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.C.+Title+3+-+THE+PRESIDENT&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpkg%2FUSCODE-2011-title3%2Fhtml%2FUSCODE-2011-title3-chap1-sec7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zak-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zak_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zak_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zak_115-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZak2016" class="citation news cs1">Zak, Dan (November 16, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-electoral-college-isnt-a-real-place-but-someone-has-to-answer-its-phones-these-days/2016/11/16/816f3838-aaa7-11e6-977a-1030f822fc35_story.html">"The electoral college isn't a real place: But someone has to answer all the angry phone calls these days"</a>. Washington Post. Retrieved November 21, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+electoral+college+isn%27t+a+real+place%3A+But+someone+has+to+answer+all+the+angry+phone+calls+these+days&rft.date=2016-11-16&rft.aulast=Zak&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flifestyle%2Fstyle%2Fthe-electoral-college-isnt-a-real-place-but-someone-has-to-answer-its-phones-these-days%2F2016%2F11%2F16%2F816f3838-aaa7-11e6-977a-1030f822fc35_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_3_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 3 of the United States Code">3 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/3/15">§ 15</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/about.html">"What is the Electoral College?"</a>. U.S. Electoral College. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</a>. Retrieved August 2, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Electoral+College&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Electoral+College%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffederal-register%2Felectoral-college%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FVWTA-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FVWTA_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy" class="citation web cs1">McCarthy, Devin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20140310172659/http%3A//www.fairvote.org/research%2Dand%2Danalysis/blog/how%2Dthe%2Delectoral%2Dcollege%2Dbecame%2Dwinner%2Dtake%2Dall/">"How the Electoral College Became Winner-Take-All"</a>. Fairvote. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fairvote.org/research-and-analysis/blog/how-the-electoral-college-became-winner-take-all/">the original</a> on March 10, 2014. Retrieved November 22, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fairvote&rft.atitle=How+the+Electoral+College+Became+Winner-Take-All&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Devin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fairvote.org%2Fresearch-and-analysis%2Fblog%2Fhow-the-electoral-college-became-winner-take-all%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ecollege-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ecollege_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ecollege_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111012191923/http://archive.fairvote.org/e_college/me_ne.htm">"The Electoral College – Maine and Nebraska"</a>. FairVote. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.fairvote.org/e_college/me_ne.htm">the original</a> on October 12, 2011. Retrieved November 16, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Electoral+College+%E2%80%93+Maine+and+Nebraska&rft.pub=FairVote&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.fairvote.org%2Fe_college%2Fme_ne.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/the-electoral-college.aspx">"The Electoral College"</a>. National Conference of State Legislatures. November 11, 2020. Retrieved November 15, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Conference+of+State+Legislatures&rft.atitle=The+Electoral+College&rft.date=2020-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncsl.org%2Fresearch%2Felections-and-campaigns%2Fthe-electoral-college.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> The present allotment of electors by state is shown in the Electoral vote distribution section. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> The number of electors allocated to each state is based on <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II, Section 1, Clause 2</a> of the Constitution, subject to being reduced pursuant to <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Apportionment_of_representation_in_House_of_Representatives" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/apportionment/apportionment-2020-tableC2.pdf">Table C2. Apportionment Population and Number of Seats in U.S. House of Representatives by State: 1910 to 2020</a> U.S. 2020 Census. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/apportionment/apportionment-2020-table01.pdf">Table 1. Apportionment Population and Number of Representatives by State</a> U.S. 2020 Census. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/electoral-college/allocation">Distribution of Electoral Votes</a> U.S. National Archives. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rawstory.com/2016/10/how-is-the-president-elected-here-is-a-basic-guide-to-the-electoral-college-system/">"How is the president elected? Here is a basic guide to the electoral college system"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Raw_Story" title="Raw Story">Raw Story</a>. October 25, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Raw+Story&rft.atitle=How+is+the+president+elected%3F+Here+is+a+basic+guide+to+the+electoral+college+system&rft.date=2016-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rawstory.com%2F2016%2F10%2Fhow-is-the-president-elected-here-is-a-basic-guide-to-the-electoral-college-system%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabrina_Eaton2004" class="citation news cs1">Sabrina Eaton (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110710171414/http://www.edisonresearch.com/home/archives/ClevelandPlainDealer10-29-2004.pdf">"Brown learns he can't serve as Kerry elector, steps down"</a> (PDF). Cleveland Plain Dealer (reprint at Edison Research). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edisonresearch.com/home/archives/ClevelandPlainDealer10-29-2004.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 10, 2011. Retrieved January 3, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brown+learns+he+can%27t+serve+as+Kerry+elector%2C+steps+down&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.au=Sabrina+Eaton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edisonresearch.com%2Fhome%2Farchives%2FClevelandPlainDealer10-29-2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarrell_J._Kozlowski2010" class="citation book cs1">Darrell J. 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This Historic Election Process Decides The Winner"</a>. Bustle. Retrieved July 6, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bustle&rft.atitle=How+Are+Electors+Selected+For+The+Electoral+College%3F+This+Historic+Election+Process+Decides+The+Winner&rft.date=2016-10-22&rft.aulast=Guzm%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Natasha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bustle.com%2Farticles%2F191061-how-are-electors-selected-for-the-electoral-college-this-historic-election-process-decides-the-winner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> "The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution_amendments_11-27.html">Constitution of the United States: Amendments 11–27</a>, National Archives and Records Administration. </li> <li id="cite_note-3USC15-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-3USC15_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-3USC15_154-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Title_3_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 3 of the United States Code">3 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/3/15">§ 15</a>, Counting electoral votes in Congress. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/congress-count-electoral-college-vote-5605532631a251ac8f902d1d1ca55428">"EXPLAINER: How Congress will count Electoral College votes"</a>. 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Retrieved July 10, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Clarifies+Rules+for+Electoral+College%3A+States+May+Restrict+Faithless+Electors&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2020-07-10&rft.aulast=Shelly&rft.aufirst=Jacob+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrsreports.congress.gov%2Fproduct%2Fpdf%2FLSB%2FLSB10515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeale2020b4-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeale2020b4_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeale2020b4_169-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeale2020b">Neale 2020b</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)334–337-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)334–337_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSenate_Journal_42(3)">Senate Journal 42(3)</a>, pp. 334–337. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)346-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenate_Journal_42(3)346_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSenate_Journal_42(3)">Senate Journal 42(3)</a>, p. 346. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Herbert_Donald" title="David Herbert Donald">Donald, David Herbert</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fuTY3mxs9awC">Lincoln</a>. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 273–279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82535-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82535-9"><bdi>978-0-684-82535-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lincoln&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=273-279&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82535-9&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=David+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfuTY3mxs9awC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolzer2008" class="citation book cs1">Holzer, Harold (2008). 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Retrieved April 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2020+Census+Apportionment+Results&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=U.S.+Census+Bureau&rft.date=2021-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fdata%2Ftables%2F2020%2Fdec%2F2020-apportionment-data.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> Each state's number of electoral votes is equal to its total congressional representation (its number of Representatives plus its two Senators). </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/electoral-college-census-2020-government-and-politics-politics-86e1a31aeeea02004a3c71abd58097ee">"Winners and losers from first release of 2020 census data"</a>. 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Retrieved November 10, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+majority+of+Americans+continue+to+favor+replacing+Electoral+College+with+a+nationwide+popular+vote&rft.series=Fact+Tank%3A+news+in+the+numbers&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2020-03-13&rft.aulast=Daniller&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Ffact-tank%2F2020%2F03%2F13%2Fa-majority-of-americans-continue-to-favor-replacing-electoral-college-with-a-nationwide-popular-vote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeEdwards_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeEdwards_262-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeEdwards_262-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards_III2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Edwards_III" title="George C. Edwards III">Edwards III, George C.</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL16175486W/Why_the_electoral_college_is_bad_for_America?edition=key%3A/books/OL25053480M">Why the Electoral College is Bad for America</a> (Second ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 1, 37, 61, 176–77, 193–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16649-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16649-1"><bdi>978-0-300-16649-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+the+Electoral+College+is+Bad+for+America&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=1%2C+37%2C+61%2C+176-77%2C+193-94&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-300-16649-1&rft.aulast=Edwards+III&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL16175486W%2FWhy_the_electoral_college_is_bad_for_America%3Fedition%3Dkey%253A%2Fbooks%2FOL25053480M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_H._Adler" class="citation news cs1">Jonathan H. 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November 7, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+End+the+Electoral+College%3A+Here%27s+how.&rft.date=2012-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Fits-time-end-electoral-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-269">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_269-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_269-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_269-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_269-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollin2016" class="citation news cs1">Collin, Katy (November 17, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/11/17/the-electoral-college-badly-distorts-the-vote-and-its-going-to-get-worse/">"The electoral college badly distorts the vote. And it's going to get worse"</a>. Washington Post. Retrieved November 17, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+electoral+college+badly+distorts+the+vote.+And+it%27s+going+to+get+worse.&rft.date=2016-11-17&rft.aulast=Collin&rft.aufirst=Katy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fmonkey-cage%2Fwp%2F2016%2F11%2F17%2Fthe-electoral-college-badly-distorts-the-vote-and-its-going-to-get-worse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/11/02/opinion/20081102_OPCHART.html">"Op-Chart: How Much Is Your Vote Worth? Op-Chart"</a>. 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Los Angeles Times. 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The Nation. Retrieved November 8, 2012. <q>Electoral college defenders offer a range of arguments, from the openly anti-democratic (direct election equals mob rule), to the nostalgic (we've always done it this way), to the opportunistic (your little state will get ignored! More vote-counting means more controversies! The Electoral College protects hurricane victims!). But none of those arguments overcome this one: One person, one vote.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+End+the+Electoral+College&rft.date=2012-11-07&rft.au=Katrina+vanden+Heuvel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Fblog%2F171115%2Fits-time-end-electoral-college&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/jim-crow-laws-black-vote">"How Jim Crow-Era Laws Suppressed the African American Vote for Generations"</a>. history.com. May 13, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.com&rft.atitle=How+Jim+Crow-Era+Laws+Suppressed+the+African+American+Vote+for+Generations&rft.date=2021-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fjim-crow-laws-black-vote&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelmanKremp2016" class="citation web cs1">Gelman, Andrew; Kremp, Pierre-Antoine (November 22, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2016/11/22/13713148/electoral-college-democracy-race-white-voters">"The Electoral College magnifies the power of white voters"</a>. Vox. Retrieved February 1, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=The+Electoral+College+magnifies+the+power+of+white+voters&rft.date=2016-11-22&rft.aulast=Gelman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Kremp%2C+Pierre-Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fthe-big-idea%2F2016%2F11%2F22%2F13713148%2Felectoral-college-democracy-race-white-voters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman1996" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffman, Matthew M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797244">"The Illegitimate President: Minority Vote Dilution and the Electoral College"</a>. The Yale Law Journal. 105 (4): 935–1021. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797244">10.2307/797244</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797244">797244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Illegitimate+President%3A+Minority+Vote+Dilution+and+the+Electoral+College&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=935-1021&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F797244&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797244%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Matthew+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorruella1985" class="citation cs2">Torruella, Juan R. 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Román. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/citizen01.htm">"Puerto Rico and a Constitutional Right to vote"</a>. University of Dayton. Retrieved October 2, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico+and+a+Constitutional+Right+to+vote&rft.pub=University+of+Dayton&rft.au=Jos%C3%A9+D.+Rom%C3%A1n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.udayton.edu%2Frace%2F02rights%2Fcitizen01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> (excerpted from: José D. Román, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2233&context=ulj">"Trying to Fit an Oval Shaped Island into a Square Constitution: Arguments for Puerto Rican Statehood"</a>, 29 Fordham Urban Law Journal 1681–1713, 1697–1713 (April 2002) (316 Footnotes Omitted)). </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ballot-access.org/2008/07/10/guam-legislature-moves-general-election-presidential-vote-to-the-september-primary/">"Guam Legislature Moves General Election Presidential Vote to the September Primary"</a>. Ballot-Access.org. July 10, 2008. Retrieved July 24, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guam+Legislature+Moves+General+Election+Presidential+Vote+to+the+September+Primary&rft.pub=Ballot-Access.org&rft.date=2008-07-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ballot-access.org%2F2008%2F07%2F10%2Fguam-legislature-moves-general-election-presidential-vote-to-the-september-primary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2012/11/06/164400277/in-guam-non-binding-straw-poll-gives-obama-a-commanding-win">"In Guam, 'Non-Binding Straw Poll' Gives Obama A Commanding Win"</a>. NPR. November 12, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+Guam%2C+%27Non-Binding+Straw+Poll%27+Gives+Obama+A+Commanding+Win&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Fitsallpolitics%2F2012%2F11%2F06%2F164400277%2Fin-guam-non-binding-straw-poll-gives-obama-a-commanding-win&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurry2008" class="citation news cs1">Curry, Tom (May 28, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna24839059">"Nominating, but not voting for president"</a>. NBC News. Retrieved September 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nominating%2C+but+not+voting+for+president&rft.date=2008-05-28&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna24839059&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelgesen2012" class="citation web cs1">Helgesen, Elise (March 19, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fairvote.org/puerto-rico-and-other-territories-vote-in-primaries-but-not-in-general-election">"Puerto Rico and Other Territories Vote in Primaries, But Not in General Election"</a>. Fair Vote. Retrieved September 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fair+Vote&rft.atitle=Puerto+Rico+and+Other+Territories+Vote+in+Primaries%2C+But+Not+in+General+Election&rft.date=2012-03-19&rft.aulast=Helgesen&rft.aufirst=Elise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fairvote.org%2Fpuerto-rico-and-other-territories-vote-in-primaries-but-not-in-general-election&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerry_Fresia2006" class="citation web cs1">Jerry Fresia (February 28, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109153753/http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/4312">"Third Parties?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zmag.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Zmag.org">Zmag.org</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/4312">the original</a> on January 9, 2009. Retrieved August 26, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Third+Parties%3F&rft.pub=Zmag.org&rft.date=2006-02-28&rft.au=Jerry+Fresia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zmag.org%2Fznet%2FviewArticle%2F4312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FEC-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FEC_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FEC_289-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimberling1992" class="citation web cs1">Kimberling, William C. (May 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010112063831/http://www.fec.gov/pdf/eleccoll.pdf">"Opinion: The Electoral College"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission" title="Federal Election Commission">Federal Election Commission</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fec.gov/pdf/eleccoll.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on January 12, 2001. Retrieved January 3, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opinion%3A+The+Electoral+College&rft.pub=Federal+Election+Commission&rft.date=1992-05&rft.aulast=Kimberling&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fec.gov%2Fpdf%2Feleccoll.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabato2007" class="citation book cs1">Sabato, Larry (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moreperfectconst00saba/page/151/mode/1up">A More Perfect Constitution</a> (First U.S. ed.). Walker Publishing Company. pp. 151–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1621-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8027-1621-7"><bdi>978-0-8027-1621-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved July 30, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+More+Perfect+Constitution&rft.pages=151-164&rft.edition=First+U.S.&rft.pub=Walker+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8027-1621-7&rft.aulast=Sabato&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoreperfectconst00saba%2Fpage%2F151%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_2012_pp._1539–1570-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2012_pp._1539–1570_291-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2012" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Norman R. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2686&context=lawreview">"Why the National Popular Vote Compact is Unconstitutional"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BYU_Law_Review" title="BYU Law Review">BYU Law Review</a>. 2012 (5). <a href="/wiki/J._Reuben_Clark_Law_School" title="J. Reuben Clark Law School">J. Reuben Clark Law School</a>: 1539–1570. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506175208/https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2686&context=lawreview">Archived</a> from the original on May 6, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BYU+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Why+the+National+Popular+Vote+Compact+is+Unconstitutional&rft.volume=2012&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1539-1570&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Norman+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.byu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2686%26context%3Dlawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter2003411-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossiter2003411_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRossiter2003">Rossiter 2003</a>, p. 411. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNealeNolan2019" class="citation report cs1">Neale, Thomas H.; Nolan, Andrew (October 28, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43823.pdf">The National Popular Vote (NPV) Initiative: Direct Election of the President by Interstate Compact</a> (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>. Retrieved November 8, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+National+Popular+Vote+%28NPV%29+Initiative%3A+Direct+Election+of+the+President+by+Interstate+Compact&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2019-10-28&rft.aulast=Neale&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft.au=Nolan%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FR43823.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevitskyZiblatt2023" class="citation book cs1">Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel (2023). "Chapter 7". Tyranny of the Minority: why American democracy reached the breaking point (First ed.). New York: Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-44307-1"><bdi>978-0-593-44307-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7&rft.btitle=Tyranny+of+the+Minority%3A+why+American+democracy+reached+the+breaking+point&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-593-44307-1&rft.aulast=Levitsky&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Ziblatt%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> For a more detailed account of this proposal read The Politics of Electoral College Reform by Lawrence D. Longley and Alan G. Braun (1972). </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/scores.html#1968">1968 Electoral College Results</a>, National Archives and Records Administration. </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Text of Proposed Amendment on Voting". The New York Times. April 30, 1969. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Text+of+Proposed+Amendment+on+Voting&rft.pages=21&rft.date=1969-04-30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"House Unit Votes To Drop Electors". The New York Times. April 30, 1969. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=House+Unit+Votes+To+Drop+Electors&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1969-04-30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Direct Election of President Is Gaining in the House". The New York Times. September 12, 1969. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Direct+Election+of+President+Is+Gaining+in+the+House&rft.pages=12&rft.date=1969-09-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"House Approves Direct Election of The President". The New York Times. September 19, 1969. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=House+Approves+Direct+Election+of+The+President&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1969-09-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Nixon Comes Out For Direct Vote On Presidency". The New York Times. 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October 8, 1969. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Survey+Finds+30+Legislatures+Favor+Direct+Vote+For+President&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1969-10-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaver1970" class="citation news cs1">Weaver, Warren (April 24, 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1970/04/24/archives/senate-unit-asks-popular-election-of-the-president-amendment-to.html">"Senate Unit Asks Popular Election of the President"</a>. 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September 9, 1970. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Senate+Debating+Direct+Election&rft.pages=10&rft.date=1970-09-09&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> The Senate in 1975 reduced the required vote for cloture from two-thirds of those voting (67 votes) to three-fifths (60 votes). See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Filibuster_Cloture.htm">United States Senate website.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Senate Puts Off Direct Vote Plan". The New York Times. 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Retrieved August 18, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters&rft.date=1979-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1979%2F03%2F15%2Farchives%2Fletters-to-reform-our-presidential-election-system-the-cabs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2019" class="citation news cs1">Morton, Victor (January 3, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190707230501/https://wreg.com/2017/01/05/cohen-proposes-elimination-of-electoral-college/">"Rep. Steve Cohen introduces constitutional amendment to abolish Electoral College"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wreg.com/2017/01/05/cohen-proposes-elimination-of-electoral-college/">the original</a> on July 7, 2019. Retrieved January 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Times&rft.atitle=Rep.+Steve+Cohen+introduces+constitutional+amendment+to+abolish+Electoral+College&rft.date=2019-01-03&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwreg.com%2F2017%2F01%2F05%2Fcohen-proposes-elimination-of-electoral-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2019" class="citation news cs1">Morton, Victor (January 3, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fortune.com/2019/04/02/abolish-the-electoral-college-votes/">"Why Democrats Want to Abolish the Electoral College—and Republicans Want to Keep It"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a>. Retrieved January 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Democrats+Want+to+Abolish+the+Electoral+College%E2%80%94and+Republicans+Want+to+Keep+It&rft.date=2019-01-03&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2019%2F04%2F02%2Fabolish-the-electoral-college-votes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2019" class="citation web cs1">Cohen, Steve (January 3, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-joint-resolution/7/text">"Text – H.J.Res. 7 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to abolish the electoral college and to provide for the direct election of the president and vice president of the United States"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Text+%E2%80%93+H.J.Res.+7+%E2%80%93+116th+Congress+%282019%E2%80%932020%29%3A+Proposing+an+amendment+to+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States+to+abolish+the+electoral+college+and+to+provide+for+the+direct+election+of+the+president+and+vice+president+of+the+United+States.&rft.date=2019-01-03&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fhouse-joint-resolution%2F7%2Ftext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerkley2019" class="citation web cs1">Merkley, Jeff (March 28, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-joint-resolution/16/text">"Text – S.J.Res. 16 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): A joint resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to abolish the electoral college and to provide for the direct election of the president and vice President of the United States"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Text+%E2%80%93+S.J.Res.+16+%E2%80%93+116th+Congress+%282019%E2%80%932020%29%3A+A+joint+resolution+proposing+an+amendment+to+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States+to+abolish+the+electoral+college+and+to+provide+for+the+direct+election+of+the+president+and+vice+President+of+the+United+States.&rft.date=2019-03-28&rft.aulast=Merkley&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F116th-congress%2Fsenate-joint-resolution%2F16%2Ftext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchatz2019" class="citation web cs1">Schatz, Brian (April 2, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/116/bills/sjres17/BILLS-116sjres17is.xml">"Text – S.J.Res. 17 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): A joint resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to abolish the electoral college and to provide for the direct election of the President and Vice President of the United States"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Text+%E2%80%93+S.J.Res.+17+%E2%80%93+116th+Congress+%282019%E2%80%932020%29%3A+A+joint+resolution+proposing+an+amendment+to+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States+to+abolish+the+electoral+college+and+to+provide+for+the+direct+election+of+the+President+and+Vice+President+of+the+United+States.&rft.date=2019-04-02&rft.aulast=Schatz&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2F116%2Fbills%2Fsjres17%2FBILLS-116sjres17is.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ssn-318">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ssn_318-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ssn_318-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Sun_Numamaker2020" class="citation web cs1">Susan Sun Numamaker (July 9, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://windermeresun.com/2020/07/09/what-is-national-popular-vote-bill-national-popular-vote-interstate-compact-why-is-it-important/">"What Is National Popular Vote Bill/National Popular Vote Interstate Compact & Why Is It Important"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Windemere_Sun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Windemere Sun (page does not exist)">Windemere Sun</a>. Retrieved July 14, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Windemere+Sun&rft.atitle=What+Is+National+Popular+Vote+Bill%2FNational+Popular+Vote+Interstate+Compact+%26+Why+Is+It+Important&rft.date=2020-07-09&rft.au=Susan+Sun+Numamaker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwindermeresun.com%2F2020%2F07%2F09%2Fwhat-is-national-popular-vote-bill-national-popular-vote-interstate-compact-why-is-it-important%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalpopularvote.com/sites/default/files/eve-4th-ed-ch6-web-v1.pdf#page=5">"Text of the compact"</a> (PDF). National Popular Vote.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Text+of+the+compact&rft.pub=National+Popular+Vote&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalpopularvote.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Feve-4th-ed-ch6-web-v1.pdf%23page%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Neale, Thomas H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/132240.pdf">Electoral College Reform</a> Congressional Research Service pp. 21–22, viewed November 23, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadem2020" class="citation web cs1">Fadem, Barry (July 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/07/14/supreme-courts-faithless-electors-decision-validates-case-for-the-national-popular-vote-interstate-compact/">"Supreme Court's "faithless electors" decision validates case for the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact"</a>. Brookings Institution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200717034751/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/07/14/supreme-courts-faithless-electors-decision-validates-case-for-the-national-popular-vote-interstate-compact/">Archived</a> from the original on July 17, 2020. Retrieved August 4, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court%27s+%22faithless+electors%22+decision+validates+case+for+the+National+Popular+Vote+Interstate+Compact&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution&rft.date=2020-07-14&rft.aulast=Fadem&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fblog%2Ffixgov%2F2020%2F07%2F14%2Fsupreme-courts-faithless-electors-decision-validates-case-for-the-national-popular-vote-interstate-compact%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitt2020" class="citation web cs1">Litt, David (July 7, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5863481/supreme-court-faithless-electors-electoral-college/">"The Supreme Court Just Pointed Out the Absurdity of the Electoral College. It's Up to Us to End It"</a>. Time. Retrieved August 4, 2020. <q>After all, the same constitutional principles that allow a state to bind its electors to the winner of the statewide popular vote should allow it to bind its electors to the winner of the nationwide popular vote. This means that if states that combine to hold a majority of electoral votes all agree to support the popular-vote winner, they can do an end-run around the Electoral College. America would still have its clumsy two-step process for presidential elections. But the people's choice and the electors' choice would be guaranteed to match up every time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+Just+Pointed+Out+the+Absurdity+of+the+Electoral+College.+It%27s+Up+to+Us+to+End+It&rft.pub=Time&rft.date=2020-07-07&rft.aulast=Litt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5863481%2Fsupreme-court-faithless-electors-electoral-college%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-323">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_323-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_323-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://equalcitizens.us/equal-votes/">"Equal Votes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Equal_Citizens" title="Equal Citizens">Equal Citizens</a>. Retrieved December 31, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Equal+Citizens&rft.atitle=Equal+Votes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fequalcitizens.us%2Fequal-votes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt></dt></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeman2010" class="citation book cs1">Beeman, Richard (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz_68SNGKuMC">Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812976847" title="Special:BookSources/9780812976847"><bdi>9780812976847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plain%2C+Honest+Men%3A+The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780812976847&rft.aulast=Beeman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYz_68SNGKuMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeale2020b" class="citation report cs1">Neale, Thomas H. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cha.house.gov/sites/evo-subsites/democrats-cha.house.gov/files/documents/Electoral%20Count%20Act%20Staff%20Report_.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 18, 2023. 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June 19, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+On+The+Investigation+Into+Russian+Interference+In+The+2016+Presidential+Election%2C+Volume+I+of+II&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Justice&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.courtlistener.com%2Frecap%2Fgov.uscourts.dcd.205521%2Fgov.uscourts.dcd.205521.122.1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustice_Department2020b" class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.dcd.205521/gov.uscourts.dcd.205521.122.2.pdf">Report On The Investigation Into Russian Interference In The 2016 Presidential Election, Volume II of II</a> (PDF) (Report). United States Department of Justice. June 19, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+On+The+Investigation+Into+Russian+Interference+In+The+2016+Presidential+Election%2C+Volume+II+of+II&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Justice&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstorage.courtlistener.com%2Frecap%2Fgov.uscourts.dcd.205521%2Fgov.uscourts.dcd.205521.122.2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenate_Intelligence_Committee2019a" class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Report_Volume1.pdf">Report on Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 1: Russian Efforts Against Election Infrastructure with Additional Views</a> (PDF) (Report). United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. July 25, 2019. Retrieved June 21, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+Russian+Active+Measures+Campaigns+and+Interference+in+the+2016+U.S.+Election%2C+Volume+1%3A+Russian+Efforts+Against+Election+Infrastructure+with+Additional+Views&rft.pub=United+States+Senate+Select+Committee+on+Intelligence&rft.date=2019-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intelligence.senate.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FReport_Volume1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenate_Intelligence_Committee2019b" class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Report_Volume2.pdf">Report on Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 2: Russia's Use of Social Media with Additional Views</a> (PDF) (Report). United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. October 8, 2019. Retrieved June 23, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+Russian+Active+Measures+Campaigns+and+Interference+in+the+2016+U.S.+Election%2C+Volume+2%3A+Russia%27s+Use+of+Social+Media+with+Additional+Views&rft.pub=United+States+Senate+Select+Committee+on+Intelligence&rft.date=2019-10-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intelligence.senate.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FReport_Volume2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenate_Intelligence_Committee2020" class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/report_volume5.pdf">Report on Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities</a> (PDF) (Report). United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. August 18, 2020. Retrieved June 23, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+Russian+Active+Measures+Campaigns+and+Interference+in+the+2016+U.S.+Election%2C+Volume+5%3A+Counterintelligence+Threats+and+Vulnerabilities&rft.pub=United+States+Senate+Select+Committee+on+Intelligence&rft.date=2020-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intelligence.senate.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Freport_volume5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossiter2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Rossiter" title="Clinton Rossiter">Rossiter, Clinton</a>, ed. (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_American_Library" title="New American Library">Signet Classics</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780451528810" title="Special:BookSources/9780451528810"><bdi>9780451528810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federalist+Papers&rft.pub=Signet+Classics&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780451528810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRybickiWhitaker2020" class="citation report cs1">Rybicki, Elizabeth; Whitaker, L. Paige (December 8, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32717">Counting Electoral Votes: An Overview of Procedures at the Joint Session, Including Objections by Members of Congress</a> (Report). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved July 5, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Counting+Electoral+Votes%3A+An+Overview+of+Procedures+at+the+Joint+Session%2C+Including+Objections+by+Members+of+Congress&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2020-12-08&rft.aulast=Rybicki&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+L.+Paige&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrsreports.congress.gov%2Fproduct%2Fpdf%2FRL%2FRL32717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenate_Journal_42(3)" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj06845))">"Third Session of the 42nd Congress"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Journal" title="United States Senate Journal">United States Senate Journal</a>. 68. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>: 334–346. February 12, 1873. Retrieved July 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+States+Senate+Journal&rft.atitle=Third+Session+of+the+42nd+Congress&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=334-346&rft.date=1873-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmemory.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Fammem%2Fhlaw%3A%40field%28DOCID%2B%40lit%28sj06845%29%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v42/n10/eric-foner/the-corrupt-bargain">"The Corrupt Bargain"</a> (review of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Keyssar" title="Alexander Keyssar">Alexander Keyssar</a>, Why Do We Still Have the Electoral College?, Harvard, 2020, 544 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674660151" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674660151">978-0674660151</a>; and Jesse Wegman, Let the People Pick the President: The Case for Abolishing the Electoral College, St Martin's Press, 2020, 304 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1250221971" title="Special:BookSources/978-1250221971">978-1250221971</a>), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 42, no. 10 (May 21, 2020), pp. 3, 5–6. Foner concludes (p. 6): "Rooted in distrust of ordinary citizens and, like so many other features of American life, in the institution of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the U.S.">slavery</a>, the electoral college is a relic of a past the United States should have abandoned long ago."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kazin" title="Michael Kazin">Michael Kazin</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/electoral-college-alexander-keyssar/">"The Creaky Old System: Is the real threat to American democracy one of its own institutions?"</a> (review of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Keyssar" title="Alexander Keyssar">Alexander Keyssar</a>, Why Do We Still Have the Electoral College?, Harvard, 2020, 544 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674660151" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674660151">978-0674660151</a>), <a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a>, vol. 311, no. 7 (October 5/12, 2020), pp. 42–44. Kazin writes: "<a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> [...] sought to replace [the Electoral College] with a national popular vote [...]. [p. 43.] [W]e endure with the most ridiculous system [on earth] for producing our head of state and government [...]." (p. 44.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEriksonSigmanYao2020" class="citation journal cs1">Erikson, Robert S.; Sigman, Karl; Yao, Linan (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7668185">"Electoral College bias and the 2020 presidential election"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 117 (45): 27940–944. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PNAS..11727940E">2020PNAS..11727940E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2013581117">10.1073/pnas.2013581117</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7668185">7668185</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33106408">33106408</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Electoral+College+bias+and+the+2020+presidential+election&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=27940-944&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7668185%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33106408&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2013581117&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PNAS..11727940E&rft.aulast=Erikson&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft.au=Sigman%2C+Karl&rft.au=Yao%2C+Linan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7668185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+Electoral+College" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Edwards_III" title="George C. Edwards III">George C. Edwards III</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL16175486W/Why_the_electoral_college_is_bad_for_America?edition=key%3A/books/OL25053480M">Why the Electoral College is Bad for America</a>, second ed., New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300166491" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300166491">978-0300166491</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Electoral_College" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Electoral College">Electoral College</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/the-electoral-college.aspx">The Electoral College</a> by the <a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_State_Legislatures" title="National Conference of State Legislatures">National Conference of State Legislatures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/electoral-college">The Electoral College</a> by the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Voting rights in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Composition_and_election_of_Members" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">House Electors Qualifications Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Time,_place,_and_manner_of_holding" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Congressional Elections Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1st Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23rd Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26th Amendment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal laws and agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Second Enforcement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act" title="Ku Klux Klan Act">Ku Klux Klan Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amendments_to_the_Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965">amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jurisdictions_subject_to_the_special_provisions_of_the_Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="List of jurisdictions subject to the special provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965">covered jurisdictions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Accessibility_for_the_Elderly_and_Handicapped_Act" title="Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act">Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_and_Overseas_Citizens_Absentee_Voting_Act" title="Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act">Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Voting_Assistance_Program" title="Federal Voting Assistance Program">Federal Voting Assistance Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_and_Overseas_Voter_Empowerment_Act" title="Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act">Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voter_Registration_Act_of_1993" title="National Voter Registration Act of 1993">National Voter Registration Act of 1993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help_America_Vote_Act" title="Help America Vote Act">Help America Vote Act of 2002</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Election_Assistance_Commission" title="Election Assistance Commission">Election Assistance Commission</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Voter access</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absentee_ballot" title="Absentee ballot">Absentee ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_voting" title="Early voting">Early voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiatives_and_referendums_in_the_United_States" title="Initiatives and referendums in the United States">Initiatives and referendums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_voting_in_the_United_States" title="Postal voting in the United States">Postal voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_ballot" title="Provisional ballot">Provisional ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_election" title="Recall election">Recall election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration_in_the_United_States" title="Voter registration in the United States">Voter registration in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_space#United_States" title="Voting in space">Voting in space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vote denial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud_in_the_United_States" title="Electoral fraud in the United States">Electoral fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">Grandfather clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">Poll tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_caging" title="Voter caging">Voter caging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_identification_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Voter identification laws in the United States">Voter ID laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vote dilution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-past-the-post_voting" title="First-past-the-post voting">First-past-the-post voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States" title="Gerrymandering in the United States">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_non-transferable_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple non-transferable vote">Multiple non-transferable vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">One man, one vote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_manhood_suffrage" title="Universal manhood suffrage">Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Felony disenfranchisement in the United States">Felons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-citizen_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Non-citizen suffrage in the United States">Foreigners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_disenfranchisement_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender disenfranchisement in the United States">Transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_suffrage#United_States" title="Youth suffrage">Young adults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Black suffrage in the United States">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American voting rights">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_American_Samoa" title="Elections in American Samoa">American Samoa residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_federal_voting_rights" title="District of Columbia federal voting rights">District of Columbia residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_Guam" title="Voting in Guam">Guam residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="Northern Mariana Islands's at-large congressional district">Northern Mariana Islands residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_voting_rights_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands%27s_at-large_congressional_district" title="United States Virgin Islands's at-large congressional district">United States Virgin Islands residents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of voting rights in the United States">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">Timeline of women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage_Hikes" title="Suffrage Hikes">Suffrage Hikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Procession" title="Woman Suffrage Procession">Woman Suffrage Procession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes#American_(United_States)" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">U.S. suffragists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suffragists_and_suffragettes#Major_suffrage_publications" title="List of suffragists and suffragettes">Publications</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_poll_tax_repeal_movement" title="Women's poll tax repeal movement">Women's poll tax repeal movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">History of direct democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">Ballot access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance in the United States">Campaign finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">Citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">Democratic backsliding in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">Disfranchisement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Electoral reform in the United States">Electoral reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked-choice_voting_in_the_United_States" title="Ranked-choice voting in the United States">Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redistricting" title="Redistricting">Redistricting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">Suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">Voter registration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_presidential_elections" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_presidential_elections" title="Template:United States presidential elections"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_presidential_elections" title="Template talk:United States presidential elections"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_presidential_elections" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States presidential elections"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_presidential_elections" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election" title="United States presidential election">United States presidential elections</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections by year</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">1788</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">1808</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">1816</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1820_United_States_presidential_election" title="1820 United States presidential election">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1836</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1848_United_States_presidential_election" title="1848 United States presidential election">1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1852_United_States_presidential_election" title="1852 United States presidential election">1852</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">1856</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_United_States_presidential_election" title="1880 United States presidential election">1880</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_presidential_election" title="1900 United States presidential election">1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_United_States_presidential_election" title="1904 United States presidential election">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_presidential_election" title="1964 United States presidential election">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election" title="1996 United States presidential election">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election" title="2012 United States presidential election">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2028_United_States_presidential_election" title="2028 United States presidential election">2028</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_by_participation_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="List of states by participation in United States presidential elections">Elections by state</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alabama" title="United States presidential elections in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alaska" title="United States presidential elections in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Arizona" title="United States presidential elections in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Arkansas" title="United States presidential elections in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_California" title="United States presidential elections in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Colorado" title="United States presidential elections in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Connecticut" title="United States presidential elections in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Delaware" title="United States presidential elections in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States presidential elections in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Florida" title="United States presidential elections in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Georgia" title="United States presidential elections in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Hawaii" title="United States presidential elections in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Idaho" title="United States presidential elections in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Illinois" title="United States presidential elections in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Indiana" title="United States presidential elections in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Iowa" title="United States presidential elections in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Kansas" title="United States presidential elections in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Kentucky" title="United States presidential elections in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Louisiana" title="United States presidential elections in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Maine" title="United States presidential elections in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Maryland" title="United States presidential elections in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Massachusetts" title="United States presidential elections in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Michigan" title="United States presidential elections in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Minnesota" title="United States presidential elections in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Mississippi" title="United States presidential elections in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Missouri" title="United States presidential elections in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Montana" title="United States presidential elections in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Nebraska" title="United States presidential elections in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Nevada" title="United States presidential elections in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Hampshire" title="United States presidential elections in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Jersey" title="United States presidential elections in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Mexico" title="United States presidential elections in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_York" title="United States presidential elections in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_North_Carolina" title="United States presidential elections in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_North_Dakota" title="United States presidential elections in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Ohio" title="United States presidential elections in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Oklahoma" title="United States presidential elections in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Oregon" title="United States presidential elections in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Pennsylvania" title="United States presidential elections in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Rhode_Island" title="United States presidential elections in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_South_Carolina" title="United States presidential elections in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_South_Dakota" title="United States presidential elections in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Tennessee" title="United States presidential elections in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Texas" title="United States presidential elections in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Utah" title="United States presidential elections in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Vermont" title="United States presidential elections in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Virginia" title="United States presidential elections in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Washington_(state)" title="United States presidential elections in Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_West_Virginia" title="United States presidential elections in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Wisconsin" title="United States presidential elections in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Wyoming" title="United States presidential elections in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary" title="United States presidential primary">Primaries and caucuses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_caucuses" title="Iowa caucuses">Iowa caucuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_presidential_primary" title="New Hampshire presidential primary">New Hampshire presidential primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_presidential_caucuses" title="Nevada presidential caucuses">Nevada presidential caucuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_presidential_primary" title="South Carolina presidential primary">South Carolina presidential primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Tuesday" title="Super Tuesday">Super Tuesday</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_nominating_convention" title="United States presidential nominating convention">Nominating conventions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidential_nominating_conventions_in_the_United_States" title="List of presidential nominating conventions in the United States">List of nominating conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokered_convention" title="Brokered convention">Brokered convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_bounce" title="Convention bounce">Convention bounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdelegate" title="Superdelegate">Superdelegate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electoral College</a> and popular vote</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Results <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_summary" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election summary">summary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_in_which_the_winner_lost_the_popular_vote" title="List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote">elections in which the winner lost the popular vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_Electoral_College_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by Electoral College margin">Electoral College margins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_election_results_by_state" title="List of United States presidential election results by state">Electoral College results by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_vote_changes_between_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Electoral vote changes between United States presidential elections">electoral vote changes between elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_received_an_electoral_vote_in_the_United_States_Electoral_College" title="List of people who received an electoral vote in the United States Electoral College">electoral vote recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_candidates_by_number_of_votes_received" title="List of United States presidential candidates by number of votes received">popular votes received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_popular_vote_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin">popular-vote margins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_ascertainment" title="Certificate of ascertainment">Certificate of ascertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of vote">Certificate of vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">Faithless elector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unpledged_elector" title="Unpledged elector">Unpledged elector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Voter turnout in United States presidential elections">Voter turnout</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._presidential_campaign_slogans" title="List of U.S. presidential campaign slogans">Campaign slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polling_for_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Polling for United States presidential elections">Historical election polling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_major_party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States major party presidential tickets">Major party tickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsuccessful_major_party_candidates_for_President_of_the_United_States" title="List of unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States">Major party losers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_debates" title="United States presidential debates">Presidential debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_surprise" title="October surprise">October surprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">Swing state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping-point_state" title="Tipping-point state">Tipping-point state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_recount" title="Election recount">Election recount</a> (<a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election_recount_in_Florida" title="2000 United States presidential election recount in Florida">2000</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_straw_polls_in_Guam" title="United States presidential straw polls in Guam">Guam straw poll</a></li> <li>Vice presidential confirmations: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation" title="1973 United States vice presidential confirmation">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation" title="1974 United States vice presidential confirmation">1974</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="Template:United States House of Representatives elections">House elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Senate_elections" title="Template:United States Senate elections">Senate elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_gubernatorial_elections" title="Template:United States gubernatorial elections">Gubernatorial elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a> (painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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