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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Operations and procedures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operations_and_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Madison's_blueprint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madison's_blueprint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Madison's blueprint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madison's_blueprint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early debates</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_debates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early debates subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Congress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proportional_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proportional_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Proportional representation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proportional_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bicameralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bicameralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Bicameralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bicameralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-Fifths_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-Fifths_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Three-Fifths ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-Fifths_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_branch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_branch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Executive branch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive_branch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unitary_executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unitary_executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Unitary executive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unitary_executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_and_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_and_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Election and removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_and_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judiciary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judiciary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Judiciary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judiciary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Alternative plans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apportionment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apportionment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Apportionment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Apportionment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Apportionment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Apportionment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Connecticut_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connecticut_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Connecticut Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connecticut_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grand_Committee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Committee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Grand Committee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_Committee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Revisiting the three-fifths ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Compromise_adopted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Compromise_adopted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Great Compromise adopted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Compromise_adopted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federal_supremacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_supremacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Federal supremacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_supremacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-President's_selection_and_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President's_selection_and_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>President's selection and removal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President's_selection_and_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appointing_judges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appointing_judges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Appointing judges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appointing_judges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amendments_and_ratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amendments_and_ratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Amendments and ratification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amendments_and_ratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_draft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_draft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>First draft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_draft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further modifications and concluding debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drafting_and_signing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drafting_and_signing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Drafting and signing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drafting_and_signing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Slavery subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-Fifths_Compromise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Three-Fifths Compromise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-Fifths_Compromise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Framers_of_the_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Framers_of_the_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Framers of the Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Framers_of_the_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Constitutional Convention (United States)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" 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Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9)" title="الاجتماع الدستوري (الولايات المتحدة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاجتماع الدستوري (الولايات المتحدة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3n_de_Filadelfia" title="Convención de Filadelfia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Convención de Filadelfia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Філадэльфійскі канвент – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Філадэльфійскі канвент" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Конституционен конвент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конституционен конвент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3_de_Filad%C3%A8lfia" title="Convenció de Filadèlfia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Convenció de Filadèlfia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filadelfsk%C3%BD_%C3%BAstavn%C3%AD_konvent" title="Filadelfský ústavní konvent – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filadelfský ústavní konvent" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forfatningskonventet_(USA)" title="Forfatningskonventet (USA) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forfatningskonventet (USA)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verfassungskonvent_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Verfassungskonvent der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verfassungskonvent der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_p%C3%B5hiseaduslik_konvent" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseaduslik konvent – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseaduslik konvent" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3n_de_Filadelfia" title="Convención de Filadelfia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Convención de Filadelfia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstitucia_Kongreso_(Usono)" title="Konstitucia Kongreso (Usono) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konstitucia Kongreso (Usono)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filadelfiako_konbentzioa" title="Filadelfiako konbentzioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filadelfiako konbentzioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="کنوانسیون قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کنوانسیون قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_de_Philadelphie" title="Convention de Philadelphie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Convention de Philadelphie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenci%C3%B3n_de_Filadelfia" title="Convención de Filadelfia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Convención de Filadelfia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%84%EB%9D%BC%EB%8D%B8%ED%94%BC%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%9C%ED%97%8C%ED%9A%8C%EC%9D%98" title="필라델피아 제헌회의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="필라델피아 제헌회의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF)" title="संवैधानिक सम्मलेन (संयुक्त राज्य) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संवैधानिक सम्मलेन (संयुक्त राज्य)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenzione_di_Filadelfia" title="Convenzione di Filadelfia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Convenzione di Filadelfia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%94_(%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA)" title="ועידת החוקה (ארצות הברית) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ועידת החוקה (ארצות הברית)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Филадельфиялық конвент – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Филадельфиялық конвент" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filadelfijos_suva%C5%BEiavimas" title="Filadelfijos suvažiavimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Filadelfijos suvažiavimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Convention" title="Constitutional Convention – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Constitutional Convention" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE" title="अमेरिकाको संविधान सभा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अमेरिकाको संविधान सभा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%83%A9%E3%83%87%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E5%88%B6%E5%AE%9A%E4%BC%9A%E8%AD%B0" title="フィラデルフィア憲法制定会議 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フィラデルフィア憲法制定会議" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A8_(%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C)" title="ਸੰਵਿਧਾਨਕ ਸੰਮੇਲਨ (ਸੰਯੁਕਤ ਰਾਜ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੰਵਿਧਾਨਕ ਸੰਮੇਲਨ (ਸੰਯੁਕਤ ਰਾਜ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konwencja_Konstytucyjna" title="Konwencja Konstytucyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konwencja Konstytucyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conven%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Filad%C3%A9lfia" title="Convenção de Filadélfia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Convenção de Filadélfia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Филадельфийский конвент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Филадельфийский конвент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Constitutional Convention (United States)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Astavodarn%C3%A9_zhroma%C5%BEdenie_USA" title="Ústavodarné zhromaždenie USA – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ústavodarné zhromaždenie USA" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%94)" title="Уставотворна скупштина (САД) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Уставотворна скупштина (САД)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perustuslaillinen_konventti_(Yhdysvallat)" title="Perustuslaillinen konventti (Yhdysvallat) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Perustuslaillinen konventti (Yhdysvallat)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Філадельфійський конвент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філадельфійський конвент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/160px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/240px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/320px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Additional_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="extiw" 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.navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Constitutional Convention</b> took place in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> from May 25 to September 17, 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931,_38_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931,_38-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of Virginia and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York, was to create a new frame of government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> of Virginia, former commanding general of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a>, placing the Convention among the most significant events in <a href="/wiki/American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="American history">American history</a>. </p><p>The convention took place in the old Pennsylvania State House, now known as <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>, in Philadelphia. At the time, the convention was not referred to as a <i>constitutional convention</i>. It was contemporarily known as the <b>Federal Convention</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <b>Philadelphia Convention</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <b>Grand Convention at Philadelphia</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdesser-Torpey201326-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossiter1987_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossiter1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nor did most of the delegates arrive intending to draft a new constitution. Many assumed that the purpose of the convention was to discuss and draft improvements to the existing <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, and would not have agreed to participate otherwise. Once the convention began, however, most of the delegates – though not all – came to agree in general terms that the goal would be a new system of government, not simply a revised version of the Articles of Confederation. </p><p>Several broad outlines were proposed and debated, most notably Madison's <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a>. The Virginia Plan was selected as the basis for the new government, and the delegates quickly reached consensus on a general blueprint of a federal government which has three branches (<a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial</a>) along with the basic role of each branch. However, disagreement over the specific design and powers of the branches delayed progress for weeks and threatened the success of the convention. The most contentious disputes involved the legislature, specifically the composition and election procedures for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> as the upper legislative house of a <a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">bicameral</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, and whether <i><a href="/wiki/Proportional_representation" title="Proportional representation">proportional representation</a></i> was to be defined by a state's geography or by its population. The role of the executive was also hotly debated, including the key issues of whether to divide the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive power</a> among three people or vest the power in a single chief executive to be called the President; how a president would be elected; the length of a presidential term and the number of allowable terms; what offenses should be impeachable; and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or the executive. Finally, slavery was also a contentious issue, with the delegates debating the insertion of a fugitive slave clause; whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade; and whether slaves were to be counted in proportional representation. Most of the time during the convention was spent on deciding these issues. </p><p>Progress was slow until mid-July, when the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a> resolved enough lingering arguments for a draft written by the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a> to gain acceptance. Though more modifications and compromises were made over the following weeks, most of this draft can be found in the finished version of the Constitution. After several more issues were debated and resolved, the Committee of Style produced the final version in early September. It was voted on by the delegates, inscribed on parchment by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a> with engraving for printing, and <a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">signed by 39 of 55 delegates</a> on September 17, 1787. The completed proposed Constitution was printed in several copies for review which began the debates and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Ratification_of_the_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">ratification process</a>. Soon after it was also <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">printed in newspapers</a> for public review. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">History of the United States (1776–1789)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg/240px-United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg/360px-United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg/480px-United_States_1789-03_to_1789-08_eastern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>States and territories of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> at the time of the Constitutional Convention</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">13 American Colonies</a> replaced their <a href="/wiki/Colonial_government_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" title="Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies">colonial governments</a> with <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican</a> constitutions based on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, organizing government into <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Judicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial">judicial</a> branches. These revolutionary constitutions endorsed <a href="/wiki/Legislative_supremacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative supremacy">legislative supremacy</a> by placing most power in the legislature, which was viewed as most representative of the people, including power traditionally considered as belonging to the executive and judicial branches. State <a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">governors</a> lacked significant authority, and state courts and judges were under the control of the legislative branch at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1969155–156_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1969155–156-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776, and the 13 states created a permanent alliance to coordinate American efforts to win the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>. This alliance, the United States, was governed according to the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, which was more of a treaty between independent countries than a national constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201613–14_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201613–14-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Articles were adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1777 but not ratified by all states until 1781.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20171_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20171-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Articles, the United States was essentially a federation of independent republics, with the Articles guaranteeing state sovereignty and independence. The Confederation was governed by the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Unicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicameral">unicameral</a> legislature whose members were chosen by their state legislatures and where each state was entitled to one vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20054_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20054-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress's powers were limited to waging war and directing foreign affairs. It could not levy taxes or tariffs, and it could only request money from the states and could not force delinquent states to pay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20174–5_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20174–5-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the Articles could only be amended by a unanimous vote of the states, each state had effective <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> power over any proposed change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Super_majority" class="mw-redirect" title="Super majority">super majority</a> (nine of thirteen state delegations) was required for Congress to pass major legislation such as declaring war, making treaties, or borrowing money.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201641_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201641-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Confederation had no executive or judicial branches, which meant the Confederation government lacked effective means to enforce its own laws and treaties against state non-compliance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201647_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201647-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It soon became evident to nearly all that the Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various problems confronting the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once the crucial task of winning the war had passed, states began to look to their own interests rather than the country's. By the mid-1780s, states were refusing to provide Congress with funding, which meant the government could not meet the interest on its foreign debt, pay the soldiers stationed along the Ohio River, or defend American navigation rights on the Mississippi River against Spanish interference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1782, Rhode Island vetoed an amendment that would have allowed Congress to levy taxes on imports to pay off federal debts. A second attempt was made to approve a federal impost in 1785; however, this time it was New York which disapproved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Confederation Congress also lacked the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. Britain, France and Spain imposed restrictions on American ships and products, while the U.S. was unable to coordinate retaliatory trade policies. When Massachusetts and Pennsylvania placed reciprocal duties on British trade, neighboring states such as Connecticut and Delaware established <a href="/wiki/Free_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Free port">free ports</a> to gain an economic advantage. Some states even began applying customs duties against the trade of neighboring states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201621–23-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1784, Congress proposed an amendment to give it powers over foreign trade; however, it failed to receive unanimous approval by the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201634-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many upper-class Americans complained that state constitutions were too democratic and, as a result, legislators were more concerned with maintaining popular approval than doing what was best for the nation. The most pressing example was the way state legislatures responded to calls for economic relief. Many people were unable to pay taxes and debts due to a post-war economic depression that was exacerbated by a scarcity of gold and silver coins. States responded by issuing <a href="/wiki/Early_American_currency#Continental_currency" title="Early American currency">paper currency</a>, which often <a href="/wiki/Currency_appreciation_and_depreciation" title="Currency appreciation and depreciation">depreciated</a> in value, and by making it easier to defer tax and debt payments. These policies favored debtors at the expense of creditors, and it was proposed that Congress be given power to prevent such <a href="/wiki/Populist" class="mw-redirect" title="Populist">populist</a> laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201674–88-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the government of Massachusetts refused to enact similar relief legislation, rural farmers resorted to violence in <a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a> (1786–1787). This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Shays" title="Daniel Shays">Daniel Shays</a>, a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards2003132–139-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These and other issues greatly worried many of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founders</a> that the Union as it existed up to that point was in danger of breaking apart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalumbo20099–10-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaminskiLeffler19913-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1786, delegates from five states met at the <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a> and invited all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. On February 21, 1787, the Confederation Congress endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20056-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Congress only endorsed the convention on the grounds it would produce a report upon which necessary changes to the Articles could be introduced and ratified. Rhode Island was the only state that refused to send delegates, and it was the last state to ratify the Constitution in May 1790.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operations_and_procedures">Operations and procedures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Operations and procedures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Independence_Hall_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/240px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/360px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Independence_Hall_10.jpg/480px-Independence_Hall_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>'s Assembly Room</figcaption></figure> <p>Originally planned to begin on May 14, the convention had to be postponed when very few of the selected delegates were present on that day due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century. On May 14, only delegates from Virginia and Pennsylvania were present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until May 25 that a <a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> of seven states was secured and the convention could begin inside the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Pennsylvania State House</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoehn200337-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Hampshire delegates would not join the convention until July 23, more than halfway through the proceedings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005103-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the first things that the Convention did were to choose a presiding officer, unanimously electing <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> to be the president of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski19958–9_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski19958–9-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention then adopted rules drafted by a committee whose members were <a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a> (chairman), <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each state delegation received a single vote either for or against a proposal in accordance with the majority opinion of the state's delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This rule increased the power of the smaller states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200751-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a state's delegates divided evenly on a motion, the state did not cast a vote. Throughout the convention, delegates would regularly come and go. Only 30 to 40 delegates were present on a typical day, and each state had its own quorum requirements. Maryland and Connecticut allowed a single delegate to cast its vote. New York required all three of its delegates to be present. If too few of a state's delegates were in attendance, the state did not cast a vote. After two of New York's three delegates, <a href="/wiki/John_Lansing_Jr." title="John Lansing Jr.">John Lansing Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a>, abandoned the convention on July 10 with no intention of returning, New York was unable to vote on any further proposals, although <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> would continue to occasionally speak during the debates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928281-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200583-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200751_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200751-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rules allowed delegates to demand reconsideration of any decision previously voted on. This enabled the delegates to take <a href="/wiki/Straw_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Straw vote">straw votes</a> to measure the strength of controversial proposals and to change their minds as they worked for consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200982-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship200511-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the sweltering summer heat, the windows of the meeting hall were nailed shut to keep the proceedings a secret from the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Pursuing_American_Ideals2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pursuing_American_Ideals2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a> was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison's <i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i> remain the most complete record of the convention, along with notes kept by Yates through mid-July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship2005162–64-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarren1928127_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarren1928127-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the pledge to secrecy, Madison's account was not published until after his death in 1836, while Yates's notes on the convention's first two months were published in 1821.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYates1821n15_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYates1821n15-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Madison's_blueprint"><span id="Madison.27s_blueprint"></span>Madison's blueprint</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Madison's blueprint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/240px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/360px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg/480px-James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="1044" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, author of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> of Virginia arrived in Philadelphia eleven days early and determined to set the convention's agenda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the convention, Madison studied republics and confederacies throughout history, such as ancient Greece and contemporary Switzerland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200729-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1787, he drafted a document titled, "Vices of the Political System of the United States," which systematically evaluated the American political system and offered solutions for its weaknesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200927-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to his advance preparation, Madison's blueprint for constitutional revision became the starting point for the convention's deliberations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016128-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Madison believed the solution to America's problems was to be found in a strong central government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200729_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200729-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress needed compulsory taxation authority as well as power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016129-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To prevent state interference with the federal government's authority, Madison believed there needed to be a way to enforce the federal supremacy, such as an explicit right of Congress to use force against non-compliant states and the creation of a federal court system. Madison also believed the method of representation in Congress had to change. Since under Madison's plan, Congress would exercise authority over citizens directly—not simply through the states—representation ought to be apportioned by population, with more populous states having more votes in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016130-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Madison was also concerned with preventing a <a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>. The government needed to be neutral between the various <a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">factions</a> or interest groups that divided society—creditors and debtors, rich and poor, or farmers, merchants and manufacturers. Madison believed that a single faction could more easily control the government within a state but would have a more difficult time dominating a national government comprising many different interest groups. The government could be designed to further insulate officeholders from the pressures of a majority faction. To protect both national authority and minority rights, Madison believed Congress should be granted veto power over state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016131–132-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_debates">Early debates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virginia_Plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/240px-Virginia_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/360px-Virginia_Plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virginia_Plan.png/480px-Virginia_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinckney_Plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/240px-Pinckney_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/360px-Pinckney_Plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Pinckney_Plan.png/480px-Pinckney_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1439" data-file-height="905" /></a><figcaption>The Charles Pinckney Plan</figcaption></figure> <p>While waiting for the convention to formally begin, Madison sketched out his initial proposal, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a> and reflected his views as a strong <a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalist</a>. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates agreed with Madison's plan and formed what came to be the predominant coalition within the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200952-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plan was modeled on the state governments and was written in the form of fifteen resolutions outlining basic principles. It lacked the system of <a href="/wiki/Checks_and_Balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and Balances">checks and balances</a> that would become central to the US Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200753_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200753-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It called for a supreme national government and was a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200991-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 29, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, the governor of Virginia, presented the Virginia Plan to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200986-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same day, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a> of South Carolina introduced his own plan that also greatly increased the power of the national government; however, the supporters of the Virginia Plan ensured that it, rather than Pinckney's plan, received the most consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200999-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of Pinckney's ideas did appear in the final draft of the Constitution. His plan called for a bicameral legislature made up of a House of Delegates and a Senate. The popularly elected House would elect senators who would serve for four-year terms and represent one of four regions. The national legislature would have veto power over state laws. The legislature would elect a chief executive called a president. The president and his cabinet would have veto power over legislation. The plan also included a national judiciary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On May 30, the Convention agreed, at the request of <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a>, "that a national government ought to be established consisting of a supreme Legislative, Executive and Judiciary".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the convention's first move towards going beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation and instead produce an entirely new government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009102–104-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once it had agreed to the idea of a supreme national government, the convention began debating specific parts of the Virginia Plan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congress">Congress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Congress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EdmundRandolph.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/EdmundRandolph.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, Virginia's governor, introduced the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Virginia Plan called for the unicameral Confederation Congress to be replaced with a <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> Congress. This would be a truly national legislature with power to make laws "in all cases to which the separate states are incompetent."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would also be able to veto state laws. Representation in both houses of Congress would be <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">apportioned</a> according either to <i>quotas of contribution</i> (a state's wealth as reflected in the taxes it paid) or the size of each state's non-slave population. The <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">lower house</a> of Congress would be directly elected by the people, while the <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">upper house</a> would be elected by the lower house from candidates nominated by state legislatures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016139-140-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proportional_representation">Proportional representation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Proportional representation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immediately after agreeing to form a supreme national government, the delegates turned to the Virginia Plan's proposal for proportional representation in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009105-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virginia, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the most populous states, were unhappy with the one-vote-per-state rule in the Confederation Congress because they could be outvoted by the smaller states despite representing more than half of the nation's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756,_66-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the delegates were divided over the best way to apportion representatives. Quotas of contribution appealed to southern delegates because they would include <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slave</a> property, but <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> of Massachusetts highlighted the impractical side of such a scheme. If the national government did not impose <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxes</a> (which, for the next century, it rarely did), he noted, representatives could not be assigned. Calculating such quotas would also be difficult due to lack of reliable data. Basing representation on the number of "free inhabitants" was unpopular with delegates from the South, where forty percent of the population was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200756–58,_77_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200756–58,_77-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the small states were opposed to any change that decreased their own influence. Delaware's delegation threatened to leave the Convention if proportional representation replaced equal representation, so debate on apportionment was postponed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009109-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 9, <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> of New Jersey reminded the delegates that they were sent to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, not to establish a national government. While he agreed that the Confederation Congress needed new powers, including the power to coerce the states, he was adamant that a confederation required equal representation for states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009149-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> James Madison records his words as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a178_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a178-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[The Articles of the Confederation] were therefore the proper basis of all the proceedings of the Convention. We ought to keep within its limits, or we should be charged by our constituents with usurpation . . . the Commissions under which we acted were not only the measure of our power. [T]hey denoted also the sentiments of the States on the subject of our deliberation. The idea of a national [Government] as contradistinguished from a federal one, never entered into the mind of any of them, and to the public mind we must accommodate ourselves. We have no power to go beyond the federal scheme, and if we had the people are not ripe for any other. We must follow the people; the people will not follow us.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bicameralism">Bicameralism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bicameralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—James Madison, as recorded by Robert Yates, Tuesday June 26, 1787<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a431_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a431-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>On May 31, the delegates discussed the structure of Congress and how its members would be selected. The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was familiar and had wide support. The <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> had an elected <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a> and a hereditary <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a>. All the states had bicameral legislatures except for Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The delegates quickly agreed that each house of Congress should be able to originate bills. They also agreed that the new Congress would have all the legislative powers of the Confederation Congress and veto power over state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009121-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was some opposition to the popular election of the lower house or <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut feared the people were too easily misled by <a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">demagogues</a> and that popular election could lead to mob rule and anarchy. <a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a> of South Carolina believed that only wealthy men of property could be trusted with political power. The majority of the convention, however, supported popular election.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009110–116-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of Virginia said the lower house was "to be the grand depository of the democratic principle of the government."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009117-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was general agreement that the upper house or <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> should be smaller and more selective than the lower house. Its members should be <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentlemen">gentlemen</a> drawn from the most intelligent and virtuous among the citizenry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009122-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experience had convinced the delegates that such an upper house was necessary to tame the excesses of the democratically elected lower house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200989,_110-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Virginia Plan's method of selecting the Senate was more controversial. Members concerned with preserving state power wanted state legislatures to select senators, while <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> of Pennsylvania proposed direct election by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009119-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until June 7 that the delegates unanimously decided that state legislatures would choose senators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200764–65_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200764–65-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three-Fifths_ratio">Three-Fifths ratio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Three-Fifths ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the question of proportional representation, the three large states still faced opposition from the eight small states. James Wilson realized that the large states needed the support of the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a> states of Georgia and the Carolinas. For these southern delegates, the main priority was protection of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200767_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200767-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Working with <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> of South Carolina, Wilson, along with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a> of South Carolina and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut, proposed the <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a> on June 11. This resolution apportioned seats in the House of Representatives based on a state's free population plus three-fifths of its slave population. Nine states voted in favor, with only New Jersey and Delaware against.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200775–78_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200775–78-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This compromise would give the South at least a dozen additional congressmen and electoral college votes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200779_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200779-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same day, the large-state/slave-state alliance also succeeded in applying the three-fifths ratio to Senate seats (though this was later overturned).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200780_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200780-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive_branch">Executive branch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Executive branch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions—law making embodied in the legislature and law executing embodied in the king and his courts—the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski19958–9_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski19958–9-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, the form the executive should take, its powers and its selection would be sources of constant dispute through the summer of 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009124-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, few nations had nonhereditary executives that could serve as models. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> was led by a <a href="/wiki/Stadtholder" title="Stadtholder">stadtholder</a>, but this office was usually inherited by members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Orange">House of Orange</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a> had no single leader, and the <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Elective monarchies">elective monarchies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> were viewed as corrupt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of their colonial experience, Americans distrusted a strong chief executive. Under the Articles of Confederation, the closest thing to an executive was the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_the_States" title="Committee of the States">Committee of the States</a>, which was empowered to transact government business while Congress was in recess. However, this body was largely inactive. The revolutionary state constitutions made the governors subordinate to the legislatures, denying them executive veto power over legislation. Without veto power, governors were unable to block legislation that threatened minority rights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009125–126-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States chose governors in different ways. Many state constitutions empowered legislatures to select them, but several allowed direct election by the people. In Pennsylvania, the people elected an <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Council_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania">executive council</a> and the legislature appointed one of its members to be chief executive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Virginia Plan proposed a national executive chosen by Congress. It would have power to execute national laws and be vested with the power to make war and treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether the executive would be a single person or a group of people was not defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200990-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The executive together with a "convenient number" of federal judges would form a <span class="anchor" id="Council_of_Revision_proposal"></span><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Revision" title="Council of Revision">Council of Revision</a> with the power to veto any act of Congress. This veto could be overridden by an unspecified number of votes in both houses of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016140-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unitary_executive">Unitary executive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Unitary executive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James-wilson.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/James-wilson.png/240px-James-wilson.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/James-wilson.png/360px-James-wilson.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/James-wilson.png 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a>'s ideas shaped the American presidency more than any other delegate<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a> feared that the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a> made the executive too dependent on Congress. He argued that there should be a single, <a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">unitary executive</a>. Members of a multiple executive would most likely be chosen from different regions and represent regional interests. In Wilson's view, only a single executive could represent the entire nation while giving "energy, dispatch, and responsibility" to the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson used his understanding of civic virtue as defined by the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a> to help design the presidency. The challenge was to design a properly constituted executive that was fit for a republic and based on civic virtue by the general citizenry. He spoke 56 times calling for a chief executive who would be energetic, independent, and accountable. He believed that the moderate level of class conflict in American society produced a level of sociability and inter-class friendships that could make the presidency the symbolic leader of the entire American people. Wilson did not consider the possibility of bitterly polarized <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">political parties</a>. He saw <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> as the cement that held America together linking the interests of the people and of the presidential administration. Wilson envisioned a president who would be a man of the people and who embodied the national responsibility for the public good and provided transparency and accountability by being a highly visible national leader, as opposed to numerous largely anonymous congressmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346._78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorHardwick2009331–346.-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCarthy1987689–696-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiClerico1987301–317-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 1, Wilson proposed that "the Executive consist of a single person." This motion was seconded by Charles Pinckney, whose plan called for a single executive and specifically named this official a "president".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009127-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edmund Randolph agreed with Wilson that the executive needed "vigor", but he disapproved of a unitary executive, which he feared was "the <a href="/wiki/Foetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foetus">foetus</a> of monarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Randolph and George Mason led the opposition against a unitary executive, but most delegates agreed with Wilson. The prospect that George Washington would be the first president may have allowed the proponents of a unitary executive to accumulate a large coalition. Wilson's motion for a single executive passed on June 4.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128,_134-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the convention set the executive's term of office to seven years, but this would be revisited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Election_and_removal">Election and removal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Election and removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wilson also argued that the executive should be directly elected by the people. Only through direct election could the executive be independent of both Congress and the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009129-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was unpopular. A few delegates such as Roger Sherman, Elbridge Gerry, and Pierce Butler opposed the direct election of the executive because they considered the people too easily manipulated. However, most delegates were not questioning the intelligence of the voters; rather, what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century. Due to a lack of information, delegates feared that the average voter would be too ignorant about the candidates to make an informed decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009130-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sherman proposed an arrangement similar to a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a> in which the executive should be appointed by and directly accountable to the legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009128-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A majority of delegates favored the president's election by Congress for a seven-year term, though there was concern that this would give the legislature too much power. Southern delegates supported selection by state legislatures, but this was opposed by nationalists such as Madison who feared that such a president would become a <a href="/wiki/Power_broker_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power broker (politics)">power broker</a> between different states' interests rather than a symbol of national unity. Eventually however, on June 2 the convention proposed and agreed to the national legislature choosing the executive for a single 7-year term, a proposal which of course later changed. Realizing that direct election was impossible, Wilson proposed what would become the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral college</a>—the states would be divided into districts in which voters would choose electors who would then elect the president. This would preserve the separation of powers and keep the state legislatures out of the selection process. Initially, however, this scheme received little support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135–136_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009135–136-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issue of the executive was one of the last major issues to be resolved. Resolution was achieved by adjustment to the electoral college proposal. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem, therefore, was a contested issue. Most thought that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> should then choose the president since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the House would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009136-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Virginia Plan made no provision for removing the executive. On June 2, <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a> of Delaware proposed that the president be removed from office by Congress at the request of a majority of state legislatures. Madison and Wilson opposed this state interference in the national executive branch. Sherman argued that Congress should be able to remove the president for any reason in what was essentially a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no-confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no-confidence">vote of no-confidence</a>. George Mason worried that would make the president a "mere creature of the legislature" and violate the separation of powers. Dickinson's motion was rejected, but in the aftermath of the vote there was still no consensus over how an unfit president should be removed from office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141–142_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009141–142-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 4, the delegates debated the Council of Revision. Wilson and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York disagreed with the mixing of executive and judicial branches. They wanted the president to have an absolute veto to guarantee his independence from the legislative branch. Remembering how colonial governors used their veto to "extort money" from the legislature, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> of Pennsylvania opposed giving the president an absolute veto. Gerry proposed that a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress be able to overrule any veto of the Council of Revision. This was amended to replace the council with the president alone, but Madison insisted on retaining a Council of Revision and consideration of the veto power was postponed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138–140_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009138–140-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judiciary">Judiciary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Judiciary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the English tradition, judges were seen as agents of the king and his court who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>, and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch" of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPadoverLandynski1995-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On June 4, delegates unanimously agreed to a national judiciary "of one supreme tribunal and one or more inferior tribunals". The delegates disagreed on how federal judges should be chosen. The Virginia Plan called for the national legislature to appoint judges. James Wilson wanted the president to appoint judges to increase the power of that office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009236-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 13, the revised report on the Virginia Plan was issued. This report summarized the decisions made by the delegates in the first two weeks of the convention. It was agreed that a "national judiciary be established, to consist of one supreme tribunal". Congress would have the power to create and appoint inferior courts. Judges were to hold office <a href="/wiki/Good_Behavior_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Behavior Clause">"during good behavior"</a>, and the Senate would appoint them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009159-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_plans">Alternative plans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Alternative plans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Jersey_Plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/240px-New_Jersey_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/360px-New_Jersey_Plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/New_Jersey_Plan.png/480px-New_Jersey_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="934" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hamilton_Plan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/240px-Hamilton_Plan.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/360px-Hamilton_Plan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Hamilton_Plan.png/480px-Hamilton_Plan.png 2x" data-file-width="1439" data-file-height="806" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>'s Plan</figcaption></figure> <p>The small state delegates were alarmed at the plan taking shape: a supreme national government that could override state laws and proportional representation in both houses of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200788_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200788-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> William Paterson and other delegates from New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland and New York created an alternative plan that consisted of several amendments to the Articles of Confederation. Under the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a>, the Confederation Congress would remain unicameral with each state having one vote. Congress would be allowed to levy tariffs and other taxes as well as regulate trade and commerce. Congress would elect a plural "federal executive" whose members would serve a single term and could be removed by Congress at the request of a majority of state governors. There would also be a federal judiciary to apply US law. Federal judges would serve for life and be appointed by the executives. Laws enacted by Congress would take precedence over state laws. This plan was introduced on June 15.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161–162_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009161–162-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200790–91_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200790–91-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 18, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> of New York presented his own plan that was at odds with both the Virginia and New Jersey plans. It called for the constitution to be modeled on the <a href="/wiki/British_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="British Government">British government</a>. The bicameral legislature included a lower house called the Assembly elected by the people for three year terms. The people would choose electors who would elect the members of a Senate who served for life. Electors would also choose a single executive called the governor who would also serve for life. The governor would have an absolute veto over bills. There would also be a national judiciary whose members would serve for life. Hamilton called for the abolition of the states (or at least their reduction to sub-jurisdictions with limited powers). Some scholars have suggested that Hamilton presented this radical plan to help secure passage of the Virginia Plan by making it seem moderate by comparison. The plan was so out of step with political reality that it was not even debated, and Hamilton would be troubled for years by accusations that he was a <a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">monarchist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200794–95_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200794–95-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMount2012_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMount2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 19, the delegates voted on the New Jersey Plan. With the support of the slave states and Connecticut, the large states defeated the plan by a 7–3 margin. Maryland's delegation was divided, so it did not vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart200796_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart200796-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This did not end the debate over representation. Rather, the delegates found themselves in a stalemate that lasted into July. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apportionment">Apportionment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Apportionment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connecticut_Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Connecticut Compromise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/240px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg" decoding="async" width="240" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/360px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg/480px-Roger_Sherman_1721-1793_by_Ralph_Earl.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut</figcaption></figure> <p>On several occasions, the Connecticut delegation, including <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a>, proposed a compromise that the House would have proportional representation and the Senate equal representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009164-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A version of this compromise had originally been crafted and proposed by Sherman on June 11. He agreed with Madison that the Senate should be composed of the wisest and most virtuous citizens, but he also saw its role as defending the rights and interests of the states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009150-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> James Madison recorded Sherman's June 11 speech as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a196_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a196-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Mr. Sherman proposed that the proportion of suffrage in the first branch should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. He said as the States would remain possessed of certain individual rights, each State ought to be able to protect itself: otherwise a few large States will rule the rest. The House of Lords in England he observed had certain particular rights under the Constitution, and hence they have an equal vote with the House of Commons that they may be able to defend their rights.</p></blockquote> <p>On June 29, Johnson made a similar point: "that in one branch, the people ought to be represented; in the other, the states."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009181-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither side was ready yet to embrace the concept of <a href="/wiki/Divided_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Divided sovereignty">divided sovereignty</a> between the states and a federal government, however.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009173-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distrust between large and small state delegates had reached a high point, exemplified by comments made on June 30 by <a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunning Bedford Jr">Gunning Bedford Jr</a>. As reported by Robert Yates, Bedford stated:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a500–501_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand1911a500–501-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I do not, gentlemen, trust you. If you possess the power, the abuse of it could not be checked; and what then would prevent you from exercising it to our destruction? . . . Yes, sir, the larger states will be rivals but not against each other—they will be rivals against the rest of the states . . . Will you crush the smaller states, or must they be left unmolested? Sooner than be ruined, there are foreign powers who will take us by the hand.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grand_Committee">Grand Committee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Grand Committee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/240px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/480px-Joseph_Siffrein_Duplessis_-_Benjamin_Franklin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6396" data-file-height="7801" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> of Pennsylvania</figcaption></figure> <p>As the convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states present at that time at the convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> of New Jersey, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a> of New York, <a href="/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a> of Maryland, <a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunning Bedford Jr">Gunning Bedford Jr</a>. of Delaware, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> of Connecticut, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a> of Georgia, <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts, <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of Virginia, <a href="/wiki/William_Davie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Davie">William Davie</a> of North Carolina, <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> of South Carolina and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> of Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009200-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee's composition heavily favored the smaller states, as even the large state delegates tended to be more moderate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Convention took a three-day recess in observance of the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Fourth of July</a> holiday, the Grand Committee began its work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007110-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Franklin proposed and the committee adopted a compromise similar to the Connecticut plan. Membership in the House would be apportioned by population, with members elected from districts of forty thousand people. Each state would have an equal vote in the Senate. To gain large state support, however, Franklin proposed that the House of Representatives have exclusive power to originate bills concerned with raising money or government salaries (this would become the <a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination Clause</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009201-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revisiting_the_three-fifths_ratio">Revisiting the three-fifths ratio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Revisiting the three-fifths ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The committee presented its report on July 5, but the compromise was not immediately adopted by the convention. For the next eleven days, the Convention stalled as delegates attempted to gain as many votes for their states as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007115-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 6, a five-man committee was appointed to allocate specific numbers of representatives to each state. It called for a 56-member House of Representatives and used "[t]he number of blacks and whites with some regard to supposed wealth" as a basis of allocating representatives to each state. The Northern states had 30 representatives while the Southern states had 26. Delegates from non-slave states objected to counting slaves as they could not vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007116–117-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 9, a new committee was chosen to reconsider the allocation of representatives. This time there were eleven members, one from each state. It recommended a 65-member House with allocation of representatives based on the number of free inhabitants and three-fifths of slaves. Under this new scheme, Northern states had 35 representatives and the South had 30. Southern delegates protested the North's greater representation and argued that their growing populations had been underestimated. The Committee of Eleven's report was approved, but the divergent interests of the Northern and Southern states remained obstacles to reaching consensus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009208-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 10, Edmund Randolph called for a regular <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census">census</a> on which to base future reallocation of House seats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007118-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the debate on the census, South Carolina delegates Pierce Butler and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney sought to replace the three-fifths ratio with a full count of the slave population. They argued that slave property contributed to the wealth of the Southern states and as such should be used in calculating representation. This irritated Northern delegates already reluctant to support the three-fifths compromise. James Wilson, one of the authors of the three-fifths compromise, asked, "Are slaves to be admitted as Citizens? Then why are they not admitted on an equality with White Citizens? Are they admitted as property? Then why is not other property admitted into the computation?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009209–210-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After fierce debate, the delegates voted to apportion representation and <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxation</a> based on all free inhabitants and three-fifths of the slave population. This formula would apply to the existing states as well as any states created in the future. The first census would occur six years after the new federal government began operations and every ten years afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009211–213-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Compromise_adopted">Great Compromise adopted</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Great Compromise adopted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 14, John Rutledge and James Wilson attempted to secure proportional representation in the Senate. Charles Pinckney proposed a form of semi-proportional representation in which the smaller states would gain more representation than under a completely proportional system. This proposal was defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007123–124-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a close vote on July 16, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise) as recommended by the Grand Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007124-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 23, the convention decided that each state should have two senators rather than three. It rejected a proposal by Luther Martin of Maryland that senators from the same state cast a single joint vote, which was the practice in the Confederation Congress. Martin believed this was necessary if the Senate was to represent the interests of the states. Instead, the convention gave senators individual voting power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman2016208-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress's choice to make national laws.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClaus2019677–684_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClaus2019677–684-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009199-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_supremacy">Federal supremacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Federal supremacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 17, the delegates worked to define the powers of Congress. The Virginia Plan asserted the supremacy of the national government, giving Congress authority "to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent" and stating that congressional legislation would take precedence over conflicting state laws. In a motion introduced by Gunning Bedford, the Convention approved this provision with only South Carolina and Georgia voting against. Four small states—Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland—accepted the expansion of congressional power. Later in life, Madison explained that this was a result of the Great Compromise. Once the small states were assured they would be represented in the new government, they "exceeded all others in zeal" for a strong national government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009227–228-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Virginia Plan also gave Congress veto power over state laws. Madison believed this provision was crucial to prevent the states from engaging in irresponsible behavior, such as had occurred under the Confederation government. Gouverneur Morris feared the congressional veto would alienate states that might otherwise support the Constitution. Luther Martin argued that it would be too impractical and time-consuming, asking "Shall the laws of the states be sent up to the general legislature before they shall be permitted to operate?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009228-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Convention rejected the congressional veto. In its place, Martin proposed language taken from the New Jersey Plan that was unanimously approved by the convention: "that the Legislative acts of the US made by virtue and pursuance of the articles of Union, and all treaties made and ratified under the authority of the US shall be the supreme law of the respective States . . . and that the . . . States shall be bound thereby in their decisions".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009229-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="President's_selection_and_removal"><span id="President.27s_selection_and_removal"></span>President's selection and removal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: President's selection and removal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In June, the delegates voted to let Congress appoint the executive, but there remained concerns that this would make the executive branch subservient to the legislature. On July 17, the Convention returned to the topic. Direct election by the people was defeated by a nine to one vote. Luther Martin then proposed an amended version of James Wilson's idea for an electoral college, first introduced in June. Wilson had proposed that people vote for electors who would then select the president. Martin's version called for state legislatures to choose electors, but this was also defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, on July 19, Elbridge Gerry unsuccessfully proposed that governors choose electors, a policy that would have increased state influence over the presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009241-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After reaffirming Congressional selection, the delegates voted to allow the president to serve multiple terms, a reversal of their earlier decision to limit the president to serving a single, seven–year term. <a href="/wiki/James_McClurg" title="James McClurg">James McClurg</a> of Virginia went further and proposed that the president serve a lifelong term "during good behavior". McClurg believed this would protect the independence of the executive branch, but this was rejected for being too close to monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009232–234-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Convention decided that the method of removing an unfit president would be legislative <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a>. At the time, impeachment was used by the British Parliament to depose the king's <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Crown" title="Minister of the Crown">ministers</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Impeachment in the United Kingdom">Impeachment in the United Kingdom</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2007154–155-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appointing_judges">Appointing judges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Appointing judges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Needing a break from discussing the presidency, the delegates once again considered the judicial branch on July 18. They were still divided over the method of appointment. Half of the Convention wanted the Senate to choose judges, while the other half wanted the president to do it. Luther Martin supported Senate appointment because he thought that body's members would defend the interests of the individual states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nathaniel Gorham suggested a compromise—appointment by the president with the "<a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">advice and consent</a> of the Senate". While the meaning of "advice and consent" was still undefined, the proposal gained some support. On July 21, Madison offered an alternative compromise—the president would appoint judges but the Senate could veto an appointment by a two-thirds majority. This proposal would have made it very hard for the Senate to block judicial appointments. Madison's proposal failed to garner support, and the delegates ended by reaffirming that the Senate would appoint judges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009238-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 21, Wilson and Madison tried unsuccessfully to revive Madison's <a href="#Council_of_Revision_proposal">Council of Revision proposal</a>. While judges had a role in reviewing the constitutionality of laws, argued Gorham, mixing the policy judgments of the president with the legal judgments of a court would violate separation of powers. John Rutledge agreed, saying "judges ought never to give their opinion on a law till it comes before them".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009237–238-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amendments_and_ratification">Amendments and ratification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Amendments and ratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The delegates recognized that a major flaw with the Articles of Confederation was that any constitutional amendment required unanimous approval of the states. On July 23, the convention endorsed the need for a different way of amending the Constitution, but it was not prepared to vote on specifics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009244_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009244-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It also discussed how the completed Constitution would become law. Oliver Ellsworth and William Paterson argued that state legislatures should ratify the Constitution to align with precedent under the Articles of Confederation and because the legislatures represented the will of the people. Nathaniel Gorham argued that state legislators would reject the Constitution to protect their own power. George Mason believed that state legislatures lacked the authority to ratify the new Constitution because they were creations of the state constitutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009245–246_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009245–246-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mason argued that only the people acting through specially called state conventions could authorize a new government. Madison agreed with Mason. He considered the Articles of Confederation to be a mere treaty among the states, but a true constitution could only be adopted by the people themselves. By a vote of nine to one, the delegates voted to submit the Constitution to state ratifying conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009245–246_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009245–246-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_draft">First draft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: First draft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a>, which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by <a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a>, with the other members including <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a>. </p><p>Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge's edits, and the committee's final report to the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168">: 168 </span></sup> From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, provisions of the state constitutions, and even <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney's</a> plan, to produce the first full draft,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269–70-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 165">: 165 </span></sup> which author <a href="/wiki/David_O._Stewart" title="David O. Stewart">David O. Stewart</a> has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 165">: 165 </span></sup> </p><p>Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009270-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of what was included in the committee's report consisted of numerous details that the convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 169">: 169 </span></sup> Examples of these details included the <a href="/wiki/Speech_and_Debate_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech and Debate Clause">Speech and Debate Clause</a>, which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate. </p><p>However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge's urging, the committee went beyond what the convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the convention had never discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 165">: 165 </span></sup> </p><p>The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union" that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated" powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress's authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009273–74-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 170–71">: 170–71 </span></sup> Rutledge, however, was not able to convince all the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "<a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>") was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 171–72">: 171–72 </span></sup> Another revision of Wilson's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge's list of enumerated powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009274–75-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 172">: 172 </span></sup> In addition, Wilson's draft modified the language of the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> adopted by the convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 172">: 172 </span></sup> </p><p>These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 172">: 172 </span></sup> </p><p>Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee's report was presented to the convention. On the day the convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009269,_275-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 173">: 173 </span></sup> In response to Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates, the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress's authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's "<a href="/wiki/Navigation_Acts" title="Navigation Acts">Navigation Acts</a>") pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals provoked outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009275-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 173–74">: 173–74 </span></sup> </p><p>The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_modifications_and_concluding_debate">Further modifications and concluding debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further modifications and concluding debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 187">: 187 </span></sup> Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan. </p><p>One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trade</a> starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a> in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 196">: 196 </span></sup> </p><p>Once the convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>, and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts. </p><p>A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 207">: 207 </span></sup> The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with indigenous tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 209">: 209 </span></sup> They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty". </p><p>The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment in the United States">impeachment trials</a> from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie-breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 212">: 212 </span></sup> One controversial issue throughout much of the convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be <a href="/wiki/Term_limit" title="Term limit">term limited</a>. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option. </p><p>Near the end of the convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 235">: 235 </span></sup> Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 236">: 236 </span></sup> Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president. </p><p>Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment that required two-thirds of the states to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 238">: 238 </span></sup> All amendments to the Constitution, save the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21st amendment</a>, have been made through this latter method. </p><p>Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the convention's business to an end and return home. As the convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a>, which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 241">: 241 </span></sup> </p><p>Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Federalist">anti-Federalists</a> against ratification. Most of the convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drafting_and_signing">Drafting and signing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Drafting and signing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing of the United States Constitution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/240px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/360px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg/480px-Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1933" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Chandler_Christy" title="Howard Chandler Christy">Howard Chandler Christy</a> (1940)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/240px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/360px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg/480px-Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1324" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Delegates at the signing of the Constitution depicted in an engraved painting by <a href="/wiki/Junius_Brutus_Stearns" title="Junius Brutus Stearns">Junius Brutus Stearns</a><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Once the final modifications were made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members mostly supported a strong national government and were unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 229–30">: 229–30 </span></sup> They were <a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a> (Connecticut), <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> (New York), <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a> (Pennsylvania), <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (Virginia), and <a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a> (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the <a href="/wiki/Contract_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract clause">contract clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup> </p><p>Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a> of <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>. Mason demanded a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">Bill of Rights</a> if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow.<sup id="cite_ref-bor_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bor-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 112">: 112 </span></sup> Ultimately, 39 of the 55 delegates who attended (74 had been chosen from 12 states) ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>, who said, "I confess that there are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies ..."<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton."<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 244">: 244 </span></sup> Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names. </p><p>At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an <a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">anecdote</a> on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's <a href="/wiki/Chippendale_furniture" class="mw-redirect" title="Chippendale furniture">Chippendale chair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RisingSun_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisingSun-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As recounted in Madison's notes: </p> <blockquote><p>Whilst the last members were signing it Doctr. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-RisingSun_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisingSun-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own <a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">Article VII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> was one of the most difficult issues confronting the delegates. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68">: 68 </span></sup> At least a third of the convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 68–69">: 68–69 </span></sup> Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states,<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 139">: 139 </span></sup> and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived in all regions of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 132">: 132 </span></sup> However, more than 90% of the slaves<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_143-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 132">: 132 </span></sup> lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families).<sup id="cite_ref-USDLCB_143-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDLCB-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 135">: 135 </span></sup> The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the convention were unwilling to accept any proposal that they believed would threaten the institution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commerce_and_Slave_Trade_Compromise">Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnDickinson4.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/JohnDickinson4.gif" decoding="async" width="211" height="274" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Quaker <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (politician)">John Dickinson</a> argued forcefully against slavery during the convention. Once <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a>'s largest slaveholder, Dickinson freed all of his slaves by 1787.</figcaption></figure> <p>Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that three Southern states, Georgia and the two Carolinas, refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery be outlawed within the new nation. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-Fifths_Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Three-Fifths Compromise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a></div> <p>Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and thus would not be included. The original Virginia Plan contemplated a proportional representation based on the number of free inhabitants. However, the Committee of the Whole modified this in June to include three-fifths of "other persons", a euphemism for slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this benefited states with large slave population in terms of representation, delegates from these states argued that slaves should be considered property and not as persons if the new government would be levying taxes on the basis of population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOhline1971564–566_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOhline1971564–566-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-crf_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crf-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the conflict, the <a href="/wiki/Three-Fifths_Compromise" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-Fifths Compromise">Three-Fifths Compromise</a> would be adopted by the convention as part of the Connecticut Compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Framers"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Framers_of_the_Constitution">Framers of the Constitution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Framers of the Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Framers" redirects here. For the occupation, see <a href="/wiki/Framer" title="Framer">Framer</a>.</div> <p>Fifty-five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, all of whom are considered the Framers of the Constitution, though only 39 delegates actually signed.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara70_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara70-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rodell1986_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodell1986-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who ultimately crafted the document.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara70_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara70-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_129-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> Several had been state governors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only two delegates, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a>, would sign all three of the nation's founding documents: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, and U.S. Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal occupation. Other delegates included merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers, and financiers. Several were physicians and small farmers, and one was a minister.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_150-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Many of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most were comfortably wealthy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> George Washington and Robert Morris, for example, were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.<sup id="cite_ref-Nara29_150-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Their depth of knowledge and experience in self-government was remarkable. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris semi-seriously wrote to John Adams in London, "It really is an assembly of demigods."<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_(delegate)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (delegate)">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(signer)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Read (signer)">George Read</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Houstoun_(lawyer)" title="William Houstoun (lawyer)">William Houstoun</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pierce_(Georgia_politician)" title="William Pierce (Georgia politician)">William Pierce</a>*</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Martin" title="Luther Martin">Luther Martin</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Mercer" title="John Francis Mercer">John Francis Mercer</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Strong" title="Caleb Strong">Caleb Strong</a>*</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Houston" title="William Houston">William Houston</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansing_Jr." title="John Lansing Jr.">John Lansing Jr.</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a>*</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Richardson_Davie" title="William Richardson Davie">William Richardson Davie</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Martin" title="Alexander Martin">Alexander Martin</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(merchant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Morris (merchant)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McClurg" title="James McClurg">James McClurg</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a>*</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></b> <ul><li><i>Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.</i></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>(*) <i>Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.</i> </p><p>Several prominent <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founders</a> are notable for <i>not</i> participating in the Constitutional Convention. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> was abroad, serving as the minister to France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a>. Many of the states' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the convention,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The 1989 film <i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i>, which portrays the events and discussions of the Constitutional Convention, was largely filmed in <a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a>.</li> <li>In the 2015 <a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway musical</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>'s proposal of his own plan during the Constitutional Convention was featured in the song "Non-Stop", which concluded the first act.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution Day (United States)">Constitution Day (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJillson200931,_38-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJillson200931,_38_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJillson2009">Jillson 2009</a>, pp. 31, 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLossing1863" class="citation book cs1">Lossing, Benson John (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20171_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Cleve2017">Van Cleve 2017</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20054-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20054_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20174–5-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Cleve20174–5_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Cleve2017">Van Cleve 2017</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarsonWinship20055_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsonWinship2005">Larson & Winship 2005</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201641-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201641_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201647-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201647_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlarman201620–21_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKlarman2016">Klarman 2016</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200915_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> 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href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_129-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 7,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bill+of+Rights&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft.au=National+Archives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fbill_of_rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html">"Speech of Benjamin Franklin – The U_S_ Constitution Online – USConstitution_net"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130828225558/http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 28, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 14,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Speech+of+Benjamin+Franklin+%E2%80%93+The+U_S_+Constitution+Online+%E2%80%93+USConstitution_net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usconstitution.net%2Ffranklin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RisingSun-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RisingSun_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RisingSun_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rising Sun" in <i>The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding</i>, Vol. 1 (ed. John R. Vile: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 681.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp">Madison Notes for September 17, 1787</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151105220018/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp">Archived</a> November 5, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAkhil_Reed_Amar2006" class="citation book cs1">Akhil Reed Amar (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC"><i>America's Constitution: A Biography</i></a>. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7272-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7272-6"><bdi>978-0-8129-7272-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Constitution%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7272-6&rft.au=Akhil+Reed+Amar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4bVBs5OOkFEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USDLCB-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_143-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDLCB_143-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Department_of_Labor_and_Commerce_Bureau_of_the_Census1909" class="citation book cs1">United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit"><i>A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900</i></a>. D.C.: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Population+Growth%3A+From+the+First+Census+of+the+United+States+to+the+Twelfth%2C+1790%E2%80%931900&rft.place=D.C.&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1909&rft.au=United+States+Department+of+Labor+and+Commerce+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofpopulat00unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman2009318–29_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 318–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein1987177_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein1987">Bernstein 1987</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOhline1971564–566-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOhline1971564–566_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOhline1971">Ohline 1971</a>, pp. 564–566.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crf-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-crf_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConstitutional_Rights_Foundation" class="citation web cs1">Constitutional Rights Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20040225183537/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm">"The Constitution and Slavery"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm">the original</a> on February 25, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+and+Slavery&rft.au=Constitutional+Rights+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crf-usa.org%2Flessons%2Fslavery_const.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nara70-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nara70_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara70_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers">"Meet the Framers of the Constitution"</a>. <i>America's Founding Documents</i>. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827202653/https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/founding-fathers">Archived</a> from the original on August 27, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=America%27s+Founding+Documents&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Framers+of+the+Constitution&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffounding-docs%2Ffounding-fathers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodell1986-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rodell1986_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRodell1986" class="citation book cs1">Rodell, Fred (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-GycyFrxpAC&pg=PA4"><i>55 Men: The Story of the Constitution, Based on the Day-by-Day Notes of James Madison</i></a>. Stackpole Books. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-4409-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-4409-6"><bdi>978-0-8117-4409-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=55+Men%3A+The+Story+of+the+Constitution%2C+Based+on+the+Day-by-Day+Notes+of+James+Madison&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-4409-6&rft.aulast=Rodell&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7-GycyFrxpAC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nara29-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_150-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nara29_150-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html">"The Founding Fathers: A Brief Overview"</a>. <i>The Charters of Freedom</i>. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. October 30, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006143659/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 6, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Charters+of+Freedom&rft.atitle=The+Founding+Fathers%3A+A+Brief+Overview&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fconstitution_founding_fathers_overview.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965_151-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200965–68_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 65–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeeman200966–67_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeeman2009">Beeman 2009</a>, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWebb" class="citation web cs1">Webb, Derek A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181016032552/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/">"Doubting a little of one's infallibility: The real miracle at Philadelphia – National Constitution Center"</a>. <i>National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/doubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia/">the original</a> on October 16, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Constitution+Center+%E2%80%93+constitutioncenter.org&rft.atitle=Doubting+a+little+of+one%27s+infallibility%3A+The+real+miracle+at+Philadelphia+%E2%80%93+National+Constitution+Center&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Derek+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Fblog%2Fdoubting-a-little-of-ones-infallibility-the-real-miracle-at-philadelphia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJefferson1787" class="citation web cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (August 30, 1787). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/">"Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, August 30, 1787"</a>. <i>The Library of Congress</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181015231545/https://www.loc.gov/resource/mtj1.007_1057_1060/">Archived</a> from the original on October 15, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Letter+of+Thomas+Jefferson+to+John+Adams%2C+August+30%2C+1787&rft.date=1787-08-30&rft.aulast=Jefferson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fresource%2Fmtj1.007_1057_1060%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarrand191313_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarrand1913">Farrand 1913</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeeman2009" class="citation book cs1">Beeman, Richard (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6570-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-6570-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plain+Honest+Men%3A+The+Making+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7&rft.aulast=Beeman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplainhonestmenm00beem%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBernstein1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Bernstein" title="Richard B. Bernstein">Bernstein, Richard B.</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arewetobenationm00bern"><i>Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674044753" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674044753"><bdi>978-0674044753</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+We+to+Be+a+Nation%3F+The+Making+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0674044753&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farewetobenationm00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClaus2019" class="citation journal cs1">Claus, Laurence (2019). "The Framers' Compromise". <i>American Journal of Comparative Law</i>. <b>67</b> (3). Oxford University Press: <span class="nowrap">677–</span>684. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022">10.1093/ajcl/avz022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=The+Framers%27+Compromise&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E677-%3C%2Fspan%3E684&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcl%2Favz022&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDiClerico1987" class="citation journal cs1">DiClerico, Robert E. (Spring 1987). "James Wilson's Presidency". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>17</b> (2). Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress: <span class="nowrap">301–</span>317. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40574453">40574453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=James+Wilson%27s+Presidency&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E301-%3C%2Fspan%3E317&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40574453%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=DiClerico&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Farrand" title="Max Farrand">Farrand, Max</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods"><i>The Framing of the Constitution of the United States</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Framing+of+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Farrand&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fframingofconstit00farruoft%23page%2F38%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2Fdemigods&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1921" class="citation book cs1">—— (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fathersofconstit00farr/mode/2up"><i>The Fathers of the Constitution</i></a>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fathers+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Farrand&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffathersofconstit00farr%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJillson2009" class="citation book cs1">Jillson, Calvin C. (2009). <i>American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-88702-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-88702-8"><bdi>978-0-203-88702-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Government%3A+Political+Development+and+Institutional+Change+%285th+ed.%29&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-203-88702-8&rft.aulast=Jillson&rft.aufirst=Calvin+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaminskiLeffler1991" class="citation book cs1">Kaminski, John P.; Leffler, Richard (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuUgAQAAIAAJ"><i>Creating the Constitution: A History in Documents</i></a>. Center for the Study of the American Constitution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+the+Constitution%3A+A+History+in+Documents&rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+the+American+Constitution&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Kaminski&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft.au=Leffler%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZuUgAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlarman2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Klarman" title="Michael Klarman">Klarman, Michael J.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/framerscoupmakin0000klar/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Framers' Coup: The Making of the United States Constitution</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190865962" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190865962"><bdi>978-0190865962</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Framers%27+Coup%3A+The+Making+of+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0190865962&rft.aulast=Klarman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fframerscoupmakin0000klar%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLarsonWinship2005" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Edward J.; Winship, Michael P. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ"><i>The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison</i></a>. New York: The Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-7517-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-7517-0"><bdi>0-8129-7517-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219011929/https://books.google.com/books?id=MKk_DwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 1,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+Convention%3A+A+Narrative+History+from+the+Notes+of+James+Madison&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Modern+Library&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8129-7517-0&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft.au=Winship%2C+Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMKk_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMadison1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison, James</a> (1966) [1840]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/notesofdebatesin00unit/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Athens: Ohio University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780821400111" title="Special:BookSources/9780821400111"><bdi>9780821400111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+of+Debates+in+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=9780821400111&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnotesofdebatesin00unit%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1987" class="citation journal cs1">McCarthy, Daniel J. (Fall 1987). "James Wilson and the Creation of the Presidency". <i>Presidential Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>17</b> (4). Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress: <span class="nowrap">689–</span>696. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550478">27550478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=James+Wilson+and+the+Creation+of+the+Presidency&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E689-%3C%2Fspan%3E696&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27550478%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoehn2003" class="citation book cs1">Moehn, Heather (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=umfzUobPvk0C&pg=PA37"><i>The U.S. Constitution: A Primary Source Investigation Into the Fundamental Law of the United States</i></a>. The Rosen Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823938049" title="Special:BookSources/9780823938049"><bdi>9780823938049</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Constitution%3A+A+Primary+Source+Investigation+Into+the+Fundamental+Law+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780823938049&rft.aulast=Moehn&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DumfzUobPvk0C%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMount2012" class="citation web cs1">Mount, Steve (March 12, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html">"Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention"</a>. <i>USConstitution.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191107061123/https://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USConstitution.net&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Topic%3A+The+Constitutional+Convention&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft.aulast=Mount&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usconstitution.net%2Fconsttop_ccon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOdesser-Torpey2013" class="citation book cs1">Odesser-Torpey, Marilyn (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wUW6u7aPHzIC"><i>Insiders' Guide to Philadelphia & Pennsylvania Dutch Country</i></a>. Morris Book Publishing, LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780762783762" title="Special:BookSources/9780762783762"><bdi>9780762783762</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230401023252/https://books.google.com/books?id=wUW6u7aPHzIC">Archived</a> from the original on April 1, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insiders%27+Guide+to+Philadelphia+%26+Pennsylvania+Dutch+Country&rft.pub=Morris+Book+Publishing%2C+LLC&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780762783762&rft.aulast=Odesser-Torpey&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwUW6u7aPHzIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOhline1971" class="citation journal cs1">Ohline, Howard A. (October 1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922187">"Republicanism and Slavery: Origins of the Three-Fifths Clause in the United States Constitution"</a>. <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>28</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">563–</span>584. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1922187">10.2307/1922187</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922187">1922187</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230106084337/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1922187">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 6,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Republicanism+and+Slavery%3A+Origins+of+the+Three-Fifths+Clause+in+the+United+States+Constitution&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E563-%3C%2Fspan%3E584&rft.date=1971-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1922187&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1922187%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ohline&rft.aufirst=Howard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1922187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPadoverLandynski1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saul_K._Padover" title="Saul K. Padover">Padover, Saul K.</a>; Landynski, Jacob W. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingusconstitu00pado"><i>The Living U.S. Constitution</i></a> (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Meridian. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-452-01147-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-452-01147-2"><bdi>978-0-452-01147-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/82061770">82061770</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1036695492">1036695492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Living+U.S.+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd+rev.&rft.pub=Meridian&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1036695492&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F82061770&rft.isbn=978-0-452-01147-2&rft.aulast=Padover&rft.aufirst=Saul+K.&rft.au=Landynski%2C+Jacob+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingusconstitu00pado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPalumbo2009" class="citation book cs1">Palumbo, Arthur E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC"><i>The Authentic Constitution: An Originalist View of America's Legacy</i></a>. Algora Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780875867076" title="Special:BookSources/9780875867076"><bdi>9780875867076</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219012031/https://books.google.com/books?id=mPBZ1K1nX6QC">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authentic+Constitution%3A+An+Originalist+View+of+America%27s+Legacy&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780875867076&rft.aulast=Palumbo&rft.aufirst=Arthur+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPBZ1K1nX6QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichards2003" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Leonard (2003). <i>Shays's Rebellion: The American Revolution's Final Battle</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1870-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1870-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-1870-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shays%27s+Rebellion%3A+The+American+Revolution%27s+Final+Battle&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1870-1&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRossiter1987" class="citation book cs1">Rossiter, Clinton (1987) [1st published 1966]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1787grandconvent0000ross"><i>1787: The Grand Convention</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30404-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30404-6"><bdi>978-0-393-30404-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1787%3A+The+Grand+Convention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30404-6&rft.aulast=Rossiter&rft.aufirst=Clinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1787grandconvent0000ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStewart2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_O._Stewart" title="David O. Stewart">Stewart, David O.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC"><i>The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8692-3"><bdi>978-0-7432-8692-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219011924/https://books.google.com/books?id=NveNQBMwpLEC">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 6,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Summer+of+1787%3A+The+Men+Who+Invented+the+Constitution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-8692-3&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=David+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNveNQBMwpLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHardwick2009" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Michael H.; Hardwick, Kevin (2009). "The Presidency of James Wilson". <i>White House Studies</i>. <b>9</b> (4). Nova Science Publishers: <span class="nowrap">331–</span>346.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=White+House+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Presidency+of+James+Wilson&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E331-%3C%2Fspan%3E346&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft.au=Hardwick%2C+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Department_of_Labor_and_Commerce_Bureau_of_the_Census1909" class="citation book cs1">United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit"><i>A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Population+Growth%3A+From+the+First+Census+of+the+United+States+to+the+Twelfth%2C+1790%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1909&rft.au=United+States+Department+of+Labor+and+Commerce+Bureau+of+the+Census&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyofpopulat00unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_Cleve2017" class="citation book cs1">Van Cleve, George (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ"><i>We Have Not a Government: The Articles of Confederation and the Road to the Constitution</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226480503" title="Special:BookSources/9780226480503"><bdi>9780226480503</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219011942/https://books.google.com/books?id=xNI4DwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Have+Not+a+Government%3A+The+Articles+of+Confederation+and+the+Road+to+the+Constitution&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780226480503&rft.aulast=Van+Cleve&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxNI4DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWarren1928" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Warren_(U.S._author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Warren (U.S. author)">Warren, Charles</a> (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingofconstitu0000warr/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>The Making of the Constitution</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Constitution&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingofconstitu0000warr%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_S._Wood" title="Gordon S. Wood">Wood, Gordon S.</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creationofameric0000wood/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787</i></a>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4723-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-4723-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+American+Republic%2C+1776%E2%80%931787&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Gordon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreationofameric0000wood%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYates1821" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Yates, Robert</a> (1821). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretproceedin01convgoog/page/n14/mode/2up"><i>Secret Proceedings and Debates of the Convention Assembled at Philadelphia, in the Year 1787: For the Purpose of Forming the United States of America</i></a>. Albany: Websters and Skinners.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+Proceedings+and+Debates+of+the+Convention+Assembled+at+Philadelphia%2C+in+the+Year+1787%3A+For+the+Purpose+of+Forming+the+United+States+of+America&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=Websters+and+Skinners&rft.date=1821&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretproceedin01convgoog%2Fpage%2Fn14%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowen1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Drinker_Bowen" title="Catherine Drinker Bowen">Bowen, Catherine Drinker</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781415548141/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Miracle at Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention</i></a>. New York: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316103985" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316103985"><bdi>978-0316103985</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miracle+at+Philadelphia%3A+The+Story+of+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0316103985&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Drinker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781415548141%2Fpage%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911a" class="citation book cs1">Farrand, Max, ed. (1911a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recordsoffederal0001unit/mode/2up"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Vol. 1. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0080-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0080-1"><bdi>978-0-3000-0080-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-0080-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecordsoffederal0001unit%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911b" class="citation book cs1">——, ed. (1911b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recordsoffederal02unit_1"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Vol. 2. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0081-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0081-8"><bdi>978-0-3000-0081-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-0081-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecordsoffederal02unit_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrand1911c" class="citation book cs1">——, ed. (1911c). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recordsfederalc00farrgoog"><i>The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787</i></a>. Vol. 3. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0082-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3000-0082-5"><bdi>978-0-3000-0082-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention+of+1787&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.isbn=978-0-3000-0082-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecordsfederalc00farrgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaier2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Maier, Pauline</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop0000maie/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788</i></a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6848-6854-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6848-6854-7"><bdi>978-0-6848-6854-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ratification%3A+The+People+Debate+the+Constitution%2C+1787%E2%80%931788&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-6848-6854-7&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fratificationpeop0000maie%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoupt2010" class="citation journal cs1">Houpt, D. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163">"Securing a Legacy: The Publication of James Madison's Notes from the Constitutional Convention"</a>. <i>The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography</i>. <b>118</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163">40601163</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210311013213/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40601163">Archived</a> from the original on March 11, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Virginia+Magazine+of+History+and+Biography&rft.atitle=Securing+a+Legacy%3A+The+Publication+of+James+Madison%27s+Notes+from+the+Constitutional+Convention&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40601163%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Houpt&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40601163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKetcham2003" class="citation book cs1">Ketcham, Ralph, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC"><i>The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates</i></a>. Penguin Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-65134-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-65134-6"><bdi>978-1-101-65134-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240219011945/https://books.google.com/books?id=t6Ynu-b9vrUC">Archived</a> from the original on February 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 16,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anti-Federalist+Papers+and+the+Constitutional+Convention+Debates&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-101-65134-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt6Ynu-b9vrUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstitutional+Convention+%28United+States%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lambert_(writer)" title="William Lambert (writer)">William Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_United_States495" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Template talk:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_United_States_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the United States navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_United_States495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of United States history">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jamestown,_Virginia_(1607%E2%80%931699)" title="History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)">Settlement of Jamestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Intolerable Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alexander_Hamilton828" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Template:Alexander Hamilton"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Template talk:Alexander Hamilton"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander Hamilton"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alexander_Hamilton828" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">8th Senior Officer of the United States Army (1799–1800)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">1st Secretary of the Treasury (1789–1795)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Delegate to the Congress of the Confederation (1782–1783, 1788–1789)</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">United States<br />founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/A_Full_Vindication_of_the_Measures_of_Congress" title="A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress"><i>A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress</i> (1774)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Farmer_Refuted" title="The Farmer Refuted"><i>The Farmer Refuted</i> (1775)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Delegate, 1786 Annapolis Convention</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Delegate, 1787 Constitutional Convention</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of<br />the Treasury</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Bank_of_the_United_States" title="First Bank of the United States">First Bank of the United States</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Revenue Marine (U.S. Coast Guard)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service" title="United States Customs Service">U.S. Customs Service</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_economic_program" title="Hamiltonian economic program">Hamiltonian economic program</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1790" title="Compromise of 1790">Compromise of 1790</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Funding_Act_of_1790" title="Funding Act of 1790">Funding Act of 1790</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1790" title="Tariff of 1790">Tariff of 1790</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bank_Bill_of_1791" title="Bank Bill of 1791">Bank Bill of 1791</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1791" title="Tariff of 1791">Tariff of 1791</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tariff_of_1792" title="Tariff of 1792">Tariff of 1792</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1792" title="Coinage Act of 1792">Coinage Act of 1792</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">U.S. Mint</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">Jay Treaty</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Reports</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Report_on_the_Public_Credit" title="First Report on the Public Credit">"First Report on the Public Credit"</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Report_on_Public_Credit" title="Second Report on Public Credit">"Second Report on Public Credit"</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Report_on_Manufactures" title="Report on Manufactures">"Report On Manufactures"</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Report_on_a_Plan_for_the_Further_Support_of_Public_Credit" title="Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit">"Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit"</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Establishing_Useful_Manufactures" title="Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures">Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Provincial_Company_of_Artillery" title="New York Provincial Company of Artillery">New York Provincial Company of Artillery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Washington%27s_aides-de-camp" title="Washington's aides-de-camp">Washington's <i>aide-de-camp</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Battles</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Harlem_Heights" title="Battle of Harlem Heights">Harlem Heights</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Plains" title="Battle of White Plains">White Plains</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton" title="Battle of Trenton">Trenton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton" title="Battle of Princeton">Princeton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine" title="Battle of Brandywine">Brandywine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown" title="Battle of Germantown">Germantown</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth" title="Battle of Monmouth">Monmouth</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" title="Siege of Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Founder, Federalist Party</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/BNY" title="BNY">Founder, Bank of New York</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_North_America#Congressional_Charter" title="Bank of North America">Bank of North America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pacificus-Helvidius_Debates" title="Pacificus-Helvidius Debates">Pacificus-Helvidius Debates</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Advisor, George Washington's Farewell Address</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">President General of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">Founder, <i>New-York Evening Post</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_College" title="Hamilton College">Hamilton College</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton%E2%80%93Reynolds_affair" title="Hamilton–Reynolds affair">Hamilton–Reynolds affair</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rutgers_v._Waddington" title="Rutgers v. Waddington"><i>Rutgers v. Waddington</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Hamilton and slavery">Relationship with slavery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burr%E2%80%93Hamilton_duel" title="Burr–Hamilton duel">Burr–Hamilton duel</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(Trumbull)" title="Alexander Hamilton (Trumbull)">Trumbull portrait</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(Ceracchi)" title="Alexander Hamilton (Ceracchi)">Ceracchi bust</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Central_Park)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Central Park)">Central Park statue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Washington, D.C.)">U.S. Treasury statue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Columbia_University)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Columbia University)">Columbia University statue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Boston)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Boston)">Boston statue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton_(Chicago)" title="Statue of Alexander Hamilton (Chicago)">Chicago statue</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton#Hamilton_on_U.S._postage" title="Alexander Hamilton">U.S. postage stamps</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greenback_(1860s_money)" title="Greenback (1860s money)">Greenbacks</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_States_ten-dollar_bill" title="United States ten-dollar bill">U.S. $10 bill</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Alexander_Hamilton" title="List of things named after Alexander Hamilton">Memorials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nevis_Historical_and_Conservation_Society#Alexander_Hamilton_Museum" title="Nevis Historical and Conservation Society">Boyhood home and museum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_U.S._Custom_House" title="Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House">Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Bridge" title="Alexander Hamilton Bridge">Alexander Hamilton Bridge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_High_School_(Los_Angeles)" title="Alexander Hamilton High School (Los Angeles)">Alexander Hamilton High School</a> (Los Angeles)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hamilton" title="Fort Hamilton">Fort Hamilton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Grange_National_Memorial" title="Hamilton Grange National Memorial">Hamilton Grange National Memorial</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Hall_(Columbia_University)" title="Hamilton Hall (Columbia University)">Hamilton Hall</a> (Columbia University)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Hall_(Salem,_Massachusetts)" title="Hamilton Hall (Salem, Massachusetts)">Hamilton Hall</a> (Salem)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_Heights,_Manhattan" title="Hamilton Heights, Manhattan">Hamilton Heights, Manhattan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Ohio" title="Hamilton, Ohio">Hamilton, Ohio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_College" title="Hamilton College">Hamilton College</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/USS_Alexander_Hamilton" title="USS Alexander Hamilton">USS <i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/PS_Alexander_Hamilton" title="PS Alexander Hamilton">PS <i>Alexander Hamilton</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_Cemetery" title="Trinity Church Cemetery">Trinity Church Cemetery</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Alexander_Hamilton" title="Cultural depictions of Alexander Hamilton">Popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(play)" title="Hamilton (play)">Hamilton</a></i> (1917 play)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(film)" title="Alexander Hamilton (film)">Alexander Hamilton</a></i> (1931 film)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!">Liberty!</a></i> (1997 documentary series)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids">Liberty's Kids</a></i> (2002 animated series)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_(book)" title="Alexander Hamilton (book)">Alexander Hamilton</a></i> (2004 book)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">John Adams</a></i> (2008 miniseries)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a></i> (2015 musical, <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">2020 film</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)">Washington</a></i> (2020 miniseries)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Hall_(New_Jersey)" title="Liberty Hall (New Jersey)">Liberty Hall</a> (New Jersey)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Manumission_Society" title="New York Manumission Society">New York Manumission Society</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/African_Free_School" title="African Free School">African Free School</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_System_(economic_plan)" title="American System (economic plan)">"American System" economic plan</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American School</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_family" title="Hamilton family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Schuyler_Hamilton" title="Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton">Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton</a> (wife)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton" title="Philip Hamilton">Philip Hamilton</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Angelica_Hamilton" title="Angelica Hamilton">Angelica Hamilton</a> (daughter)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr." title="Alexander Hamilton Jr.">Alexander Hamilton Jr.</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Alexander_Hamilton" title="James Alexander Hamilton">James Alexander Hamilton</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Church_Hamilton" title="John Church Hamilton">John Church Hamilton</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_S._Hamilton" title="William S. Hamilton">William S. Hamilton</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Hamilton_Holly" title="Eliza Hamilton Holly">Eliza Hamilton Holly</a> (daughter)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Hamilton_(lawyer)" title="Philip Hamilton (lawyer)">Philip Hamilton</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Hamilton" title="Schuyler Hamilton">Schuyler Hamilton</a> (grandson)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton_Jr._(1816%E2%80%931889)" title="Alexander Hamilton Jr. (1816–1889)">Alexander Hamilton Jr.</a> (grandson)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLane_Hamilton" title="Allan McLane Hamilton">Allan McLane Hamilton</a> (grandson)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Alexander_Hamilton" title="Category:Alexander Hamilton">Category</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="George_Washington1249" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:George_Washington" title="Template:George Washington"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:George_Washington" title="Template talk:George Washington"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:George_Washington" title="Special:EditPage/Template:George Washington"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="George_Washington1249" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">1st</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1789–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Senior Officer of the Army</a> (1798–1799)</li> <li>Commander-in-Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> (1775–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> (1775)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a> (1774)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_George_Washington" title="Military career of George Washington">Military career</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Revolutionary War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_George_Washington" title="Military career of George Washington">Military career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_in_the_French_and_Indian_War" title="George Washington in the French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jumonville_Glen" title="Battle of Jumonville Glen">Jumonville Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Necessity" title="Battle of Fort Necessity">Battle of Fort Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Monongahela" title="Battle of the Monongahela">Battle of the Monongahela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbes_Expedition" title="Forbes Expedition">Forbes Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_in_the_American_Revolution" title="George Washington in the American Revolution">Washington in the American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Commander-in-chief, Continental Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington%27s_aides-de-camp" title="Washington's aides-de-camp">Aides-de-camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Washington%27s_Headquarters_during_the_Revolutionary_War" title="List of Washington's Headquarters during the Revolutionary War">Washington's headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_tent" title="George Washington's tent">office and sleeping tent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_campaign" title="Boston campaign">Boston campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Boston" title="Siege of Boston">Siege of Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_and_New_Jersey_campaign" title="New York and New Jersey campaign">New York and New Jersey campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_crossing_of_the_Delaware_River" title="George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River">Delaware River crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trenton" title="Battle of Trenton">Battle of Trenton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Assunpink_Creek" title="Battle of the Assunpink Creek">Battle of the Assunpink Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Princeton" title="Battle of Princeton">Battle of Princeton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign" title="Philadelphia campaign">Philadelphia campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brandywine" title="Battle of Brandywine">Battle of Brandywine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Germantown" title="Battle of Germantown">Battle of Germantown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Marsh" title="Battle of White Marsh">Battle of White Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge" title="Valley Forge">Valley Forge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monmouth" title="Battle of Monmouth">Battle of Monmouth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Saratoga" title="Battles of Saratoga">Battles of Saratoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yorktown_campaign" title="Yorktown campaign">Yorktown campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown" title="Siege of Yorktown">Siege of Yorktown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culper_Ring" title="Culper Ring">Culper Spy Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newburgh_Conspiracy" title="Newburgh Conspiracy">Newburgh Conspiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newburgh_letter" title="Newburgh letter">Newburgh letter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asgill_Affair" title="Asgill Affair">Asgill Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_Day_(New_York)" title="Evacuation Day (New York)">Evacuation Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_resignation_as_commander-in-chief" title="George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief">Resignation as commander-in-chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badge_of_Military_Merit" title="Badge of Military Merit">Badge of Military Merit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Before_Boston_Medal" title="Washington Before Boston Medal">Washington Before Boston Medal</a></li> <li>Horses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_(horse)" title="Nelson (horse)">Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blueskin_(horse)" title="Blueskin (horse)">Blueskin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Other U.S.<br />founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">Initiated, co-wrote, 1769 Virginia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">Initiated, 1774 Fairfax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeals_in_Cases_of_Capture" title="Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture">Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">1785 Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chairman, 1787 Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_political_evolution" title="George Washington's political evolution">George Washington's political evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">Presidency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">timeline)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">1788–89 United States presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_George_Washington" title="First inauguration of George Washington">First inauguration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Inaugural_Bible" title="George Washington Inaugural Bible">inaugural bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_George_Washington" title="Second inauguration of George Washington">Second inauguration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_reception_at_Trenton" title="George Washington's reception at Trenton">Reception at Trenton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mr._President_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mr. President (title)">Title of "Mr. President"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_act_to_regulate_the_time_and_manner_of_administering_certain_oaths" class="mw-redirect" title="An act to regulate the time and manner of administering certain oaths">Oath Administration Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militia_Acts_of_1792" title="Militia Acts of 1792">Militia Acts of 1792</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_Act_of_1792" title="Coinage Act of 1792">Coinage Act of 1792</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Succession_Act" title="Presidential Succession Act">Presidential Succession Act of 1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_cornerstone_laying" title="United States Capitol cornerstone laying">United States Capitol cornerstone laying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Neutrality" title="Proclamation of Neutrality">Proclamation of Neutrality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Act_of_1794" title="Neutrality Act of 1794">Neutrality Act of 1794</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">Jay Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinckney%27s_Treaty" title="Pinckney's Treaty">Pinckney's Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1794" title="Slave Trade Act of 1794">Slave Trade Act of 1794</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residence_Act" title="Residence Act">Residence Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Thanksgiving_Proclamation" title="National Thanksgiving Proclamation">Thanksgiving Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Farewell_Address" title="George Washington's Farewell Address">Farewell Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_1790_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 1790 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address January 1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1790_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="December 1790 State of the Union Address">December 1790</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1791_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1791 State of the Union Address">1791</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1792 State of the Union Address">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1793_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1793 State of the Union Address">1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1794_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1794 State of the Union Address">1794</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1795_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1795 State of the Union Address">1795</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1796 State of the Union Address">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington#Administration,_Cabinet_and_Supreme_Court_appointments" title="Presidency of George Washington">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_George_Washington" title="List of federal judges appointed by George Washington">Federal judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge_Supreme_Court_nominations" title="John Rutledge Supreme Court nominations">John Rutledge Supreme Court nominations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Views and<br />public image</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_W._Smith_National_Library_for_the_Study_of_George_Washington" title="Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington">Presidential library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Papers" title="The Washington Papers">The Washington Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_George_Washington" title="Religious views of George Washington">Religious views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Destroyer" title="Town Destroyer">Town Destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_George_Washington" title="Legacy of George Washington">Legacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington#Early_life_(1732–1753)" title="George Washington">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Birthplace_National_Monument" title="George Washington Birthplace National Monument">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferry_Farm" title="Ferry Farm">Ferry Farm boyhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Fishery" title="George Washington's Fishery">Fishery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Gristmill" title="George Washington's Gristmill">Gristmill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_Rye_Whiskey" title="George Washington's Rye Whiskey">Whiskey distillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodlawn_(Alexandria,_Virginia)" title="Woodlawn (Alexandria, Virginia)">Woodlawn Plantation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longfellow_House%E2%80%93Washington%27s_Headquarters_National_Historic_Site" title="Longfellow House–Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site">Longfellow House–Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Mansion" title="Ford Mansion">Ford Mansion, Washington's headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington%27s_Headquarters_State_Historic_Site" title="Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site">Hasbrouck House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Osgood_House" title="Samuel Osgood House">First Presidential Mansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Macomb_House" title="Alexander Macomb House">Second Presidential Mansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House_(Philadelphia)" title="President's House (Philadelphia)">President's House, Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germantown_White_House" title="Germantown White House">Germantown White House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Parke_Custis#Estate" title="Daniel Parke Custis">Custis estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington%27s_relations_with_the_Iroquois_Confederacy" title="George Washington's relations with the Iroquois Confederacy">Washington's relations with the Iroquois Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potomac_Company" title="Potomac Company">Potomac Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_River_and_Kanawha_Canal" title="James River and Kanawha Canal">James River and Kanawha Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Road_Lottery" title="Mountain Road Lottery">Mountain Road Lottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanks_of_Congress" title="Thanks of Congress">Thanks of Congress</a></li> <li>President General of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_College" title="Washington College">Washington College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_George_Washington" title="Electoral history of George Washington">Electoral history of George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Post-presidency of George Washington">Post-presidency of George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_George_Washington" title="List of memorials to George Washington">Memorials</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_George_Washington" title="Cultural depictions of George Washington">depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Monument" title="Washington Monument">Washington Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents%27_Day" title="Presidents' Day">Washington's Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Apotheosis_of_Washington" title="The Apotheosis of Washington">The Apotheosis of Washington</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Monument_State_Park" title="Washington Monument State Park">Washington Monument (Boonsboro, Maryland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Monument_(Baltimore)" title="Washington Monument (Baltimore)">Washington Monument (Baltimore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Houdon)" title="Statue of George Washington (Houdon)"><i>George Washington</i> (Houdon)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(copy_of_bust_by_Houdon)" title="George Washington (copy of bust by Houdon)">plaster copy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Ceracchi)" title="George Washington (Ceracchi)"><i>George Washington</i> (Ceracchi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Canova)" title="George Washington (Canova)"><i>George Washington</i> (Canova)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Greenough)" title="George Washington (Greenough)"><i>George Washington</i> (Greenough)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Trumbull)" title="George Washington (Trumbull)"><i>George Washington</i> (Trumbull)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_the_Revolutionary_War_Door" title="George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door">George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_War_Door" title="Revolutionary War Door">Revolutionary War Door</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_(1851_paintings)" title="Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851 paintings)">Washington Crossing the Delaware</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Passage_of_the_Delaware" title="The Passage of the Delaware">The Passage of the Delaware</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/General_George_Washington_at_Trenton" title="General George Washington at Trenton">General George Washington at Trenton</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_at_Verplanck%27s_Point" title="Washington at Verplanck's Point">Washington at Verplanck's Point</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/General_George_Washington_Resigning_His_Commission" title="General George Washington Resigning His Commission">General George Washington Resigning His Commission</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis" title="Surrender of Lord Cornwallis">Surrender of Lord Cornwallis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenaeum_Portrait" title="Athenaeum Portrait">Unfinished portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lansdowne_portrait" title="Lansdowne portrait">Lansdowne portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Family" title="The Washington Family">The Washington Family portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_at_Princeton" title="Washington at Princeton"><i>Washington at Princeton</i> paintings</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_George_Washington_Taking_the_Salute_at_Trenton" title="Portrait of George Washington Taking the Salute at Trenton">George Washington Taking the Salute at Trenton</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_to_Washington_on_April_21,_1789,_at_Trenton_on_his_way_to_New_York_to_Assume_the_Duties_of_the_Presidency_of_the_United_States" title="Reception to Washington on April 21, 1789, at Trenton on his way to New York to Assume the Duties of the Presidency of the United States">Reception at Trenton painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statues_of_George_Washington" title="List of statues of George Washington">Statues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trenton_Battle_Monument" title="Trenton Battle Monument">Trenton Battle Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Battle_Monument" title="Princeton Battle Monument">Princeton Battle Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_of_View_(West)" title="Point of View (West)"><i>Point of View</i> sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_on_Horseback" title="George Washington on Horseback">George Washington on Horseback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Austin,_Texas)" title="Statue of George Washington (Austin, Texas)">Austin statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Bartholomew)" title="George Washington (Bartholomew)">Baltimore statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Boston)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Boston)">Boston statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Mexico_City)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statue of George Washington (Mexico City)">Mexico City statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Morristown,_New_Jersey)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Morristown, New Jersey)">Morristown statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Newark)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Newark)">Newark statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(New_York_City)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (New York City)">New York City statue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Wall_Street)" title="Statue of George Washington (Wall Street)">Wall Street statue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Paris)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Paris)">Paris statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Perth_Amboy,_New_Jersey)" title="Statue of George Washington (Perth Amboy, New Jersey)">Perth Amboy statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(Bailly)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Washington (Bailly)">Philadelphia statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Portland,_Oregon)" title="Statue of George Washington (Portland, Oregon)">Portland statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_George_Washington_(Trenton,_New_Jersey)" title="Statue of George Washington (Trenton, New Jersey)">Trenton statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_George_Washington_(Washington_Circle)" title="Equestrian statue of George Washington (Washington Circle)">Washington, D.C. statue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Monument_(West_Point)" title="Washington Monument (West Point)">West Point monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Masonic_National_Memorial" title="George Washington Masonic National Memorial">Washington Masonic National Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Parkway" title="George Washington Memorial Parkway">George Washington Memorial Parkway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Bridge" title="George Washington Bridge">George Washington Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_Jefferson_National_Forests" title="George Washington and Jefferson National Forests">Washington and Jefferson National Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Square_Park" title="Washington Square Park">Washington Square Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Square_Arch" title="Washington Square Arch">Arch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Franklin_Issues" title="Washington–Franklin Issues">Washington–Franklin Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Bicentennial_stamps_of_1932" title="Washington Bicentennial stamps of 1932">1932 bicentennial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_on_currency#George_Washington" title="List of presidents of the United States on currency">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_quarter" title="Washington quarter">Washington quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/50_State_Quarters" class="mw-redirect" title="50 State Quarters">50 State Quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_and_United_States_Territories_quarters" title="District of Columbia and United States Territories quarters">D.C. and territories quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_quarters" title="America the Beautiful quarters">America the Beautiful quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Women_quarters" title="American Women quarters">American Women quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_Instructing_Youth" title="History Instructing Youth">History Instructing Youth dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill" title="United States one-dollar bill">Washington dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lafayette_dollar" title="Lafayette dollar">Lafayette dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_silver_bullion_coins" title="America the Beautiful silver bullion coins">Silver bullion coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_nickel" title="Washington nickel">Washington nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_half_eagle" title="George Washington half eagle">Washington half eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_250th_Anniversary_half_dollar" title="George Washington 250th Anniversary half dollar">250th Anniversary half dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore_Anniversary_coins" title="Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins">Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Washington" title="Mount Washington">Mount Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_George_Washington" title="Cultural depictions of George Washington">Cultural depictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_(miniseries)" title="George Washington (miniseries)"><i>George Washington</i> (1984 miniseries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_II:_The_Forging_of_a_Nation" title="George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation">1986 sequel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)"><i>A More Perfect Union</i> (1989 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Crossing_(2000_film)" title="The Crossing (2000 film)"><i>The Crossing</i> (2000 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Fight_to_Be_Free" title="We Fight to Be Free"><i>We Fight to Be Free</i> (2006 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turn:_Washington%27s_Spies" title="Turn: Washington's Spies"><i>Turn: Washington's Spies</i> (2014–2017 series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_War_that_Made_America" title="The War that Made America"><i>The War that Made America</i> (2006 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_(miniseries)" title="Washington (miniseries)"><i>Washington</i> (2020 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)"><i>Hamilton</i></a> (<a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">film</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_George_Washington" title="Bibliography of George Washington">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_George_Washington_articles" title="List of George Washington articles">List of articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_dynasty" title="Virginia dynasty">Virginia dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Washington_family" title="Coat of arms of the Washington family">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mason_Locke_Weems#The_cherry-tree_anecdote" title="Mason Locke Weems">Cherry-tree anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Farm#Washington_at_River_Farm" title="River Farm">River Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington%27s_Crossing" title="Washington's Crossing">Washington's Crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington%E2%80%93Rochambeau_Revolutionary_Route" title="Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route">Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_House_(Barbados)" title="George Washington House (Barbados)">1751 Barbados trip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:George_Washington" title="Category:George Washington">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_the_Armies" title="General of the Armies">General of the Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conway_Cabal" title="Conway Cabal">Conway Cabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Foxhound" title="American Foxhound">American Foxhound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betsy_Ross_flag" title="Betsy Ross flag">Betsy Ross flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Ladies%27_Association" title="Mount Vernon Ladies' Association">Mount Vernon Ladies' Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Mansion_replicas" title="Mount Vernon Mansion replicas">Mount Vernon replicas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Memorial_Building" title="George Washington Memorial Building">George Washington Memorial Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_theft_of_George_Washington%27s_skull" title="Attempted theft of George Washington's skull">Attempted theft of Washington's skull</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Washington_family" title="Washington family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Washington" title="Martha Washington">Martha Washington</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Parke_Custis" title="John Parke Custis">John Parke Custis</a> (stepson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Parke_Custis" title="George Washington Parke Custis">George Washington Parke Custis</a> (step-grandson, adopted son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Parke_Custis_Lewis" title="Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis">Eleanor Parke Custis</a> (step-granddaughter, adopted daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_Washington" title="Augustine Washington">Augustine Washington</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ball_Washington" title="Mary Ball Washington">Mary Ball Washington</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Washington_(1718%E2%80%931752)" title="Lawrence Washington (1718–1752)">Lawrence Washington</a> (half-brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_Washington_Jr." title="Augustine Washington Jr.">Augustine Washington Jr.</a> (half-brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Washington_Lewis" title="Elizabeth Washington Lewis">Elizabeth Washington Lewis</a> (sister)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Washington" title="Samuel Washington">Samuel Washington</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Augustine_Washington" title="John Augustine Washington">John A. Washington</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Washington" title="Charles Washington">Charles Washington</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Washington_(1659%E2%80%931698)" title="Lawrence Washington (1659–1698)">Lawrence Washington</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Gale" title="Mildred Gale">Mildred Gale</a> (grandmother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Washington" title="John Washington">John Washington</a> (great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Reade_(colonial_governor)" title="George Reade (colonial governor)">George Reade</a> (2nd great-grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a> (nephew)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_enslaved_people_of_Mount_Vernon" title="List of enslaved people of Mount Vernon">List of enslaved people of Mount Vernon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_(slave)" title="Betty (slave)">Betty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Branham" title="Caroline Branham">Caroline Branham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Costin" title="William Costin">William Costin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Ford" title="West Ford">West Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Johnson_(Mount_Vernon)" title="Sarah Johnson (Mount Vernon)">Sarah Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oney_Judge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oney Judge">Oney Judge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Lee_(valet)" title="Philip Lee (valet)">Philip Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lee_(valet)" title="William Lee (valet)">William Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_Posey" title="Hercules Posey">Hercules Posey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Sheels" title="Christopher Sheels">Christopher Sheels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Squash" title="Deborah Squash">Deborah Squash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Washington" title="Harry Washington">Harry Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams →</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:George_Washington" title="Category:George Washington">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_George_Washington" title="Outline of George Washington">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Dickinson643" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Dickinson" title="Template:John Dickinson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:John_Dickinson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:John Dickinson (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Dickinson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Dickinson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Dickinson643" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania" title="List of governors of Pennsylvania">5th President of Pennsylvania, 1782–1785</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Delaware" class="mw-redirect" title="President of Delaware">5th President of Delaware, 1781–1783</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress, 1775–1776, 1779–1781</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress, 1774</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress, 1765</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding of the</a><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Rights_and_Grievances" title="Declaration of Rights and Grievances">Declaration of Rights and Grievances (1765)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_from_a_Farmer_in_Pennsylvania" title="Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania"><i>Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania</i> (1767, 1768)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Liberty_Song" title="The Liberty Song">"The Liberty Song" (1768</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_we_stand,_divided_we_fall#Use_in_U.S._history" title="United we stand, divided we fall">United we stand, divided we fall)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petition_to_the_King" title="Petition to the King">Petition to the King (1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Signee, Continental Association (1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of correspondence">Pennsylvania Committee of Correspondence (1774–1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_to_the_inhabitants_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Letters to the inhabitants of Canada">"Letter to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec" (1774)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_Branch_Petition" title="Olive Branch Petition">Olive Branch Petition (1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Causes_and_Necessity_of_Taking_Up_Arms" title="Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms">Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">co-wrote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Causes_and_Necessity_of_Taking_Up_Arms" title="Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms">1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Secret_Correspondence" title="Committee of Secret Correspondence">Committee of Secret Correspondence (1775–1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty committee (1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union (1776, drafting committee chairman)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">President, Annapolis Convention (1786)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Delegate, Constitutional Convention (1787)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associators" title="Associators">Brigadier General, Pennsylvania militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Constitution_of_1792" title="Delaware Constitution of 1792">Delaware Constitution of 1792</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Norris_Dickinson" title="Mary Norris Dickinson">Mary Norris Dickinson</a> <small>(wife)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philemon_Dickinson" title="Philemon Dickinson">Philemon Dickinson</a> <small>(brother)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson#Early_life_and_education" title="John Dickinson">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_House" title="John Dickinson House">Poplar Hall home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Norris_Dickinson#Fair_Hill_estate" title="Mary Norris Dickinson">Fair Hill estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_Meetinghouse_(Wilmington,_Delaware)" title="Friends Meetinghouse (Wilmington, Delaware)">Friends Burial Ground</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_-_Dickinson_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University - Dickinson Law">Dickinson School of Law, Pennsylvania State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_High_School" title="John Dickinson High School">John Dickinson High School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(musical)" title="1776 (musical)"><i>1776</i> (1969 musical,</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(film)" title="1776 (film)">1972 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)"><i>John Adams</i> (2008 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)"><i>Sons of Liberty</i> (2015 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claymont_Stone_School" title="Claymont Stone School">Claymont Stone School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q405475#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1123" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> 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