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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Confirmation bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processing_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processing_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Processing bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processing_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Observation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%AF" title="رصد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رصد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observaci%C3%B3n" title="Observación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Observación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BC%C5%9Fahid%C9%99" title="Müşahidə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müşahidə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Наблюдение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Наблюдение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opservacija" title="Opservacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Opservacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observaci%C3%B3" title="Observació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Observació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozorov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Pozorování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pozorování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherechedza" title="Cherechedza – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Cherechedza" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaatlus" title="Vaatlus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vaatlus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Παρατήρηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρατήρηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observaci%C3%B3n" title="Observación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Observación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observado" title="Observado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Observado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaketa" title="Behaketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Behaketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%87" title="مشاهده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مشاهده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observaci%C3%B3n" title="Observación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Observación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%80%EC%B8%A1" title="관측 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="관측" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հոգեբանական դիտում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոգեբանական դիտում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रेक्षण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रेक्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opa%C5%BEanje" title="Opažanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Opažanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengamatan" title="Pengamatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengamatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osservazione" title="Osservazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Osservazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%AA_(%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2)" title="תצפית (מדע) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תצפית (מדע)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panit%C3%A8n" title="Panitèn – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Panitèn" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%86" title="ವೀಕ್ಷಣೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೀಕ್ಷಣೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatio" title="Observatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Observatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nov%C4%93ro%C5%A1ana" title="Novērošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Novērošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="निरीक्षण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="निरीक्षण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencerapan" title="Pencerapan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pencerapan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Ажиглалт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ажиглалт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatie" title="Observatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Observatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8" title="अवलोकन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अवलोकन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%B3%E6%B8%AC" title="観測 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="観測" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observasjon" title="Observasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Observasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observasjon" title="Observasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Observasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observacion" title="Observacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Observacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਮੁਆਇਨਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੁਆਇਨਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%87" title="مشاهده – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مشاهده" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obserwacja_(nauki_spo%C5%82eczne)" title="Obserwacja (nauki społeczne) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obserwacja (nauki społeczne)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Observação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Observação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observare" title="Observare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Observare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Научное наблюдение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научное наблюдение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Observation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%BE%D8%AF%D9%88" title="مشاھدو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مشاھدو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozorovanie" title="Pozorovanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pozorovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ڕوانین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕوانین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Посматрање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Посматрање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posmatranje" title="Posmatranje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Posmatranje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havainto" title="Havainto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Havainto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation" title="Observation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Observation" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Active acquisition of information from a primary source</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Observation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Observation (disambiguation)">Observation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg/220px-Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg/330px-Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg/440px-Lennuliiklust_uurimas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5518" data-file-height="3683" /></a><figcaption>Observing the air traffic in <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B5uge" title="Rõuge">Rõuge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Observation</b> in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an act or instance of <a href="/wiki/Noticing" class="mw-redirect" title="Noticing">noticing</a> or perceiving <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary source</a>. In living beings, observation employs the <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, observation can also involve the <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and recording of <a href="/wiki/Data_(information)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (information)">data</a> via the use of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">scientific instruments</a>. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity. Observations can be <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_property" title="Qualitative property">qualitative</a>, that is, the absence or presence of a property is noted and the observed phenomenon described, or <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative data">quantitative</a> if a numerical value is attached to the observed <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Counting" title="Counting">counting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measuring</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science">Science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> requires observations of <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena" title="List of natural phenomena">natural phenomena</a> to formulate and test <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kosso_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kosso-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of the following steps:<sup id="cite_ref-Sadava_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadava-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shipman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shipman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Ask a <a href="/wiki/Question" title="Question">question</a> about a natural <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a></li> <li>Make observations of the phenomenon</li> <li>Formulate a <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> that tentatively answers the question</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">Predict</a> logical, observable <a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">consequences</a> of the hypothesis that have not yet been investigated</li> <li>Test the hypothesis' predictions by an <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">field study</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a></li> <li>Draw a <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">conclusion</a> from <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> gathered in the experiment, or revise the hypothesis or form a new one and <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">repeat</a> the process</li> <li>Write a <a href="/wiki/Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">descriptive method</a> of observation and the <a href="/wiki/Result" title="Result">results</a> or conclusions reached</li> <li>Have peers with experience researching the same phenomenon <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">evaluate</a> the results</li></ol> <p>Observations play a role in the second and fifth steps of the scientific method. However, the need for <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a> requires that observations by different observers can be comparable. Human <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sense</a> impressions are <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative data">qualitative</a>, making them difficult to record or compare. The use of <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> was developed to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places, by different people. The measurement consists of using observation to compare the phenomenon being observed to a <a href="/wiki/Standard_(metrology)" title="Standard (metrology)">standard unit</a>. The standard unit can be an artifact, process, or definition which can be duplicated or shared by all observers. In measurement, the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted. Measurement reduces an observation to a number that can be recorded, and two observations which result in the same number are equal within the <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">resolution</a> of the process. </p><p>Human senses are limited and subject to errors in perception, such as <a href="/wiki/Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">optical illusions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a> were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as <a href="/wiki/Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">weighing scales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">cameras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder">tape recorders</a>, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as <a href="/wiki/PH_indicator" title="PH indicator">indicator dyes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">spectrometers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared camera">infrared cameras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interferometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometer">interferometers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a>. </p><p>One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the process was unobserved. This is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Observer_effect_(physics)" title="Observer effect (physics)">observer effect</a></i>. For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure. However, in most fields of science, it is possible to reduce the effects of observation to insignificance by using better instruments. </p><p>Considered as a physical process itself, all forms of observation (human or instrumental) involve <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> and are thus thermodynamically <a href="/wiki/Irreversibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreversibility">irreversible processes</a>, increasing <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paradoxes">Paradoxes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paradoxes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some specific fields of science, the results of observation differ depending on factors that are not important in everyday observation. These are usually illustrated with apparent "<a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradoxes</a>" in which an event appears different when observed from two different points of view, seeming to violate "common sense". </p> <ul><li><b> Relativity:</b> In <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic physics">relativistic physics</a> which deals with velocities close to the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, it is found that different observers may observe different values for the length, time rates, mass, and many other properties of an object, depending on the observer's velocity relative to the object. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Twin_paradox" title="Twin paradox">twin paradox</a> one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home. This is not a paradox: time passes at a slower rate when measured from a frame moving concerning the object.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In relativistic physics, an observation must always be qualified by specifying the state of motion of the observer, its <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">reference frame</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b>Quantum mechanics:</b> In <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to <a href="/wiki/Observer_(quantum_physics)" title="Observer (quantum physics)">observe a system</a> without changing the system, and the "observer" must be considered part of the <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> being observed. In isolation, quantum objects are represented by a <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a> which often exists in a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">superposition</a> or mixture of different <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">states</a>. However, when an observation is made to determine the actual location or state of the object, it always finds the object in a single state, not a "mixture". The interaction of the observation process appears to "<a href="/wiki/Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">collapse</a>" the wave function into a single state. So any interaction between an isolated wave function and the external world that results in this wave function collapse is called an <i>observation</i> or <i>measurement</i>, whether or not it is part of a deliberate observation process.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biases">Biases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human senses do not function like a video <a href="/wiki/Camcorder" title="Camcorder">camcorder</a>, impartially recording all observations.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest is forgotten. What is kept and what is thrown away depends on an internal model or representation of the world, called by psychologists a <i><a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schema</a></i>, that is built up over our entire lives. The data is fitted into this schema. Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by "plausible" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called <i><a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_memory" title="Reconstructive memory">reconstructive memory</a></i>. How much attention the various perceived data are given depends on an internal value system, which judges how important it is to the individual. Thus two people can view the same event and come away with entirely different perceptions of it, even disagreeing about simple facts. This is why <a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_testimony" title="Eyewitness testimony">eyewitness testimony</a> is notoriously unreliable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Several of the more important ways observations can be affected by human psychology are given below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Streetlight_effect">Streetlight effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Streetlight effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Streetlight_effect" title="Streetlight effect">Streetlight effect</a></div></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation_bias">Confirmation bias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Confirmation bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a></div> <p>Human observations are biased toward confirming the observer's conscious and unconscious expectations and view of the world; we "<i>see what we expect to see</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In psychology, this is called <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the object of scientific research is the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discovery</a> of new phenomena, this bias can and has caused new discoveries to be overlooked; one example is the discovery of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>. It can also result in erroneous scientific support for widely held cultural myths, on the other hand, as in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> that supported ideas of racial superiority in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correct scientific technique emphasizes careful recording of observations, separating experimental observations from the conclusions drawn from them, and techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">blind</a> or <a href="/wiki/Double_blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Double blind experiment">double blind experiments</a>, to minimize observational bias. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processing_bias">Processing bias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Processing bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern scientific instruments can extensively process "observations" before they are presented to the human senses, and particularly with computerized instruments, there is sometimes a question as to where in the data processing chain "observing" ends and "drawing conclusions" begins. This has recently become an issue with <a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">digitally enhanced</a> images published as experimental data in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">papers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a>. The images are enhanced to bring out features that the researcher wants to emphasize, but this also has the effect of supporting the researcher's conclusions. This is a form of bias that is difficult to quantify. Some <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journals</a> have begun to set detailed standards for what types of <a href="/wiki/Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">image processing</a> are allowed in research results. Computerized instruments often keep a copy of the "raw data" from sensors before processing, which is the ultimate defense against processing bias, and similarly, scientific standards require preservation of the original unenhanced "raw" versions of images used as research data.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> the origins of observation are related with the origins of <a href="/wiki/Evolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutions">evolutions</a> in our cosmos.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a> is the changing <a href="/wiki/Relation_(philosophy)" title="Relation (philosophy)">relationships</a> of our <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">senses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">minds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experiences</a> to <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">ourselves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Observe always that everything is the result of a change, and get used to thinking that there is nothing <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> loves so well as to change existing forms and to make new ones like them."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Meditations. iv. 36. – <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Observation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">Deixis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrospection" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrospection">Extrospection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_presence" title="Metaphysics of presence">Metaphysics of presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_observation" title="Naturalistic observation">Naturalistic observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Observation unit">Observation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observable_quantity" class="mw-redirect" title="Observable quantity">Observable quantity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observations_and_Measurements" title="Observations and Measurements">Observations and Measurements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_effect_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Observer effect (disambiguation)">Observer effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_ladenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory ladenness">Theory ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" 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a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology/#AnthReasMult">"Philosophy of Cosmology"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Cosmology&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcosmology%2F%23AnthReasMult&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/">"Meanings and Definitions of Words at"</a>. Dictionary.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Meanings+and+Definitions+of+Words+at&rft.pub=Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kosso-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kosso_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKosso2011" class="citation book cs1">Kosso, Peter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkioLpvIgfYC&q=%22scientific+method%22+observation"><i>A Summary of Scientific Method</i></a>. Springer. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9400716131" title="Special:BookSources/978-9400716131"><bdi>978-9400716131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Summary+of+Scientific+Method&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9400716131&rft.aulast=Kosso&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlkioLpvIgfYC%26q%3D%2522scientific%2Bmethod%2522%2Bobservation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sadava-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sadava_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendezHellerBerenbaum2009" class="citation book cs1">Mendez, Carl Cedrick L.; Heller, H. Craig; Berenbaum, May (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ANT8VB14oBUC&q=%22scientific+method%22+observation+hypothesis+experiment+conclusion&pg=PA14"><i>Life: The Science of Biology, 9th Ed</i></a>. US: Macmillan. pp. 13–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1429219624" title="Special:BookSources/978-1429219624"><bdi>978-1429219624</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%3A+The+Science+of+Biology%2C+9th+Ed.&rft.place=US&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1429219624&rft.aulast=Mendez&rft.aufirst=Carl+Cedrick+L.&rft.au=Heller%2C+H.+Craig&rft.au=Berenbaum%2C+May&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DANT8VB14oBUC%26q%3D%2522scientific%2Bmethod%2522%2Bobservation%2Bhypothesis%2Bexperiment%2Bconclusion%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shipman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shipman_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipmanWilsonTodd2009" class="citation book cs1">Shipman, James; Wilson, Jerry D.; Todd, Aaron (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7feg9MZMPQMC&q=%22scientific+method%22+observation+hypothesis+experiment+conclusion&pg=PA4"><i>Introduction to Physical Science, 12th Ed</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0538731874" title="Special:BookSources/978-0538731874"><bdi>978-0538731874</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Science%2C+12th+Ed.&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0538731874&rft.aulast=Shipman&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Jerry+D.&rft.au=Todd%2C+Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7feg9MZMPQMC%26q%3D%2522scientific%2Bmethod%2522%2Bobservation%2Bhypothesis%2Bexperiment%2Bconclusion%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaw-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shaw_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2016" class="citation web cs1">Shaw, Julia (Aug 12, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/mind-guest-blog/what-experts-wish-you-knew-about-false-memories/">"Not all memories happened: What experts wish you knew about false memories"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. Nature America, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Not+all+memories+happened%3A+What+experts+wish+you+knew+about+false+memories&rft.date=2016-08-12&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.scientificamerican.com%2Fmind-guest-blog%2Fwhat-experts-wish-you-knew-about-false-memories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shermer-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2002" class="citation book cs1">Shermer, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LYIkAkBE7tsC&pg=PA299"><i>Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time</i></a>. MacMillan. pp. 299–302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1429996765" title="Special:BookSources/1429996765"><bdi>1429996765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things%3A+Pseudoscience%2C+Superstition%2C+and+Other+Confusions+of+Our+Time&rft.pages=299-302&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1429996765&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLYIkAkBE7tsC%26pg%3DPA299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardner-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gardner_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1957" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Martin (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X0HCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152"><i>Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</i></a>. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 152–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486131627" title="Special:BookSources/9780486131627"><bdi>9780486131627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fads+and+Fallacies+in+the+Name+of+Science&rft.pages=152-163&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=9780486131627&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX0HCAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology/#AnthReasMult">"Philosophy of Cosmology"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Cosmology&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcosmology%2F%23AnthReasMult&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/search/r?entry=/entries/process-philosophy/&page=1&total_hits=2206&pagesize=10&archive=None&rank=0&query=process%20philosophy">"Process Philosophy"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Process+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fsearch%2Fr%3Fentry%3D%2Fentries%2Fprocess-philosophy%2F%26page%3D1%26total_hits%3D2206%26pagesize%3D10%26archive%3DNone%26rank%3D0%26query%3Dprocess%2520philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObservation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> 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id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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