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href="#Medieval_philosophy_of_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Medieval philosophy of motion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_philosophy_of_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy_in_the_early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy_in_the_early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Natural philosophy in the early modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy_in_the_early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_work_in_the_philosophy_of_science_and_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_work_in_the_philosophy_of_science_and_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Current work in the philosophy of science and nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_work_in_the_philosophy_of_science_and_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">57 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurfilosofie" title="Natuurfilosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Natuurfilosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة طبيعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة طبيعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բնափիլիսոփայութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բնափիլիսոփայութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturf%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Naturfəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Naturfəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রাকৃতিক দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাকৃতিক দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB-ji%C3%A2n_tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Chū-jiân tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chū-jiân tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Натурфіласофія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Натурфіласофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Натурфилософия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Натурфилософия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_natural" title="Filosofia natural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia natural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADrodn%C3%AD_filozofie" title="Přírodní filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Přírodní filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturfilosofi" title="Naturfilosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturphilosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loodusfilosoofia" title="Loodusfilosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Loodusfilosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%86%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Φιλοσοφία της φύσης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλοσοφία της φύσης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_de_la_naturaleza" title="Filosofía de la naturaleza – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía de la naturaleza" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturfilozofio" title="Naturfilozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Naturfilozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_natural" title="Filosofia natural – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia natural" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="فلسفه طبیعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه طبیعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_naturelle" title="Philosophie naturelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie naturelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_da_natureza" title="Filosofía da natureza – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía da natureza" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="자연철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자연철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բնափիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բնափիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्राकृतिक दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राकृतिक दर्शनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_alam" title="Filsafat alam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat alam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_della_natura" title="Filosofia della natura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia della natura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="საბუნებისმეტყველო ფილოსოფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საბუნებისმეტყველო ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Натурфилософия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Натурфилософия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Натурфилософия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Натурфилософия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term%C3%A9szetfiloz%C3%B3fia" title="Természetfilozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Természetfilozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ნატურფილოსოფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნატურფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurfilosofie" title="Natuurfilosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Natuurfilosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="自然哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自然哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturfilosofi" title="Naturfilosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Naturfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturfalsafa" title="Naturfalsafa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Naturfalsafa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="طبيعي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="طبيعي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_przyrody" title="Filozofia przyrody – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia przyrody" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_natural" title="Filosofia natural – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia natural" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie_natural%C4%83" title="Filozofie naturală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofie naturală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Натурфилософия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Натурфилософия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_natyrore" title="Filozofia natyrore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia natyrore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ස්වාභාවික දර්ශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ස්වාභාවික දර්ශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Natural philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%8A" title="قدرتي فلاسفي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قدرتي فلاسفي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_pr%C3%ADrody" title="Filozofia prírody – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Filozofia prírody" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="فەلسەفەی سروشتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی سروشتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Природна филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Природна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija_prirode" title="Filozofija prirode – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Filozofija prirode" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luonnonfilosofia" title="Luonnonfilosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Luonnonfilosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturfilosofi" title="Naturfilosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Naturfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இயல் மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இயல் மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="ปรัชญาธรรมชาติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาธรรมชาติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C4%9Fa_felsefesi" title="Doğa felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğa felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Натурфілософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Натурфілософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the philosophical study of nature. For the current in 19th-century German idealism, see <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg/240px-Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg/360px-Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg/480px-Planisph%C3%A6ri_c%C5%93leste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5812" data-file-height="3972" /></a><figcaption>A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer <a href="/wiki/Frederik_de_Wit" title="Frederik de Wit">Frederik de Wit</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Natural philosophy</b> or <b>philosophy of nature</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>philosophia naturalis</i>) is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">physics</a>, that is, <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> and the physical <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> while ignoring any <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> influence. It was dominant before the development of <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>. </p><p>From the ancient world (at least since <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>) until the 19th century, <i><b>natural philosophy</b></i> was the common term for the study of physics (nature), a broad term that included botany, zoology, anthropology, and chemistry as well as what we now call physics. It was in the 19th century that the concept of science received its modern shape, with different subjects within science emerging, such as <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. Institutions and communities devoted to science were founded.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687) (English: <i>Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>) reflects the use of the term <i>natural philosophy</i> in the 17th century. Even in the 19th century, the work that helped define much of modern physics bore the title <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" title="Treatise on Natural Philosophy">Treatise on Natural Philosophy</a></i> (1867). </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German tradition</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">Naturphilosophie</a></i> (philosophy of nature) persisted into the 18th and 19th centuries as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> and spirit, after rejecting the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/scholastic" class="extiw" title="wikt:scholastic">scholastic</a> tradition and replacing Aristotelian <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, along with those of the dogmatic churchmen, with Kantian <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with this movement, including <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a>. <i>Naturphilosophie</i> was associated with <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and a view that regarded the natural world as a kind of giant organism, as opposed to the philosophical approach of figures such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and others espousing a more <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> of the world, regarding it as being like a machine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_evolution_of_the_term">Origin and evolution of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and evolution of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>natural philosophy</i> preceded current usage of <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a></i> (i.e. empirical science). Empirical science historically developed out of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> or, more specifically, natural philosophy. Natural philosophy was distinguished from the other precursor of modern science, <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, in that natural philosophy involved reasoning and explanations about nature (and after <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative property">quantitative</a> reasoning), whereas natural history was essentially <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_property" title="Qualitative property">qualitative</a> and descriptive. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> defined natural philosophy as the combination of beings living in the universe, ignoring things made by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-MorenoMuñoz_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MorenoMuñoz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other definition refers to <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MorenoMuñoz_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MorenoMuñoz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, but was not a specialized field of study. The first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophy <i>per se</i> was <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a> in 1577. </p><p>Modern meanings of the terms <i>science</i> and <i>scientists</i> date only to the 19th century. Before that, <i>science</i> was a synonym for <i>knowledge</i> or <i>study</i>, in keeping with its Latin origin. The term gained its modern meaning when <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> science and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> became a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially since <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a>, a natural philosopher from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, proposed the term "scientist" in 1834 to replace such terms as "cultivators of science" and "natural philosopher".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the mid-19th century, when it became increasingly unusual for scientists to contribute to both <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, "natural philosophy" came to mean just <i>physics</i>, and the word is still used in that sense in degree titles at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">University of Aberdeen</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="See talk page (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1687), whose title translates to "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature". Even in the 19th century, a treatise by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">Peter Guthrie Tait</a>, which helped define much of modern physics, was titled <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" title="Treatise on Natural Philosophy">Treatise on Natural Philosophy</a></i> (1867). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope">Scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s earliest known dialogue, <i><a href="/wiki/Charmides_(dialogue)" title="Charmides (dialogue)">Charmides</a>,</i> distinguishes between <i>science</i> or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a theoretical rather than a practical branch of philosophy (like ethics). Sciences that guide arts and draw on the philosophical knowledge of nature may produce practical results, but these subsidiary sciences (e.g., architecture or medicine) go beyond natural philosophy. </p><p>The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe. Some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. Although this may seem obvious, there have been some philosophers who have denied the concept of metamorphosis, such as Plato's predecessor <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> and later Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>, and perhaps some Eastern philosophers. <a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>, in his <i>Scepticism and Animal Faith,</i> attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain one's skepticism enough to trust one's senses, or else rely on <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">mind–body dualism</a> describes two kinds of substance: matter and mind. According to this system, everything that is "matter" is <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">deterministic</a> and natural—and so belongs to natural philosophy—and everything that is "mind" is <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">volitional</a> and non-natural, and falls outside the domain of philosophy of nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches_and_subject_matter">Branches and subject matter</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Branches and subject matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Major branches of natural philosophy include <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, the study of nature on the grand scale; <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a>, the study of (intrinsic and sometimes extrinsic) <a href="/wiki/Cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Cause">causes</a>; the study of <a href="/wiki/Chance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chance (philosophy)">chance</a>, probability and randomness; the study of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>; the study of the <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinite</a> and the unlimited (virtual or actual); the study of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, the study of translation of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_motion" title="Philosophy of motion">motion and change</a>; the study of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> or the various sources of actions; the study of natural <a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">qualities</a>; the study of physical <a href="/wiki/Quantity" title="Quantity">quantities</a>; the study of relations between physical entities; and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">philosophy of space and time</a>. (Adler, 1993) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the history of natural philosophy prior to the 17th century, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a>.</div> <p>Humankind's mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history. Philosophical, and specifically non-religious thought about the natural world, goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his philosophical studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man, or in other words, political philosophy. The thought of early philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> centered on the natural world. In addition, three <a href="/wiki/Presocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratic">Presocratic</a> philosophers who lived in the Ionian town of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a> (hence the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian School">Milesian School</a> of philosophy), <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to creation <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myths</a> involving the <a href="/wiki/Greek_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek gods">Greek gods</a>. They were called the <i><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">physikoi</a></i> ("natural philosophers") or, as Aristotle referred to them, the <i>physiologoi</i>. Plato followed Socrates in concentrating on man. It was Plato's student, Aristotle, who, in basing his thought on the natural world, returned empiricism to its primary place, while leaving room in the world for man.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> observes that Aristotle was the originator of conception of nature that prevailed in the Middle Ages into the modern era: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The <i>Physics</i> is a lecture in which he seeks to determine <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">beings</a> that arise on their own, <a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">τὰ φύσει ὄντα</a>, with regard to their <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">being</a>. Aristotelian "physics" is different from what we mean today by this word, not only to the extent that it belongs to antiquity whereas the modern physical sciences belong to <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, rather above all it is different by virtue of the fact that <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotle's "physics"</a> is philosophy, whereas modern physics is a <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positive</a> science that presupposes a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy</a>.... This book determines the warp and weft of the whole of Western thinking, even at that place where it, as modern thinking, appears to think at odds with ancient thinking. But opposition is invariably comprised of a decisive, and often even perilous, dependence. Without Aristotle's <i>Physics</i> there would have been no Galileo.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Plato's world of eternal and unchanging <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Forms</a>, imperfectly represented in matter by a divine <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Artisan</a>, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic <i><a href="/wiki/Weltanschauungen" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltanschauungen">Weltanschauungen</a></i>, of which <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> was, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent... This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>... while the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> adopted a <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">divine teleology</a>... The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system. This was how Aristotle... when still a young acolyte of Plato, saw matters. <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>... preserves Aristotle's own <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">cave-image</a>: if <a href="/wiki/Troglodytae" title="Troglodytae">troglodytes</a> were brought on a sudden into the upper world, they would immediately suppose it to have been intelligently arranged. But Aristotle grew to abandon this view; although he believes in a divine being, the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Prime Mover</a> is not the <a href="/wiki/Efficient_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient cause">efficient cause</a> of action in the Universe, and plays no part in constructing or arranging it... But, although he rejects the divine Artificer, Aristotle does not resort to a pure mechanism of random forces. Instead he seeks to find a middle way between the two positions, one which relies heavily on the notion of Nature, or <i><a href="/wiki/Phusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phusis">phusis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>"The world we inhabit is an orderly one, in which things generally behave in predictable ways, Aristotle argued, because every natural object has a "nature"—an attribute (associated primarily with form) that makes the object behave in its customary fashion..."<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle recommended <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a> as appropriate for the business of the natural philosopher, or physicist, "and if he refers his problems back to all of them, he will assign the 'why' in the way proper to his science—the matter, the form, the mover, [and] 'that for the sake of which<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>". While the vagaries of the material cause are subject to circumstance, the formal, efficient and final cause often coincide because in natural kinds, the mature form and <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">final cause</a> are one and the same. The <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">capacity</a> to mature into a specimen of one's kind is directly acquired from "the primary source of motion", i.e., from one's father, whose seed (<i>sperma</i>) conveys the essential nature (common to the species), as a hypothetical <i>ratio</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Material cause</dt> <dd>An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on the [substance/essence] from which it is made. (Compare clay, steel, etc.)</dd> <dt>Formal cause</dt> <dd>An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on its material arrangement. (Compare a clay sphere, clay block, etc.)</dd> <dt>Efficient cause</dt> <dd>That which caused the object to come into being; an "agent of change" or an "agent of movement".</dd> <dt>Final cause</dt> <dd>The reason that caused the object to be brought into existence.</dd></dl> <p>From the late Middle Ages into the modern era, the tendency has been to narrow "science" to the consideration of efficient or agency-based causes of a particular kind:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The action of an efficient cause may sometimes, but not always, be described in terms of quantitative force. The action of an artist on a block of clay, for instance, can be described in terms of how many pounds of pressure per square inch is exerted on it. The efficient causality of the teacher in directing the activity of the artist, however, cannot be so described… The final cause acts on the agent to influence or induce her to act. If the artist works "to make money," making money is in some way the cause of her action. But we cannot describe this influence in terms of quantitative force. The final cause acts, but it acts according to the mode of final causality, as an end or good that induces the efficient cause to act. The mode of causality proper to the final cause cannot itself be reduced to efficient causality, much less to the mode of efficient causality we call "force."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_ancient_Greece">In ancient Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In ancient Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Greek philosophers studied motion and the cosmos. Figures like <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a> regarded the natural world as offspring of the gods, whereas others like <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> regarded the world as lifeless atoms in a vortex. <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> deduced that eclipses happen because of apertures in rings of celestial fire. <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> believed that the heavenly bodies were made of fire that were contained within bowls. He thought that eclipses happen when the bowl turned away from the earth. <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a> is believed to have stated that an underlying element was air, and by manipulating air someone could change its thickness to create fire, water, dirt, and stones. <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> identified the elements that make up the world, which he termed the roots of all things, as fire, air, earth, and water. <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> argued that all change is a logical impossibility. He gives the example that nothing can go from nonexistence to existence. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> argues that the world is an imperfect replica of an idea that a divine craftsman once held. He also believed that the only way to truly know something was through reason and logic. Not the study of the object itself, but that changeable matter is a viable course of study.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle's_philosophy_of_nature"><span id="Aristotle.27s_philosophy_of_nature"></span>Aristotle's philosophy of nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aristotle's philosophy of nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>"An acorn is potentially, but not actually, an oak tree. In becoming an oak tree, it becomes actually what it originally was only potentially. This change thus involves passage from potentiality to actuality — not from non-being to being but from one kind or degree to being another"<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Aristotle held many important beliefs that started a convergence of thought for natural philosophy. Aristotle believed that attributes of objects belong to the objects themselves, and share traits with other objects that fit them into a category. He uses the example of dogs to press this point. An individual dog may have very specific attributes (ex. one dog can be black and another brown) but also very general ones that classify it as a dog (ex. four-legged). This philosophy can be applied to many other objects as well. This idea is different from that of Plato, with whom Aristotle had a direct association. Aristotle argued that objects have properties "form" and something that is not part of its properties "matter" that defines the object.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i>copyedit or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The form cannot be separated from the matter. Given the example that you can not separate properties and matter since this is impossible, you cannot collect properties in a pile and matter in another.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle believed that change was a natural occurrence. He used his philosophy of form and matter to argue that when something changes you change its properties without changing its matter. This change occurs by replacing certain properties with other properties. Since this change is always an intentional alteration whether by forced means or by natural ones, change is a controllable order of qualities. He argues that this happens through three categories of being: non-being, potential being, and actual being. Through these three states the process of changing an object never truly destroys an object's forms during this transition state but rather just blurs the reality between the two states. An example of this could be changing an object from red to blue with a transitional purple phase.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_philosophy_of_motion">Medieval philosophy of motion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy of motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval thoughts on motion involved much of Aristotle's works <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i>. The issue that medieval philosophers had with motion was the inconsistency found between book 3 of <i>Physics</i> and book 5 of <i>Metaphysics</i>. Aristotle claimed in book 3 of <i>Physics</i> that motion can be categorized by substance, quantity, quality, and place. where in book 5 of <i>Metaphysics</i> he stated that motion is a magnitude of quantity. This disputation led to some important questions to natural philosophers: Which category/categories does motion fit into? Is motion the same thing as a terminus? Is motion separate from real things? These questions asked by medieval philosophers tried to classify motion.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> gives a good concept of motion for many people in the Middle Ages. There is an issue with the vocabulary behind motion that makes people think that there is a correlation between nouns and the qualities that make nouns. Ockham states that this distinction is what will allow people to understand motion, that motion is a property of mobiles, locations, and forms and that is all that is required to define what motion is. A famous example of this is <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>, which simplifies vague statements by cutting them into more descriptive examples. "Every motion derives from an agent." becomes "each thing that is moved, is moved by an agent" this makes motion a more personal quality referring to individual objects that are moved.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_philosophy_in_the_early_modern_period">Natural philosophy in the early modern period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Natural philosophy in the early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> has ancient precedents, and <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> exemplifies a mathematical understanding of nature, which is a hallmark of modern natural scientists. Galileo proposed that objects falling regardless of their mass would fall at the same rate, as long as the medium they fall in is identical. The 19th-century distinction of a scientific enterprise apart from traditional natural philosophy has its roots in prior centuries. Proposals for a more "inquisitive" and practical approach to the study of nature are notable in <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, whose ardent convictions did much to popularize his insightful <a href="/wiki/Baconian_method" title="Baconian method">Baconian method</a>. The Baconian method is employed throughout <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a>'s encyclopaedia <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudodoxia_Epidemica" title="Pseudodoxia Epidemica">Pseudodoxia Epidemica</a></i> (1646–1672), which debunks a wide range of common fallacies through empirical investigation of nature. The late-17th-century natural philosopher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> wrote a seminal work on the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> called, <i>A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature</i>, as well as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Skeptical Chymist</a></i>, after which the modern science of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> is named, (as distinct from <a href="/wiki/Proto-science" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-science">proto-scientific</a> studies of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>). These works of natural philosophy are representative of a departure from the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> taught in European <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a>, and anticipate in many ways, the developments that would <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">lead to science</a> as practiced in the modern sense. As Bacon would say, "vexing nature" to reveal "her" secrets (<a href="/wiki/Scientific_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific experiment">scientific experimentation</a>), rather than a mere reliance on largely historical, even <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal" class="mw-redirect" title="Anecdotal">anecdotal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a> of empirical <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a>, would come to be regarded as a defining characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>, if not the very key to its success. Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the scholastic sciences in theory, practice and doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he meticulously recorded observational detail on practical research, and subsequently advocated not only this practice, but its publication, both for successful and unsuccessful experiments, so as to validate individual claims by replication. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For sometimes we use the word <i><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></i> for that <i>Author of nature</i> whom the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">schoolmen</a>, harshly enough, call <i><a href="/wiki/Natura_naturans" class="mw-redirect" title="Natura naturans">natura naturans</a></i>, as when it is said that <i>nature</i> hath made man partly corporeal and <a href="/wiki/Mind-body_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mind-body dualism">partly immaterial</a>. Sometimes we mean by the <i>nature</i> of a thing the <i><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essence</a></i>, or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the <i><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">quiddity</a></i> of a thing, namely, the <i><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">attribute</a></i> or <i>attributes</i> on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">corporeal</a> or not, as when we attempt to define the <i>nature</i> of an <i><a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angel</a></i>, or of a <i><a href="/wiki/Triangle" title="Triangle">triangle</a></i>, or of a <i><a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a></i> body, as such. Sometimes we take <i>nature</i> for an internal principle of <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>, as when we say that a stone let fall in the <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a> is by <i>nature</i> carried towards the centre of the <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a>, and, on the contrary, that <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a> or flame does <i>naturally</i> move upwards toward <a href="/wiki/Firmament" title="Firmament">heaven</a>. Sometimes we understand by <i>nature</i> the established course of things, as when we say that <i>nature</i> makes the <a href="/wiki/Night" title="Night">night</a> succeed the day, <i>nature</i> hath made <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take <i>nature</i> for an <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">aggregate of powers</a> belonging to a body, especially a living one, as when <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> say that <i>nature</i> is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or such <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> <i>nature</i> left to herself will do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>, or system of the corporeal works of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, as when it is said of a <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)" title="Chimera (mythology)">chimera</a>, that there is no such thing in <i>nature</i>, i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by <i>nature</i> a <a href="/wiki/Mother_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother nature">semi-deity</a> or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Natural philosophers of the late 17th or early 18th century were sometimes insultingly described as 'projectors'. A <a href="/w/index.php?title=Projector_(early_scientist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Projector (early scientist) (page does not exist)">projector</a> was an entrepreneur who invited people to invest in his invention but – as the caricature went – could not be trusted, usually because his device was impractical.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jonathan Swift satirized natural philosophers of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> as 'the academy of projectors' in his novel <i><a href="/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels">Gulliver's Travels</a>.</i> Historians of science have argued that natural philosophers and the so-called projectors sometimes overlapped in their methods and aims.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_work_in_the_philosophy_of_science_and_nature">Current work in the philosophy of science and nature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Current work in the philosophy of science and nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the middle of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a>'s discussions on the <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a> of nature brought up issues that were dealt with previously by Aristotle (regarding <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a>) and Kant (regarding <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment#Aesthetics" title="Critique of Judgment">reflective judgment</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially since the mid-20th-century European crisis, some thinkers argued the importance of looking at nature from a broad philosophical perspective, rather than what they considered a narrowly positivist approach relying implicitly on a hidden, unexamined philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One line of thought grows from the Aristotelian tradition, especially as developed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. Another line springs from <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, especially as expressed in <i>The Crisis of European Sciences</i>. Students of his such as <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Klein_(philosopher)" title="Jacob Klein (philosopher)">Jacob Klein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a> more fully developed his themes. Last, but not least, there is the <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a> inspired by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>'s works.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among living scholars, <a href="/wiki/Brian_David_Ellis" title="Brian David Ellis">Brian David Ellis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_S._Oderberg" title="David S. Oderberg">David Oderberg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a> are some of the more prominent thinkers who can arguably be classed as generally adopting a more open approach to the natural world. Ellis (2002) observes the rise of a "New Essentialism".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Oderberg (2007) takes issue with other philosophers, including Ellis to a degree, who claim to be <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialists</a>. He revives and defends the Thomistic-Aristotelian tradition from modern attempts to flatten nature to the limp subject of the experimental method. In Praise of Natural Philosophy: A Revolution for Thought and Life (2017), <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Maxwell" title="Nicholas Maxwell">Nicholas Maxwell</a> argues that we need to reform philosophy and put science and philosophy back together again to create a modern version of natural philosophy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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(philosophy)">Naturalism (philosophy)</a> – Belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature (philosophy)</a> – Philosophical term</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a> – Research field with some scientific qualities</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226089282" title="Special:BookSources/0226089282"><bdi>0226089282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0226089282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MorenoMuñoz-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MorenoMuñoz_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MorenoMuñoz_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreno_Muñoz1998" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Moreno Muñoz, Miguel (20 September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org:80/educacion/9/Usr/ibjoa/Filos/tema1.html#NAT">"Historia de la filosofía (C.O.U.) - Tema 1"</a>. <i>Gobierno de Canarias</i> (in Spanish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100923234739/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/educacion/9/Usr/ibjoa/Filos/tema1.html#NAT">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gobierno+de+Canarias&rft.atitle=Historia+de+la+filosof%C3%ADa+%28C.O.U.%29+-+Tema+1&rft.date=1998-09-20&rft.aulast=Moreno+Mu%C3%B1oz&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gobiernodecanarias.org%3A80%2Feducacion%2F9%2FUsr%2Fibjoa%2FFilos%2Ftema1.html%23NAT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The naturalist-theologian <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> coined the word "<a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>"; his earliest written use identified by the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> was in 1834.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1962" class="citation journal cs1">Ross, Sydney (1962-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">"Scientist: The story of a word"</a>. <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>18</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">65–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">10.1080/00033796200202722</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-3790">0003-3790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Scientist%3A+The+story+of+a+word&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.date=1962-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033796200202722&rft.issn=0003-3790&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00033796200202722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael J. Crowe, <i>Mechanics from Aristotle to Einstein</i> (Santa Fe, NM: Green Lion Press, 2007), 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Heidegger, <i>The Principle of Reason</i>, trans. Reginald Lilly, (Indiana University Press, 1991), 62-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rWDUmlA6M98C&pg=PA63">63</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See especially <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, books I and II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankinson1997" class="citation book cs1">Hankinson, R. J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwfy-n5IWL8C"><i>Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4"><bdi>978-0-19-924656-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413194747/https://books.google.com/books?id=iwfy-n5IWL8C">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cause+and+Explanation+in+Ancient+Greek+Thought&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924656-4&rft.aulast=Hankinson&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Diwfy-n5IWL8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindberg_BWS_2007-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg_BWS_2007_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David C. Lindberg, <i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2007, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Physics</i> II.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael J. Dodds, "Science, Causality and Divine Action: Classical Principles for Contemporary Challenges," <i>CTNS Bulletin</i> 21:1 [2001].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dodds 2001, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murdoch_and_Sylla_1978_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John E. Murdoch and Edith D. Sylla <i>Science in The Middle Ages:The Science of Motion</i> (1978) University of Chicago Press p. 213–222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMore1941" class="citation journal cs1">More, Louis Trenchard (January 1941). "Boyle as Alchemist". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>2</b> (1). University of Pennsylvania Press: <span class="nowrap">61–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2707281">10.2307/2707281</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2707281">2707281</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Boyle+as+Alchemist&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=1941-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2707281&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2707281%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=More&rft.aufirst=Louis+Trenchard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyleStewart1991" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, Robert; Stewart, M.A. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNzGMLGSGwC&pg=PA177"><i>Selected Philosophical Papers of Robert Boyle</i></a>. HPC Classics Series. Hackett. pp. <span class="nowrap">176–</span>177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-122-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-122-4"><bdi>978-0-87220-122-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/91025480">91025480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Philosophical+Papers+of+Robert+Boyle&rft.series=HPC+Classics+Series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E176-%3C%2Fspan%3E177&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91025480&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-122-4&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Stewart%2C+M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_tNzGMLGSGwC%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/alex-keller/age-projectors">"The Age of the Projectors | History Today"</a>. <i>www.historytoday.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161020035743/http://www.historytoday.com/alex-keller/age-projectors">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-10-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historytoday.com&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+the+Projectors+%7C+History+Today&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Falex-keller%2Fage-projectors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillmoth1993" class="citation book cs1">Willmoth, Frances (1993-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku2IWu3xchoC&q=alex+keller+projector"><i>Sir Jonas Moore: Practical Mathematics and Restoration Science</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780851153216" title="Special:BookSources/9780851153216"><bdi>9780851153216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Jonas+Moore%3A+Practical+Mathematics+and+Restoration+Science&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft.isbn=9780851153216&rft.aulast=Willmoth&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKu2IWu3xchoC%26q%3Dalex%2Bkeller%2Bprojector&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamamoto2015" class="citation journal cs1">Yamamoto, Koji (2015-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/895512">"Medicine, metals and empire: the survival of a chymical projector in early eighteenth-century London"</a>. <i>The British Journal for the History of Science</i>. <b>48</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">607–</span>637. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS000708741500059X">10.1017/S000708741500059X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0874">0007-0874</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26336059">26336059</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171029065304/https://zenodo.org/record/895512">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+metals+and+empire%3A+the+survival+of+a+chymical+projector+in+early+eighteenth-century+London&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E607-%3C%2Fspan%3E637&rft.date=2015-12-01&rft.issn=0007-0874&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26336059&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS000708741500059X&rft.aulast=Yamamoto&rft.aufirst=Koji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F895512&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/117102437/Teleology-and-Randomness-in-the-Development-of-Natural-Science-Research-Systems-Ontology-and-Evolution">"Teleology and Randomness in the Development of Natural Science Research: Systems, Ontology and Evolution | Evolution (1.1K views)"</a>. <i>Scribd</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804075218/https://www.scribd.com/document/117102437/Teleology-and-Randomness-in-the-Development-of-Natural-Science-Research-Systems-Ontology-and-Evolution">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scribd&rft.atitle=Teleology+and+Randomness+in+the+Development+of+Natural+Science+Research%3A+Systems%2C+Ontology+and+Evolution+%26%23124%3B+Evolution+%281.1K+views%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F117102437%2FTeleology-and-Randomness-in-the-Development-of-Natural-Science-Research-Systems-Ontology-and-Evolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.A. Burtt, <i>Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science</i> (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954), 227–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Michel_Weber" title="Michel Weber">Michel Weber</a> and Will Desmond, (eds.), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/279955/Handbook_of_Whiteheadian_Process_Thought">Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151112213343/http://www.academia.edu/279955/Handbook_of_Whiteheadian_Process_Thought">Archived</a> 2015-11-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Frankfurt / Lancaster, ontos verlag, Process Thought X1 & X2, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See his <i>The Philosophy of Nature: A Guide to the New Essentialism</i> 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-2474-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-2474-6">0-7735-2474-6</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler, Mortimer J.</a> (1993). <i>The Four Dimensions of Philosophy: Metaphysical, Moral, Objective, Categorical</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-500574-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-500574-X"><bdi>0-02-500574-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Four+Dimensions+of+Philosophy%3A+Metaphysical%2C+Moral%2C+Objective%2C+Categorical&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-02-500574-X&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Mortimer+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Arthur_Burtt" title="Edwin Arthur Burtt">E.A. Burtt</a>, <i>Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science</i> (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a>, <i>Science, Truth, and Democracy.</i> Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. LCCN:2001036144 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514583-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514583-6">0-19-514583-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Philosophy_(Russell)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Western Philosophy (Russell)">A History of Western Philosophy</a> and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</i> (1945) Simon & Schuster, 1972.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantayana1923" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana, George</a> (1923). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scepticismanimal00sant"><i>Scepticism and Animal Faith</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scepticismanimal00sant/page/27">27–41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-20236-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-20236-4"><bdi>0-486-20236-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scepticism+and+Animal+Faith&rft.pages=27-41&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1923&rft.isbn=0-486-20236-4&rft.aulast=Santayana&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscepticismanimal00sant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Snoke" title="David Snoke">David Snoke</a>, <i>Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought.</i> Access Research Network, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931796-25-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-931796-25-4">1-931796-25-4</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070408204932/http://www.cityreformed.org/snoke/hsbook/hsbook.html">Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/Homeschool_Reviews/reviews.php?rid=909">Welcome to The Old Schoolhouse® Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_R._Pearcey" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy R. Pearcey">Nancy R. Pearcey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_B._Thaxton" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles B. Thaxton">Charles B. Thaxton</a>, <i>The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy</i> (Crossway Books, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0891077669" title="Special:BookSources/0891077669">0891077669</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_N._Whitehead" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred N. Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Process_and_Reality" title="Process and Reality">Process and Reality</a></i>, The Macmillan Company, 1929.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Thom" title="René Thom">René Thom</a>, <i>Modèles mathématiques de la morphogenèse</i>, Christian Bourgois, 1980.</li> <li>Claude Paul Bruter, <i>Topologie et perception</i>, Maloine, 3 vols. 1974/1976/1986.</li> <li>Jean Largeault, <i>Principes classiques d'interprétation de la nature</i>, Vrin, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a>, <i>Philosophy of Nature</i>, Philosophical Library, New York, 1949.</li> <li>Andrew G. Van Melsen, <i>The Philosophy of Nature</i>, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh 1954.</li> <li>Miguel Espinoza, A Theory of Intelligibility. A Contribution to the Revival of the Philosophy of Nature, Thombooks Press, Toronto, ON, 2020.</li> <li>Miguel Espinoza, La matière éternelle et ses harmonies éphémères, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2017.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThagard2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Thagard" title="Paul Thagard">Thagard, Paul</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT442"><i>Natural Philosophy: From Social Brains to Knowledge, Reality, Morality, and Beauty</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190686444" title="Special:BookSources/9780190686444"><bdi>9780190686444</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+Social+Brains+to+Knowledge%2C+Reality%2C+Morality%2C+and+Beauty&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190686444&rft.aulast=Thagard&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKfeEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External 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href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/">"Aristotle's Natural Philosophy"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isnature.org">Institute for the Study of Nature</a> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isnature.org/Files/Augros_2009-Bigger_Physics.htm">A Bigger Physics</a>," a talk at MIT by Michael Augros</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isnature.org/articles.htm">Other articles</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Cantemir" title="Dimitrie Cantemir">Cantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</b></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" 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title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolinguistics" title="Ecolinguistics">Ecolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosemiotics" title="Ecosemiotics">Ecosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">Traditional ecological knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty#Ecophenomenology" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Ecophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_theology" title="Environmental theology">Environmental theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion and environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_ecology" title="Spiritual ecology">Spiritual ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_adult_education" title="Environmental adult education">adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts-based_environmental_education" title="Arts-based environmental education">arts-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_interpretation" title="Heritage interpretation">Environmental interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Environmental journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">Outdoor education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation_of_nature" title="Political representation of nature">Political representation of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_interpretation" title="Thematic interpretation">Thematic interpretation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_studies" title="Animal studies">Animal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis" title="Biophilia hypothesis">Biophilia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a> (<a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">ethic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">museums</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">Popular science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">common property</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_Food" title="Slow Food">Slow food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_place" title="Spirit of place">Spirit of place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Sustainability studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomuseum" title="Ecomuseum">Ecomuseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_trail" title="Educational trail">Educational trail</a></li> <li><a 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