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cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Career and research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Career_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Luria,_Delbrück,_and_the_Phage_Group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luria,_Delbrück,_and_the_Phage_Group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luria,_Delbrück,_and_the_Phage_Group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identifying_the_double_helix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identifying_the_double_helix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Identifying the double helix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identifying_the_double_helix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_Rosalind_Franklin_and_Raymond_Gosling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_Rosalind_Franklin_and_Raymond_Gosling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Interactions with Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_Rosalind_Franklin_and_Raymond_Gosling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Harvard_University" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harvard_University"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Harvard University </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harvard_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publishing_The_Double_Helix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publishing_The_Double_Helix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Publishing The Double Helix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publishing_The_Double_Helix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_Genome_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_Genome_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Human Genome Project </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_Genome_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Later life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_former_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_former_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Notable former students </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_former_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_affiliations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_affiliations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Other affiliations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_affiliations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoid_Boring_People" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoid_Boring_People"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Avoid Boring People </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoid_Boring_People-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comments_on_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comments_on_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Comments on race </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comments_on_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marriage_and_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_and_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Marriage and family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Awards and honors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Awards and honors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Honorary_degrees_received" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorary_degrees_received"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Honorary degrees received </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorary_degrees_received-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_and_honorary_affiliations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_and_honorary_affiliations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Professional and honorary affiliations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_and_honorary_affiliations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_books_published" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_books_published"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Selected books published </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_books_published-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">James Watson</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 85 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" > 85 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="جيمس واتسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيمس واتسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceyms_Vatson" title="Ceyms Vatson – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ceyms Vatson" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="جیمز واتسون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جیمز واتسون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A8" title="জেমস ওয়াটসন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জেমস ওয়াটসন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%96_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Джэймс Дзьюі Уотсан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джэймс Дзьюі Уотсан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%BD" title="Джеймс Уотсън – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джеймс Уотсън" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BD" title="Τζέιμς Γουάτσον – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζέιμς Γουάτσον" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="جیمز واتسون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جیمز واتسون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EC%9E%84%EC%8A%A4_D._%EC%99%93%EC%8A%A8" title="제임스 D. 왓슨 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제임스 D. 왓슨" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%BD_%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B8%D5%A9%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Ջեյմս Ուոթսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջեյմս Ուոթսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80._%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="जेम्स डी. वाटसन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जेम्स डी. वाटसन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A1_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="ג'יימס ווטסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'יימס ווטסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D.%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF.%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜೇಮ್ಸ್.ಡಿ.ವಾಟ್ಸನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೇಮ್ಸ್.ಡಿ.ವಾಟ್ಸನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%96_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჯეიმზ უოტსონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯეიმზ უოტსონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Джеймс Уотсон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джеймс Уотсон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacobus_Dewey_Watson" title="Iacobus Dewey Watson – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iacobus Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEeimss_Votsons" title="Džeimss Votsons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džeimss Votsons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Џејмс Вотсон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џејмс Вотсон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF._%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BA" title="ജെയിംസ്‌ ഡി. വാട്സൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെയിംസ്‌ ഡി. വാട്സൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_(%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%89)" title="جيمس واتسون (اكاديمى) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيمس واتسون (اكاديمى)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="جیمز واتسون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جیمز واتسون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Жэймс Ватсон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жэймс Ватсон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%82%BA%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AF%E3%83%88%E3%82%BD%E3%83%B3" title="ジェームズ・ワトソン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジェームズ・ワトソン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜੇਮਸ ਵਾਟਸਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੇਮਸ ਵਾਟਸਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%B9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="جیمز واٹسن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیمز واٹسن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%90%D9%85%D8%B2_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%BC%D8%B3%D9%86" title="جېمز واټسن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جېمز واټسن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Уотсон, Джеймс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Уотсон, Джеймс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="जेम्स् डि व्याट्सन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जेम्स् डि व्याट्सन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%86" title="جەیمس واتسن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جەیمس واتسن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEejms_D._Votson" title="Džejms D. Votson – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Džejms D. Votson" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="James Watson" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜேம்ஸ் டூயி வாட்சன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜேம்ஸ் டூயி வாட்சன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="జేమ్స్ వాట్సన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జేమ్స్ వాట్సన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5._%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="เจมส์ ดี. วัตสัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เจมส์ ดี. วัตสัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dewey_Watson" title="James Dewey Watson – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="James Dewey Watson" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Джеймс Вотсон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джеймс Вотсон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%88%DB%8C_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%B9%D8%B3%D9%86" title="جیمز ڈی واٹسن – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جیمز ڈی واٹسن" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="James D. Watson" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%9D%9C%E5%A8%81%C2%B7%E6%B2%83%E6%A3%AE" title="詹姆斯·杜威·沃森 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="詹姆斯·杜威·沃森" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" title="James D. Watson – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="James D. 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Watson">James D. Watson</a>) <div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2>This is an accepted version of this page</div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Special:Badtitle/Message">reviewed</a> on 13 November 2024.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American molecular biologist, geneticist, and zoologist (born 1928)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people named James Watson, see <a href="/wiki/James_Watson_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="James Watson (disambiguation)">James Watson (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">James Watson</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:James_D_Watson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/James_D_Watson.jpg/220px-James_D_Watson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/James_D_Watson.jpg/330px-James_D_Watson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/James_D_Watson.jpg/440px-James_D_Watson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2985" data-file-height="2996" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Watson in 2012</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">James Dewey Watson</div> (1928-04-06) April 6, 1928 (age 96)<a href="#cite_note-watsonswho-9">[9]</a> <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago, Illinois</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/B._S." class="mw-redirect" title="B. S.">BS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington" title="Indiana University Bloomington">Indiana University</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA structure">DNA structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Elizabeth Lewis</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1968)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Lasker_Award_for_Basic_Medical_Research" title="Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research">Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Carty_Award_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science">John J. Carty Award</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1993)<a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Copley-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Gold_Medal" title="Lomonosov Gold Medal">Lomonosov Gold Medal</a> (1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.proquest.com/docview/302021835">The Biological Properties of X-Ray Inactivated Bacteriophage</a> (1951)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a><a href="#cite_note-capecchiphd-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">Bob Horvitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Moore_(chemist)" title="Peter Moore (chemist)">Peter B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Schlessinger_(geneticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Schlessinger (geneticist)">David Schlessinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan Steitz</a><a href="#cite_note-steitz-4">[4]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ewan_Birney" title="Ewan Birney">Ewan Birney</a><a href="#cite_note-thescientist-5">[5]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Davis" title="Ronald W. Davis">Ronald W. Davis</a> (postdoc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Allen Sharp</a> (postdoc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> (postdoc)<a href="#cite_note-richardrobertys-6">[6]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tooze" title="John Tooze">John Tooze</a> (postdoc)<a href="#cite_note-embook-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferry2014-8">[8]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:James_D_Watson_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/James_D_Watson_signature.svg/150px-James_D_Watson_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/James_D_Watson_signature.svg/225px-James_D_Watson_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/James_D_Watson_signature.svg/300px-James_D_Watson_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="149" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> James Dewey Watson (born April 6, 1928) is an American <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoologist">zoologist</a>. In 1953, he co-authored with <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> the academic paper in <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> proposing the <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix" title="Nucleic acid double helix">double helix structure</a> of the <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Watson, Crick and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> were awarded the 1962 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> and its significance for information transfer in living material". Watson earned degrees at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>, 1947) and <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a> (PhD, 1950). Following a post-doctoral year at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen" title="University of Copenhagen">University of Copenhagen</a> with <a href="/wiki/Herman_Kalckar" title="Herman Kalckar">Herman Kalckar</a> and Ole Maaløe, Watson worked at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in England, where he first met his future collaborator <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>. From 1956 to 1976, Watson was on the faculty of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> Biology Department, promoting research in molecular biology. From 1968, Watson served as director of <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL), greatly expanding its level of funding and research. At CSHL, he shifted his research emphasis to the study of cancer, along with making it a world-leading research center in molecular biology. In 1994, he started as president and served for 10 years. He was then appointed chancellor, serving until he resigned in 2007 after making comments claiming that there is a genetic link between <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligence and race">intelligence and race</a>. In 2019, following the broadcast of a documentary in which Watson reiterated these views on race and genetics, CSHL revoked his honorary titles and severed all ties with him. Watson has written many science books, including the textbook Molecular Biology of the Gene (1965) and his bestselling book <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a> (1968). Between 1988 and 1992, Watson was associated with the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, helping to establish the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>, which completed the task of mapping the human genome in 2003. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> Watson was born in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> on April 6, 1928, as the only son of Jean (<a href="/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names" title="Birth name">née</a> Mitchell) and James D. Watson, a businessman descended mostly from colonial English immigrants to America.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a> His mother's father, Lauchlin Mitchell, a <a href="/wiki/Tailor" title="Tailor">tailor</a>, was from <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, Scotland, and her mother, Lizzie Gleason, was the child of parents from <a href="/wiki/County_Tipperary" title="County Tipperary">County Tipperary</a>, Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-watson_retires-12">[12]</a> His mother was a modestly religious <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> and his father an <a href="/wiki/Episcopalian" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopalian">Episcopalian</a> who had lost his belief in God.<a href="#cite_note-TimeReligion-13">[13]</a> Watson was raised Catholic, but he later described himself as "an escapee from the Catholic religion".<a href="#cite_note-ggg-14">[14]</a> Watson said, "The luckiest thing that ever happened to me was that my father didn't believe in God."<a href="#cite_note-Discover-15">[15]</a> By age 11, Watson stopped attending mass and embraced the "pursuit of scientific and humanistic knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-TimeReligion-13">[13]</a> Watson grew up on the South Side of Chicago and attended public schools, including Horace Mann Elementary School and <a href="/wiki/South_Shore_High_School_(Chicago)" title="South Shore High School (Chicago)">South Shore High School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> He was fascinated with bird watching, a hobby shared with his father,<a href="#cite_note-WebOfStories-17">[17]</a> so he considered majoring in <a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">ornithology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cullen-18">[18]</a> Watson appeared on <a href="/wiki/Quiz_Kids" title="Quiz Kids">Quiz Kids</a>, a popular radio show that challenged bright youngsters to answer questions.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Thanks to the liberal policy of university president <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins" title="Robert Maynard Hutchins">Robert Hutchins</a>, he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, where he was awarded a tuition scholarship, at the age of 15.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cullen-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-chicago_medal-20">[20]</a> Among his professors was <a href="/wiki/Louis_Leon_Thurstone" title="Louis Leon Thurstone">Louis Leon Thurstone</a> from whom Watson learned about <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>, which he would later reference on his <a href="#Comments_on_race">controversial views on race</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> After reading <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>'s book, <a href="/wiki/What_Is_Life%3F" title="What Is Life?">What Is Life?</a> in 1946, Watson changed his professional ambitions from the study of ornithology to <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Watson earned his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a> degree in <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> from the University of Chicago in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Cullen-18">[18]</a> In his autobiography, Avoid Boring People, Watson described the University of Chicago as an "idyllic academic institution where he was instilled with the capacity for critical thought and an ethical compulsion not to suffer fools who impeded his search for truth", in contrast to his description of later experiences. In 1947 Watson left the University of Chicago to become a graduate student at <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, attracted by the presence at Bloomington of the 1946 Nobel Prize winner <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a>, who in crucial papers published in 1922, 1929, and in the 1930s had laid out all the basic properties of the heredity molecule that Schrödinger presented in his 1944 book.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23">[23]</a> He received his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a> degree from Indiana University in 1950; <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a> was his doctoral advisor.<a href="#cite_note-Cullen-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-watsonphd-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_and_research">Career and research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career and research">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Luria,_Delbrück,_and_the_Phage_Group">Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Luria, Delbrück, and the Phage Group">edit</a>]</div> Originally, Watson was drawn into molecular biology by the work of <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a>. Luria eventually shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the <a href="/wiki/Luria%E2%80%93Delbr%C3%BCck_experiment" title="Luria–Delbrück experiment">Luria–Delbrück experiment</a>, which concerned the nature of genetic <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>. He was part of a distributed group of researchers who were making use of the <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> that infect <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>. He and <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> were among the leaders of this new "<a href="/wiki/Phage_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Phage Group">Phage Group</a>", an important movement of geneticists from experimental systems such as <a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a> towards microbial genetics. Early in 1948, Watson began his PhD research in Luria's laboratory at Indiana University.<a href="#cite_note-watsonphd-24">[24]</a> That spring, he met Delbrück first in Luria's apartment and again that summer during Watson's first trip to the <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL).<a href="#cite_note-AuthorPage-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luria-26">[26]</a> The Phage Group was the intellectual medium where Watson became a working scientist. Importantly, the members of the Phage Group sensed that they were on the path to discovering the physical nature of the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a>. In 1949, Watson took a course with Felix Haurowitz that included the conventional view of that time: that genes were <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and able to replicate themselves.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The other major molecular component of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, DNA, was widely considered to be a "stupid tetranucleotide", serving only a structural role to support the proteins.<a href="#cite_note-Stewart-28">[28]</a> Even at this early time, Watson, under the influence of the Phage Group, was aware of the <a href="/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment" title="Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment">Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment</a>, which suggested that DNA was the genetic molecule. Watson's research project involved using <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> to inactivate bacterial viruses.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Watson then went to <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Copenhagen University">Copenhagen University</a> in September 1950 for a year of postdoctoral research, first heading to the laboratory of biochemist <a href="/wiki/Herman_Kalckar" title="Herman Kalckar">Herman Kalckar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a> Kalckar was interested in the enzymatic synthesis of nucleic acids, and he wanted to use phages as an experimental system. Watson wanted to explore the structure of DNA, and his interests did not coincide with Kalckar's.<a href="#cite_note-mcelheny-30">[30]</a> After working part of the year with Kalckar, Watson spent the remainder of his time in Copenhagen conducting experiments with microbial physiologist Ole Maaløe, then a member of the Phage Group.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The experiments, which Watson had learned of during the previous summer's Cold Spring Harbor phage conference, included the use of radioactive phosphate as a tracer to determine which molecular components of phage particles actually infect the target bacteria during viral infection.<a href="#cite_note-mcelheny-30">[30]</a> The intention was to determine whether protein or DNA was the genetic material, but upon consultation with Max Delbrück,<a href="#cite_note-mcelheny-30">[30]</a> they determined that their results were inconclusive and could not specifically identify the newly labeled molecules as DNA.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Watson never developed a constructive interaction with Kalckar, but he did accompany Kalckar to a meeting in Italy, where Watson saw <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> talk about X-ray diffraction data for DNA.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a> Watson was now certain that DNA had a definite molecular structure that could be elucidated.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 1951, the chemist <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> published his model of the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Alpha_helix" title="Alpha helix">alpha helix</a>, a result that grew out of Pauling's efforts in <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a> and molecular model building. After obtaining some results from his phage and other experimental research<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> conducted at Indiana University, <a href="/wiki/Statens_Serum_Institut" title="Statens Serum Institut">Statens Serum Institut</a> (Denmark), CSHL, and the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>, Watson now had the desire to learn to perform <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> experiments so he could work to determine the structure of DNA. That summer, Luria met <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and he arranged for a new <a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Postdoctoral research">postdoctoral research</a> project for Watson in England.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a> In 1951 Watson visited the <a href="/wiki/Stazione_Zoologica" class="mw-redirect" title="Stazione Zoologica">Stazione Zoologica 'Anton Dohrn'</a> in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identifying_the_double_helix">Identifying the double helix</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Identifying the double helix">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg/170px-DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg/255px-DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg/340px-DNA_Model_Crick-Watson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>DNA model built by Crick and Watson in 1953, in the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Museum (London)">Science Museum, London</a></figcaption></figure> In mid-March 1953, Watson and Crick deduced the <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a> structure of DNA.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a> Crucial to their discovery were the experimental data collected at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College_London" title="King's College London">King's College London</a>—mainly by <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> for which they did not provide proper attribution.<a href="#cite_note-Profile-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-WrongedHeroine-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Sir Lawrence Bragg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> the director of the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> (where Watson and Crick worked), made the original announcement of the discovery at a <a href="/wiki/Solvay_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvay conference">Solvay conference</a> on <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> in Belgium on April 8, 1953; it went unreported by the press. Watson and Crick submitted a paper entitled "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_Structure_of_Nucleic_Acids:_A_Structure_for_Deoxyribose_Nucleic_Acid" title="Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid">Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid</a>" to the scientific journal <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>, which was published on April 25, 1953.<a href="#cite_note-nobel-40">[40]</a> Bragg gave a talk at the <a href="/wiki/Guy%27s_Hospital" title="Guy's Hospital">Guy's Hospital</a> Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953, which resulted in a May 15, 1953, article by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ritchie_Calder" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Ritchie Calder">Ritchie Calder</a> in the London newspaper <a href="/wiki/News_Chronicle" title="News Chronicle">News Chronicle</a>, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life". <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_D._Dunitz" title="Jack D. Dunitz">Jack Dunitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Orgel" title="Leslie Orgel">Leslie Orgel</a>, and Beryl M. Oughton were some of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, constructed by Crick and Watson; at the time, they were working at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford University</a>'s chemistry department. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner, who subsequently worked with Crick at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Laboratory of Molecular Biology</a>. According to the late Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMNHWatson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/AMNHWatson.jpg/220px-AMNHWatson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/AMNHWatson.jpg/330px-AMNHWatson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/AMNHWatson.jpg/440px-AMNHWatson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Watson's name on New York City's <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Monument" title="Nobel Monument">Nobel Monument</a>; it lists American laureates only, not Crick and Wilkins who shared the 1962 Physics Nobel.</figcaption></figure> The Cambridge University student newspaper <a href="/wiki/Varsity_(Cambridge)" title="Varsity (Cambridge)">Varsity</a> ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30, 1953. Watson subsequently presented a paper on the double-helical structure of DNA at the 18th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Viruses in early June 1953, six weeks after the publication of the Watson and Crick paper in Nature. Many at the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery. The 1953 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity for many to see the model of the DNA double helix. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimesnobel-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-NobelLecture-43">[43]</a> Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958 and was therefore ineligible for nomination.<a href="#cite_note-Profile-37">[37]</a> The publication of the double helix structure of DNA has been described as a turning point in science; understanding of life was fundamentally changed and the modern era of biology began.<a href="#cite_note-60years-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interactions_with_Rosalind_Franklin_and_Raymond_Gosling">Interactions with Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interactions with Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling">edit</a>]</div> Watson and Crick's use of <a href="/wiki/Photo_51" title="Photo 51">DNA X-ray diffraction data</a> collected by <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> and her student <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Gosling" title="Raymond Gosling">Raymond Gosling</a> has attracted scrutiny. It has been argued that Watson and his colleagues did not properly acknowledge colleague <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> for her contributions to the discovery of the double helix structure.<a href="#cite_note-WrongedHeroine-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-nih_embo_report-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Crease" title="Robert P. Crease">Robert P. Crease</a> notes that "Such stingy behaviour may not be unknown, or even uncommon, among scientists".<a href="#cite_note-Crease-2003-46">[46]</a> Franklin's high-quality X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA were unpublished results, which Watson and Crick used without her knowledge or consent in their construction of the double helix model of DNA.<a href="#cite_note-nih_embo_report-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Profile-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Judson-47">[47]</a> Franklin's results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals and these results were consistent with the two sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside; before then, Linus Pauling and Watson and Crick had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23">[23]</a> Her identification of the <a href="/wiki/Space_group" title="Space group">space group</a> for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were <a href="/wiki/Antiparallel_(biochemistry)" title="Antiparallel (biochemistry)">antiparallel</a>. The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA. Watson and Crick had three sources for Franklin's unpublished data: <ol><li>Her 1951 seminar, attended by Watson;<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Discussions with Wilkins,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin;</li> <li>A research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a>-supported laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories.</li></ol> In a 1954 article, Watson and Crick acknowledged that, without Franklin's data, "the formulation of our structure would have been most unlikely, if not impossible".<a href="#cite_note-Cobb-2023-51">[51]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a>, Watson later admitted that "Rosy, of course, did not directly give us her data. For that matter, no one at King's realized they were in our hands". In recent years, Watson has garnered controversy in the popular and scientific press for his "misogynist treatment" of Franklin and his failure to properly attribute her work on DNA.<a href="#cite_note-WrongedHeroine-38">[38]</a> According to one critic, Watson's portrayal of Franklin in <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a> was negative, giving the impression that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable to interpret her own DNA data.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Watson's accusation was indefensible since Franklin told Crick and Watson that the helix backbones had to be on the outside.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23">[23]</a> From a 2003 piece by <a href="/wiki/Brenda_Maddox" title="Brenda Maddox">Brenda Maddox</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>:<a href="#cite_note-WrongedHeroine-38">[38]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Other comments dismissive of "Rosy" in Watson's book caught the attention of the emerging women's movement in the late 1960s. "Clearly Rosy had to go or be put in her place ... Unfortunately Maurice could not see any decent way to give Rosy the boot". And, "Certainly a bad way to go out into the foulness of a ... November night was to be told by a woman to refrain from venturing an opinion about a subject for which you were not trained."</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Crease" title="Robert P. Crease">Robert P. Crease</a> remarks that "[Franklin] was close to figuring out the structure of DNA, but did not do it. The title of "discoverer" goes to those who first fit the pieces together".<a href="#cite_note-Crease-2003-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bernstein" title="Jeremy Bernstein">Jeremy Bernstein</a> rejects that Franklin was a "victim" and states that "[Watson and Crick] made the double-helix scheme work. It is as simple as that".<a href="#cite_note-Crease-2003-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Cobb" title="Matthew Cobb">Matthew Cobb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_C._Comfort" title="Nathaniel C. Comfort">Nathaniel C. Comfort</a> write that "Franklin was no victim in how the DNA double helix was solved" but that she was "an equal contributor to the solution of the structure".<a href="#cite_note-Cobb-2023-51">[51]</a> A review of the correspondence from Franklin to Watson, in the archives at CSHL, revealed that the two scientists later exchanged constructive scientific correspondence. Franklin consulted with Watson on her tobacco mosaic virus RNA research. Franklin's letters were framed with the normal and unremarkable forms of address, beginning with "Dear Jim", and concluding with "Best Wishes, Yours, Rosalind". Each of the scientists published their own unique contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA in separate articles, and all of the contributors published their findings in the same volume of Nature. These classic molecular biology papers are identified as: Watson J. D. and Crick F. H. C. "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid". Nature 171, 737–738 (1953);<a href="#cite_note-nobel-40">[40]</a> Wilkins M. H. F., Stokes A. R. & Wilson H. R. "Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids". Nature 171, 738–740 (1953);<a href="#cite_note-pentose-53">[53]</a> Franklin R. and Gosling R. G. "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate". Nature 171, 740–741 (1953).<a href="#cite_note-franklin-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harvard_University">Harvard University</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Harvard University">edit</a>]</div> In 1956, Watson accepted a position in the biology department at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. His work at Harvard focused on RNA and its role in the transfer of genetic information.<a href="#cite_note-Ladder-55">[55]</a> Watson championed a switch in focus for the school from <a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">classical biology</a> to <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, stating that disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, etc. had stagnated and could progress only once the underlying disciplines of molecular biology and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> had elucidated their underpinnings, going so far as to discourage their study by students. Watson continued to be a member of the Harvard faculty until 1976, even though he took over the directorship of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-Ladder-55">[55]</a> During his tenure at Harvard, Watson participated in a protest against the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, leading a group of 12 biologists and biochemists calling for "the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In 1975, on the thirtieth anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima, Watson was one of over 2000 scientists and engineers who spoke out against nuclear proliferation to President <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a>, arguing that there was no proven method for the safe disposal of radioactive waste, and that nuclear plants were a security threat due to the possibility of terrorist theft of plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Watson's first textbook, The Molecular Biology of the Gene, used the concept of heads—brief declarative subheadings.<a href="#cite_note-MBOTG-58">[58]</a> His next textbook was <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology_of_the_cell_(textbook)" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular biology of the cell (textbook)">Molecular Biology of the Cell</a>, in which he coordinated the work of a group of scientist-writers. His third was Recombinant DNA, which described the ways in which <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> has brought new information about how organisms function. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publishing_The_Double_Helix">Publishing The Double Helix</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Publishing The Double Helix">edit</a>]</div> In 1968, Watson wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix</a>,<a href="#cite_note-DH-59">[59]</a> listed by the board of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a> as number seven in their list of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library_100_Best_Nonfiction" title="Modern Library 100 Best Nonfiction">100 Best Nonfiction</a> books.<a href="#cite_note-ModernLibrary-60">[60]</a> The book details the story of the discovery of the structure of DNA, as well as the personalities, conflicts and controversy surrounding their work, and includes many of his private emotional impressions at the time. Watson's original title was to have been "Honest Jim".<a href="#cite_note-honest_jim-61">[61]</a> Controversy surrounded the publication of the book. Watson's book was originally to be published by the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, but Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, among others, objected. Watson's home university dropped the project and the book was commercially published.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In an interview with Anne Sayre for her book, Rosalind Franklin and DNA (published in 1975 and reissued in 2000), Francis Crick said that he regarded Watson's book as a "contemptible pack of damned nonsense".<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg/200px-James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg/300px-James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg/400px-James_Watson_2012_TTChao_Symposium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2214" data-file-height="2334" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/75428437">"James Watson: Why society isn't ready for genomic-based medicine"</a>, 2012, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Heritage Foundation">Chemical Heritage Foundation</a></td></tr></tbody></table> In 1968, Watson became the director of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL). Between 1970 and 1972, the Watsons' two sons were born, and by 1974, the young family made Cold Spring Harbor their permanent residence. Watson served as the laboratory's director and president for about 35 years, and later he assumed the role of chancellor and then chancellor emeritus. In his roles as director, president, and chancellor, Watson led CSHL to articulate its present-day mission, "dedication to exploring molecular biology and genetics in order to advance the understanding and ability to diagnose and treat cancers, neurological diseases, and other causes of human suffering."<a href="#cite_note-Cork-65">[65]</a> CSHL substantially expanded both its research and its science educational programs under Watson's direction. He is credited with "transforming a small facility into one of the world's great education and research institutions. Initiating a program to study the cause of human cancer, scientists under his direction have made major contributions to understanding the genetic basis of cancer."<a href="#cite_note-CSHL-66">[66]</a> In a retrospective summary of Watson's accomplishments there, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_William_Stillman" title="Bruce William Stillman">Bruce Stillman</a>, the laboratory's president, said, "Jim Watson created a research environment that is unparalleled in the world of science."<a href="#cite_note-CSHL-66">[66]</a> In 2007, Watson said, "I turned against the <a href="/wiki/Left_wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left wing">left wing</a> because they don't like genetics, because genetics implies that sometimes in life we fail because we have bad genes. They want all failure in life to be due to the evil system."<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_Genome_Project">Human Genome Project</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Human Genome Project">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Dewey_Watson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/James_Dewey_Watson.jpg/220px-James_Dewey_Watson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/James_Dewey_Watson.jpg/330px-James_Dewey_Watson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/James_Dewey_Watson.jpg/440px-James_Dewey_Watson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="1185" /></a><figcaption>Watson in 1992</figcaption></figure> In 1990, Watson was appointed as the head of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, a position he held until April 10, 1992.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Watson left the Genome Project after conflicts with the new <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">NIH</a> Director, <a href="/wiki/Bernadine_Healy" title="Bernadine Healy">Bernadine Healy</a>. Watson was opposed to Healy's attempts to acquire patents on gene sequences, and any ownership of the "laws of nature". Two years before stepping down from the Genome Project, he had stated his own opinion on this long and ongoing controversy which he saw as an illogical barrier to research; he said, "The nations of the world must see that the human genome belongs to the world's people, as opposed to its nations." He left within weeks of the 1992 announcement that the NIH would be applying for patents on brain-specific cDNAs.<a href="#cite_note-pollack-69">[69]</a> (The issue of the patentability of genes has since been resolved in the US by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>; see <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Molecular_Pathology_v._U.S._Patent_and_Trademark_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Association for Molecular Pathology v. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office">Association for Molecular Pathology v. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office</a>.) In 1994, Watson became president of <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">CSHL</a>. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins_(geneticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Collins (geneticist)">Francis Collins</a> took over the role as director of the Human Genome Project. Watson was quoted in <a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Telegraph" title="The Sunday Telegraph">The Sunday Telegraph</a> in 1997 as stating: "If you could find the gene which determines sexuality and a woman decides she doesn't want a homosexual child, well, let her."<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The biologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> wrote a letter to The Independent claiming that Watson's position was misrepresented by The Sunday Telegraph article, and that Watson would equally consider the possibility of having a heterosexual child to be just as valid as any other reason for abortion, to emphasise that Watson is in favor of allowing choice.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> On the issue of obesity, Watson was quoted in 2000, saying: "Whenever you interview fat people, you feel bad, because you know you're not going to hire them."<a href="#cite_note-chronicle-72">[72]</a> Watson has repeatedly supported <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic screening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> in public lectures and interviews, arguing that stupidity is a disease and the "really stupid" bottom 10% of people should be cured.<a href="#cite_note-newscientist-73">[73]</a> He has also suggested that beauty could be genetically engineered, saying in 2003, "People say it would be terrible if we made all girls pretty. I think it would be great."<a href="#cite_note-newscientist-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-74">[74]</a> In 2007, Watson became the second person<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> to publish his fully sequenced genome online,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> after it was presented to him on May 31, 2007, by <a href="/wiki/454_Life_Sciences" title="454 Life Sciences">454 Life Sciences</a> Corporation<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> in collaboration with scientists at the Human Genome Sequencing Center, <a href="/wiki/Baylor_College_of_Medicine" title="Baylor College of Medicine">Baylor College of Medicine</a>. Watson was quoted as saying, "I am putting my genome sequence on line to encourage the development of an era of <a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">personalized medicine</a>, in which information contained in our genomes can be used to identify and prevent disease and to create individualized medical therapies".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later life">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, Watson published a paper in <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> suggesting that biological <a href="/wiki/Oxidant" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidant">oxidants</a> may have a different role than is thought in diseases including diabetes, dementia, heart disease and cancer. For example, <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a> is usually thought to be caused by oxidation in the body that causes inflammation and kills off pancreatic cells. Watson thinks the root of that inflammation is different: "a lack of biological oxidants, not an excess", and discusses this in detail. One critical response was that the idea was neither new nor worthy of merit, and that The Lancet published Watson's paper only because of his name.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Other scientists have expressed their support for his hypothesis and have proposed that it can also be expanded to why a lack of oxidants can result in cancer and its progression.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In 2014, Watson sold his <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_medal" title="Nobel Prize medal">Nobel Prize medal</a> to raise money after complaining of being made an "unperson" following controversial statements he had made.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Part of the funds raised by the sale went to support scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The medal sold at auction at <a href="/wiki/Christie%27s" title="Christie's">Christie's</a> in December 2014 for US$4.1 million. Watson intended to contribute the proceeds to conservation work in Long Island and to funding research at Trinity College, Dublin.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> He was the first living Nobel recipient to auction a medal.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The medal was later returned to Watson by the purchaser, <a href="/wiki/Alisher_Usmanov" title="Alisher Usmanov">Alisher Usmanov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_former_students">Notable former students</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notable former students">edit</a>]</div> Several of Watson's former doctoral students subsequently became notable in their own right including, <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-capecchiphd-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">Bob Horvitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Moore_(chemist)" title="Peter Moore (chemist)">Peter B. Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan Steitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-steitz-4">[4]</a> Besides numerous PhD students, Watson also supervised postdoctoral researchers and other interns including <a href="/wiki/Ewan_Birney" title="Ewan Birney">Ewan Birney</a>,<a href="#cite_note-thescientist-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Davis" title="Ronald W. Davis">Ronald W. Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Allen Sharp</a> (postdoc), <a href="/wiki/John_Tooze" title="John Tooze">John Tooze</a> (postdoc)<a href="#cite_note-embook-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferry2014-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> (postdoc).<a href="#cite_note-richardrobertys-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_affiliations">Other affiliations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other affiliations">edit</a>]</div> Watson is a former member of the Board of Directors of United Biomedical, Inc., founded by <a href="/wiki/Chang_Yi_Wang" title="Chang Yi Wang">Chang Yi Wang</a>. He held the position for six years and retired from the board in 1999.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In January 2007, Watson accepted the invitation of <a href="/wiki/Leonor_Beleza" title="Leonor Beleza">Leonor Beleza</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/Champalimaud_Foundation" title="Champalimaud Foundation">Champalimaud Foundation</a>, to become the head of the foundation's scientific council, an advisory organ.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Algarve-91">[91]</a> In March 2017, Watson was named head consultant of the Cheerland Investment Group, a Chinese investment company which sponsored his trip.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Watson has also been an institute adviser for the <a href="/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science" title="Allen Institute for Brain Science">Allen Institute for Brain Science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forbes-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-AllenBrain-94">[94]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Watson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/James_Watson.jpg/170px-James_Watson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/James_Watson.jpg/255px-James_Watson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/James_Watson.jpg/340px-James_Watson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>James Watson (February 2003)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoid_Boring_People">Avoid Boring People</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Avoid Boring People">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg/220px-JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg/330px-JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg/440px-JDWatson_2007-04-30.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Watson signing autographs after a speech at <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> on April 30, 2007</figcaption></figure> Watson has had disagreements with <a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">Craig Venter</a> regarding his use of <a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">EST</a> fragments while Venter worked at <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">NIH</a>. Venter went on to found <a href="/wiki/Celera" class="mw-redirect" title="Celera">Celera</a> genomics and continued his feud with Watson. Watson was quoted as calling Venter "Hitler".<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In his 2007 memoir, Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science, Watson describes his academic colleagues as "dinosaurs", "deadbeats", "fossils", "has-beens", "mediocre", and "vapid".<a href="#cite_note-Watson-2007-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steve_Shapin" class="mw-redirect" title="Steve Shapin">Steve Shapin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Magazine" title="Harvard Magazine">Harvard Magazine</a> noted that Watson had written an unlikely "Book of Manners", telling about the skills needed at different times in a scientist's career; he wrote Watson was known for aggressively pursuing his own goals at the university. <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> once described Watson as "the most unpleasant human being I had ever met", but in a later TV interview said that he considered them friends and their rivalry at Harvard "old history" (when they had competed for funding in their respective fields).<a href="#cite_note-harv-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-charlierose-98">[98]</a> In the epilogue to the memoir Avoid Boring People, Watson alternately attacks and defends former Harvard University president <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Summers" title="Lawrence Summers">Lawrence Summers</a>, who stepped down in 2006 due in part to his remarks about women and science.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Watson also states in the epilogue, "Anyone sincerely interested in understanding the imbalance in the representation of men and women in science must reasonably be prepared at least to consider the extent to which nature may figure, even with the clear evidence that nurture is strongly implicated."<a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost.com-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watson-2007-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comments_on_race">Comments on race</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Comments on race">edit</a>]</div> At a conference in 2000, Watson suggested a link between skin color and sex drive, hypothesizing that dark-skinned people have stronger <a href="/wiki/Libido" title="Libido">libidos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-chronicle-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-British_Medical_Journal_-_Melanotan-100">[100]</a> His lecture argued that extracts of <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>—which gives skin its color—had been found to boost subjects' sex drive. "That's why you have <a href="/wiki/Latin_lover" title="Latin lover">Latin lovers</a>", he said, according to people who attended the lecture. "You've never heard of an English lover. Only an <a href="/wiki/The_English_Patient" title="The English Patient">English Patient</a>."<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> He has also said that stereotypes associated with racial and ethnic groups have a genetic basis: Jews being intelligent, Chinese being intelligent but not creative because of selection for conformity, and Indians being servile because of selection under caste endogamy.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Regarding intelligence differences between blacks and whites, Watson has asserted that "all our social policies are based on the fact that their (blacks) intelligence is the same as ours (whites) – whereas all the testing says not really ... people who have to deal with black employees find this not true."<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Watson has repeatedly asserted that <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">differences in average measured IQ</a> between blacks and whites are due to genetics.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Comments2018-106">[106]</a> In early October 2007, he was interviewed by Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe at <a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> (CSHL). He discussed his view that Africans are less intelligent than Westerners.<a href="#cite_note-thetimes2007-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Africans-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Suspension-109">[109]</a> Watson said his intention was to promote science, not racism, but some UK venues canceled his appearances,<a href="#cite_note-Museum_Drop-110">[110]</a> and he canceled the rest of his tour.<a href="#cite_note-Syal-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-IHT-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> An editorial in Nature said that his remarks were "beyond the pale" but expressed a wish that the tour had not been canceled so that Watson would have had to face his critics in person, encouraging scientific discussion on the matter.<a href="#cite_note-Nature-115">[115]</a> Because of the controversy, the board of trustees at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory suspended Watson's administrative responsibilities.<a href="#cite_note-Independent-116">[116]</a> Watson issued an apology,<a href="#cite_note-cnn.com-117">[117]</a> then retired at the age of 79 from CSHL from what the lab called "nearly 40 years of distinguished service".<a href="#cite_note-CSHL-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-118">[118]</a> Watson attributed his retirement to his age and to circumstances that he could never have anticipated or desired.<a href="#cite_note-cshl.edu-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-LATimes-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Resign-121">[121]</a> In 2008, Watson was appointed chancellor emeritus of CSHL<a href="#cite_note-CSHL_bio-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> but continued to advise and guide project work at the laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-2009_back-124">[124]</a> In a BBC documentary that year, Watson said he did not see himself as a racist.<a href="#cite_note-bbcdoc-125">[125]</a> In January 2019, following the broadcast of a television documentary made the previous year in which he repeated his views about race and genetics, CSHL revoked honorary titles that it had awarded to Watson and cut all remaining ties with him.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Watson did not respond to the developments.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> Watson is an atheist.<a href="#cite_note-Discover-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In 2003, he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the <a href="/wiki/Humanism_and_Its_Aspirations" title="Humanism and Its Aspirations">Humanist Manifesto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Watson wrote in <a href="/wiki/Time_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine">Time</a> that he contributed $1,000 to <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders_2016_presidential_campaign" title="Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign">Bernie Sanders' 2016 presidential campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TimeReligion-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_and_family">Marriage and family</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Marriage and family">edit</a>]</div> Watson married Elizabeth Lewis in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-watsonswho-9">[9]</a> They have two sons, Rufus Robert Watson (b. 1970) and Duncan James Watson (b. 1972). Watson sometimes talks about his son Rufus, who has <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, seeking to encourage progress in the understanding and treatment of mental illness by determining how genetics contributes to it.<a href="#cite_note-2009_back-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Awards and honors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF/lossy-page1-170px-James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF/lossy-page1-255px-James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF/lossy-page1-340px-James_Watson_2005_Othmer_Gold_Medal.TIF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="963" /></a><figcaption>James D. Watson with the Othmer Gold Medal, 2005</figcaption></figure> Watson has won numerous awards, including: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Lasker_Award_for_Basic_Medical_Research" title="Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research">Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research</a>, 1960<a href="#cite_note-Lasker_Award-132">[132]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_for_Distinguished_Achievement_in_the_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences">Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences</a> (2001)<a href="#cite_note-franklinscience_recipients-133">[133]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, 1993<a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1">[1]</a></li> <li>CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree, 2008<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" title="Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry">Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry</a>, 1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EMBO_Membership" title="EMBO Membership">EMBO Membership</a> in 1985<a href="#cite_note-membo-135">[135]</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a>, 2002</li> <li>Honorary Member of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Irish_Academy" title="Royal Irish Academy">Royal Irish Academy</a>, 2005</li> <li>Honorary Fellow, the <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastings Center">Hastings Center</a>, an independent bioethics research institution<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire" title="Order of the British Empire">Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire</a> (KBE), 2002<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_America_Hall_of_Fame" title="Irish America Hall of Fame">Irish America Hall of Fame</a>, inducted March 2011<a href="#cite_note-WAT-138">[138]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Carty_Award_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science">John J. Carty Award</a> in molecular biology from the National Academy of Sciences<a href="#cite_note-Carty-139">[139]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Medal" title="Liberty Medal">Liberty Medal</a>, 2000<a href="#cite_note-The_Liberty_Medal-140">[140]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Gold_Medal" title="Lomonosov Gold Medal">Lomonosov Gold Medal</a>, 1994</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotos_Club" title="Lotos Club">Lotos Club</a> Medal of Merit, 2004</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a>, 1997<a href="#cite_note-The_President's_National_Medal_of_Science:_Recipient_Details-141">[141]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>, 1962<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-11">[11]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmer_Gold_Medal" title="Othmer Gold Medal">Othmer Gold Medal</a> (2005)<a href="#cite_note-OthmerMedal-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-2005PS-143">[143]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a>, 1977<a href="#cite_note-1977_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_Recipients-144">[144]</a></li> <li>Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>, 1986<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honorary_degrees_received">Honorary degrees received</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Honorary degrees received">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, US, 1961</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, US, 1963</li> <li>LLD, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>, US, 1965</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Long_Island_University" title="Long Island University">Long Island University</a> (CW Post), US, 1970</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Adelphi_University" title="Adelphi University">Adelphi University</a>, US, 1972</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis University</a>, US, 1973</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_College_of_Medicine" title="Albert Einstein College of Medicine">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a>, US, 1974</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Hofstra_University" title="Hofstra University">Hofstra University</a>, US, 1976</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, US, 1978</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_University" title="Rockefeller University">Rockefeller University</a>, US, 1980</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Clarkson_University" title="Clarkson University">Clarkson College of Technology</a>, US, 1981</li> <li>DSc, SUNY at Farmingdale, US, 1983</li> <li>MD, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1986</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a>, US, 1988</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Bard_College" title="Bard College">Bard College</a>, US, 1991</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Stellenbosch" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Stellenbosch">University of Stellenbosch</a>, South Africa, 1993</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/Fairfield_University" title="Fairfield University">Fairfield University</a>, US, 1993</li> <li>DSc, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, United Kingdom, 1993</li> <li>DrHC, <a href="/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles University in Prague">Charles University in Prague</a>, Czech Republic, 1998</li> <li>ScD, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Dublin" title="University of Dublin">University of Dublin</a>, Ireland, 2001<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_and_honorary_affiliations">Professional and honorary affiliations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Professional and honorary affiliations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_Cancer_Research" title="American Association for Cancer Research">American Association for Cancer Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Biological_Chemists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Society of Biological Chemists">American Society of Biological Chemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenaeum_Club,_London" title="Athenaeum Club, London">Athenaeum Club, London</a>, member</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>, Honorary Fellow, <a href="/wiki/Clare_College,_Cambridge" title="Clare College, Cambridge">Clare College, Cambridge</a><a href="#cite_note-watsonswho-9">[9]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a>, Chancellor Emeritus; Honorary Trustee; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oliver_R._Grace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oliver R. Grace (page does not exist)">Oliver R. Grace</a> Professor Emeritus (all revoked in 2019)<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Organization" title="European Molecular Biology Organization">European Molecular Biology Organization</a>, member since 1985<a href="#cite_note-membo-135">[135]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>, Newton-Abraham Visiting Professor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Letters" title="Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters">Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1981" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1981">Foreign Member of the Royal Society</a> (ForMemRS) since 1981<a href="#cite_note-formemrs-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">History of RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_Story_(film)" title="Life Story (film)">Life Story</a> – 1987 BBC docudrama about Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA structure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RNA_biologists" title="List of RNA biologists">List of RNA biologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_disease" title="Nobel disease">Nobel disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_medicine" title="Predictive medicine">Predictive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-formemrs-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-formemrs_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAnon1981" class="citation web cs1">Anon (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023619/https://royalsociety.org/people/james-watson-12494/">"Dr James Watson ForMemRS"</a>. royalsociety.org. London: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/people/james-watson-12494/">the original</a> on November 17, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=royalsociety.org&rft.atitle=Dr+James+Watson+ForMemRS&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Anon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fpeople%2Fjames-watson-12494%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from the royalsociety.org website where: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"All text published under the heading 'Biography' on Fellow profile pages is available under <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>." --<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925220834/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/terms-conditions-policies/">"Royal Society Terms, conditions and policies"</a>. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Chelsea House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5461-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5461-4"><bdi>0-8160-5461-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%3A+the+people+behind+the+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8160-5461-4&rft.aulast=Cullen&rft.aufirst=Katherine+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuels,_Rich" class="citation web cs1">Samuels, Rich. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.richsamuels.com/nbcmm/qk.html">"The Quiz Kids"</a>. Broadcasting in Chicago, 1921–1989. Retrieved November 20, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Broadcasting+in+Chicago%2C+1921%E2%80%931989&rft.atitle=The+Quiz+Kids&rft.au=Samuels%2C+Rich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.richsamuels.com%2Fnbcmm%2Fqk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chicago_medal-20"><a href="#cite_ref-chicago_medal_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180315183810/http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/070601.watson.shtml">"Nobel laureate, Chicago native James Watson to receive University of Chicago. Alumni Medal June 2"</a>. The University of Chicago News Office. June 1, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/070601.watson.shtml">the original</a> on March 15, 2018. Retrieved November 20, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+laureate%2C+Chicago+native+James+Watson+to+receive+University+of+Chicago.+Alumni+Medal+June+2&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+News+Office&rft.date=2007-06-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-news.uchicago.edu%2Freleases%2F07%2F070601.watson.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacson2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Isaacson" title="Walter Isaacson">Isaacson, Walter</a> (2021). <a href="/wiki/The_Code_Breaker" title="The Code Breaker">The Code Breaker</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 392. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9821-1585-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9821-1585-2"><bdi>978-1-9821-1585-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+Breaker&rft.pages=392&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-9821-1585-2&rft.aulast=Isaacson&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedberg2005" class="citation book cs1">Friedberg, Errol C. (2005). The Writing Life of James D. Watson. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-700-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-700-6"><bdi>978-0-87969-700-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Life+of+James+D.+Watson&rft.place=Cold+Spring+Harbor%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87969-700-6&rft.aulast=Friedberg&rft.aufirst=Errol+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v433/n7027/full/433686a.html">Reviewed by Lewis Wolpert, Nature, (2005) 433:686–687.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2008" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, James (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inpursuitofgenef00schw">In pursuit of the gene : from Darwin to DNA</a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674026704" title="Special:BookSources/9780674026704"><bdi>9780674026704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+pursuit+of+the+gene+%3A+from+Darwin+to+DNA&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780674026704&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finpursuitofgenef00schw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-watsonphd-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-watsonphd_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-watsonphd_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1951" class="citation thesis cs1">Watson, James (1951). The Biological Properties of X-Ray Inactivated Bacteriophage (PhD thesis). Indiana University. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/302021835">302021835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Biological+Properties+of+X-Ray+Inactivated+Bacteriophage&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Indiana+University&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AuthorPage-25"><a href="#cite_ref-AuthorPage_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonBerry2003" class="citation book cs1">Watson, James D.; Berry, Andrew (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dnasecretoflife00wats">DNA : the secret of life</a> (1st ed.). New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0375415463" title="Special:BookSources/978-0375415463"><bdi>978-0375415463</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DNA+%3A+the+secret+of+life&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0375415463&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft.au=Berry%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdnasecretoflife00wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luria-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Luria_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2012" class="citation web cs1">Watson, James D. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131211150032/http://www.cshl.edu/gradschool/Non-Research-Faculty/james-d-watson">"James D. Watson Chancellor Emeritus"</a>. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cshl.edu/gradschool/Non-Research-Faculty/james-d-watson">the original</a> on December 11, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+D.+Watson+Chancellor+Emeritus&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cshl.edu%2Fgradschool%2FNon-Research-Faculty%2Fjames-d-watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnum1994" class="citation book cs1">Putnum, Frank W. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4547&page=144">Biographical Memoirs – Felix Haurowitz</a> (volume 64 ed.). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. pp. 134–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-06978-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-06978-5"><bdi>0-309-06978-5</bdi></a>. <q>Among [Haurowitz's] students was Jim Watson, then a graduate student of Luria.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Memoirs+%E2%80%93+Felix+Haurowitz&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=134-163&rft.edition=volume+64&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-309-06978-5&rft.aulast=Putnum&rft.aufirst=Frank+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D4547%26page%3D144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stewart-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Stewart_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Stewart_(mathematician)" title="Ian Stewart (mathematician)">Stewart, Ian</a> (2011). "The structure of DNA". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicslife00stew_563">The Mathematics of Life</a>. Basic Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicslife00stew_563/page/n13">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02238-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02238-0"><bdi>978-0-465-02238-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+DNA&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Life&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02238-0&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicslife00stew_563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1950" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, J. D. (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385941">"The properties of x-ray inactivated bacteriophage. I. Inactivation by direct effect"</a>. Journal of Bacteriology. 60 (6): 697–718. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.60.6.697-718.1950">10.1128/JB.60.6.697-718.1950</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385941">385941</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14824063">14824063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Bacteriology&rft.atitle=The+properties+of+x-ray+inactivated+bacteriophage.+I.+Inactivation+by+direct+effect&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=697-718&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC385941%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14824063&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJB.60.6.697-718.1950&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC385941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcelheny-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcelheny_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcelheny_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcelheny_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElheny2004" class="citation book cs1">McElheny, Victor K. (2004). Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution. Basic Books. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0866-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0866-3"><bdi>0-7382-0866-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Watson+and+DNA%3A+Making+a+Scientific+Revolution&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7382-0866-3&rft.aulast=McElheny&rft.aufirst=Victor+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1993" class="citation journal cs1">Putnam, F. W. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2142464">"Growing up in the golden age of protein chemistry"</a>. 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New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-476715-49-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-476715-49-0"><bdi>978-1-476715-49-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+annotated+and+illustrated+double+helix&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Simon+%26+Schuster+hardcover&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-476715-49-0&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayre2000" class="citation book cs1">Sayre, Anne (2000). Rosalind Franklin and DNA. 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Retrieved December 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Honorary+Doctorate+awarded+to+Nobel+Laureate%3A+Text+of+the+Introductory+Address&rft.date=2010-09-08&rft.aulast=O%27Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucc.ie%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fnewsarchive%2F2010pressreleases%2Ffullstory-105821-en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSHL-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CSHL_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSHL_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSHL_66-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140227114959/http://www.cshl.edu/Archive/dr-james-d-watson-retires-as-chancellor-of-cold-spring-harbor-laboratory">"Dr. James D. Watson Retires as Chancellor of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory"</a> (Press release). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. October 25, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cshl.edu/Archive/dr-james-d-watson-retires-as-chancellor-of-cold-spring-harbor-laboratory">the original</a> on February 27, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+James+D.+Watson+Retires+as+Chancellor+of+Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory&rft.pub=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory&rft.date=2007-10-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cshl.edu%2FArchive%2Fdr-james-d-watson-retires-as-chancellor-of-cold-spring-harbor-laboratory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_H._Richardson2007" class="citation web cs1">John H. Richardson (October 19, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esquire.com/features/what-ive-learned/ESQ0107jameswatson">"Discovery of DNA structure – James Watson on the Double Helix"</a>. Esquire. 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Nature. 452 (7189): 872–876. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.452..872W">2008Natur.452..872W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06884">10.1038/nature06884</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18421352">18421352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+complete+genome+of+an+individual+by+massively+parallel+DNA+sequencing&rft.volume=452&rft.issue=7189&rft.pages=872-876&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18421352&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature06884&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.452..872W&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Srinivasan%2C+M.&rft.au=Egholm%2C+M.&rft.au=Shen%2C+Y.&rft.au=Chen%2C+L.&rft.au=McGuire%2C+A.&rft.au=He%2C+W.&rft.au=Chen%2C+Y.+J.&rft.au=Makhijani%2C+V.&rft.au=Roth%2C+G.+T.&rft.au=Gomes%2C+X.&rft.au=Tartaro%2C+K.&rft.au=Niazi%2C+F.&rft.au=Turcotte%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Irzyk%2C+G.+P.&rft.au=Lupski%2C+J.+R.&rft.au=Chinault%2C+C.&rft.au=Song%2C+X.-Z.&rft.au=Liu%2C+Y.&rft.au=Yuan%2C+Y.&rft.au=Nazareth%2C+L.&rft.au=Qin%2C+X.&rft.au=Muzny%2C+D.+M.&rft.au=Margulies%2C+M.&rft.au=Weinstock%2C+G.+M.&rft.au=Gibbs%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Rothberg%2C+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnature06884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, June 28, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cshl.edu/public/releases/07_genotype_viewer.html">"Watson Genotype Viewer Now On Line"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071205230609/http://www.cshl.edu/public/releases/07_genotype_viewer.html">Archived</a> December 5, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved October 4, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Humanism+and+Its+Aspirations&rft.atitle=Notable+Signers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanhumanist.org%2FHumanism%2FHumanist_Manifesto_III%2FNotable_Signers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lasker_Award-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Lasker_Award_132-0">^</a> The Lasker Foundation.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/1960basic.htm">1960 Winners</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090721042414/http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/1960basic.htm">Archived</a> July 21, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on November 4, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-franklinscience_recipients-133"><a href="#cite_ref-franklinscience_recipients_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/prizes/franklinscience">"Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences Recipients"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. Retrieved November 27, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Franklin+Medal+for+Distinguished+Achievement+in+the+Sciences+Recipients&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fprizes%2Ffranklinscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120401043532/http://doublehelixmedals.cshl.edu/history_08.html">"Double Helix Medals Honorees"</a>. Double Helix Medals Dinner. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doublehelixmedals.cshl.edu/history_08.html">the original</a> on April 1, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Double+Helix+Medals+Dinner&rft.atitle=Double+Helix+Medals+Honorees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoublehelixmedals.cshl.edu%2Fhistory_08.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-membo-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-membo_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-membo_135-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnon1985" class="citation web cs1">Anon (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.embo.org/profile/james-d-watson">"James Watson EMBO profile"</a>. People.embo.org. Heidelberg: <a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Organization" title="European Molecular Biology Organization">European Molecular Biology Organization</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=People.embo.org&rft.atitle=James+Watson+EMBO+profile&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Anon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.embo.org%2Fprofile%2Fjames-d-watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehastingscenter.org/About/Default.aspx?id=902">The Hastings Center</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509231907/http://www.thehastingscenter.org/About/Default.aspx?id=902">Archived</a> May 9, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Hastings Center Fellows. Accessed November 6, 2010 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobilitynews.blogspot.com/2007/03/knighthood-for-microsofts-gates.html">Nobility News: Honorary Knights</a> 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-WAT-138"><a href="#cite_ref-WAT_138-0">^</a> O'Dowd, Niall. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishcentral.com/IrishAmerica/Irish-America-Hall-of-Fame-Dr-James-Watson-117755213.html">"He Helped Map the Structure of DNA. Up Next is a Cure For Cancer"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_America_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish America magazine">Irish America magazine</a>, March 10, 2011. Accessed March 22, 2011. "James Watson helped unravel the structure of DNA, a feat so stunning that it is considered the greatest scientific achievement of the 20th century. " </li> <li id="cite_note-Carty-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Carty_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101229180532/http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_carty">"John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science"</a>. National Academy of Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_carty">the original</a> on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+J.+Carty+Award+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fsite%2FPageServer%3Fpagename%3DAWARDS_carty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Liberty_Medal-140"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Liberty_Medal_140-0">^</a> National Constitution Center.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitutioncenter.org/libertymedal/recipient_2000.html">2000 Liberty Medal Recipients</a>. Retrieved on November 4, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_President's_National_Medal_of_Science:_Recipient_Details-141"><a href="#cite_ref-The_President's_National_Medal_of_Science:_Recipient_Details_141-0">^</a> The National Science Foundation.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.cfm?recip_id=377">The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details</a>. February 14, 2006. Retrieved on November 4, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-OthmerMedal-142"><a href="#cite_ref-OthmerMedal_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/othmer-gold-medal">"Othmer Gold Medal"</a>. Science History Institute. May 31, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+History+Institute&rft.atitle=Othmer+Gold+Medal&rft.date=2016-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fothmer-gold-medal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2005PS-143"><a href="#cite_ref-2005PS_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206011311/http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2005-02/chf-jdw022305.html">"James D. Watson to receive 2005 Othmer Gold Medal"</a>. Psych Central. February 23, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2005-02/chf-jdw022305.html">the original</a> on February 6, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psych+Central&rft.atitle=James+D.+Watson+to+receive+2005+Othmer+Gold+Medal&rft.date=2005-02-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychcentral.com%2Fnews%2Farchives%2F2005-02%2Fchf-jdw022305.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1977_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_Recipients-144"><a href="#cite_ref-1977_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_Recipients_144-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uchicago.edu/about/accolades/presidential.shtml">Presidential Medal of Freedom, 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120818184513/http://www.uchicago.edu/about/accolades/presidential.shtml">Archived</a> August 18, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on November 4, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration">"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"</a>. www.achievement.org. <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement" class="mw-redirect" title="American Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.achievement.org&rft.atitle=Golden+Plate+Awardees+of+the+American+Academy+of+Achievement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fachievement.org%2Four-history%2Fgolden-plate-awards%2F%23science-exploration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcd.ie/Secretary/Communications/Press_Releases/PRArchive/PR0001/prhondeg01.html">"University of Dublin, Trinity College"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+of+Dublin%2C+Trinity+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tcd.ie%2FSecretary%2FCommunications%2FPress_Releases%2FPRArchive%2FPR0001%2Fprhondeg01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmon2019" class="citation news cs1">Harmon, Amy (January 11, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/11/science/watson-dna-genetics.html">"Lab Severs Ties With James Watson, Citing 'Unsubstantiated and Reckless' Remarks"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved January 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Lab+Severs+Ties+With+James+Watson%2C+Citing+%27Unsubstantiated+and+Reckless%27+Remarks&rft.date=2019-01-11&rft.aulast=Harmon&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F01%2F11%2Fscience%2Fwatson-dna-genetics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cshl.edu/statement-by-cold-spring-harbor-laboratory-addressing-remarks-by-dr-james-d-watson-in-american-masters-decoding-watson/">"Statement by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory addressing remarks by Dr. James D. Watson in "American Masters: Decoding Watson""</a>. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. January 11, 2019. Retrieved January 12, 2019. <q>In response to his most recent statements, which effectively reverse the written apology and retraction Dr. Watson made in 2007, the Laboratory has taken additional steps, including revoking his honorary titles of Chancellor Emeritus, Oliver R. Grace Professor Emeritus, and Honorary Trustee.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory&rft.atitle=Statement+by+Cold+Spring+Harbor+Laboratory+addressing+remarks+by+Dr.+James+D.+Watson+in+%22American+Masters%3A+Decoding+Watson%22&rft.date=2019-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cshl.edu%2Fstatement-by-cold-spring-harbor-laboratory-addressing-remarks-by-dr-james-d-watson-in-american-masters-decoding-watson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Chadarevian, S. (2002) Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II. Cambridge University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57078-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57078-6">0-521-57078-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Chargaff, E.</a> (1978) Heraclitean Fire. New York: Rockefeller Press.</li> <li>Chomet, S., ed., (1994) D.N.A.: Genesis of a Discovery London: Newman-Hemisphere Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins_(geneticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Collins (geneticist)">Collins, Francis</a>. (2004) Coming to Peace With Science: Bridging the Worlds Between Faith and Biology. InterVarsity Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2742-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2742-8">978-0-8308-2742-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins_(geneticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Collins (geneticist)">Collins, Francis</a>. (2007) The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief Free Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4274-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-4274-2">978-1-4165-4274-2</a>.</li> <li>Crick, F. H. C. (1988) What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-09138-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-09138-5">0-465-09138-5</a>.</li> <li>John Finch; 'A Nobel Fellow On Every Floor', Medical Research Council 2008, 381 pp, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-940-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-940-0">978-1-84046-940-0</a>; this book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.</li> <li>Friedberg, E.C.; "Sydney Brenner: A Biography", <a href="/wiki/CSHL_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="CSHL Press">CSHL Press</a> October 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87969-947-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87969-947-7">0-87969-947-7</a>.</li> <li>Friedburg, E. C. (2005) "The Writing Life of James D. Watson". "Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87969-700-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87969-700-8">0-87969-700-8</a>.</li> <li>Hunter, G. (2004) Light Is A Messenger: the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-852921-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-852921-X">0-19-852921-X</a>.</li> <li>Inglis, J., Sambrook, J. & Witkowski, J. A. (eds.) Inspiring Science: Jim Watson and the Age of DNA. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-698-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-698-6">978-0-87969-698-6</a>.</li> <li>Judson, H. F. (1996). The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology, Expanded edition. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87969-478-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87969-478-5">0-87969-478-5</a>.</li> <li>Maddox, B. (2003). Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA. Harper Perennial. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-098508-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-098508-9">0-06-098508-9</a>.</li> <li>McEleheny, Victor K. (2003) Watson and DNA: Making a scientific revolution, Perseus. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0341-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0341-6">0-7382-0341-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Olby" title="Robert Olby">Robert Olby</a>; 1974 The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA. London: MacMillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-68117-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-68117-3">0-486-68117-3</a>; Definitive DNA textbook, with foreword by Francis Crick, revised in 1994 with a 9-page postscript.</li> <li>Robert Olby; (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070207145444/http://chem-faculty.ucsd.edu/joseph/CHEM13/DNA1.pdf">"Quiet debut for the double helix"</a> Nature 421 (January 23): 402–405.</li> <li>Robert Olby; "Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-798-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87969-798-3">978-0-87969-798-3</a>, August 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ridley" title="Matt Ridley">Ridley, M.</a> (2006) Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives) New York: HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-082333-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-082333-X">0-06-082333-X</a>.</li> <li>Anne Sayre, "Rosalind Franklin and DNA", New York/London: W.W. Norton and Company, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32044-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32044-2">978-0-393-32044-2</a>, 1975/2000.</li> <li>James D. Watson, "The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski" (2012) <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-1549-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-1549-0">978-1-4767-1549-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Wilkins, M.</a> (2003) The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860665-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860665-6">0-19-860665-6</a>.</li> <li>The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990), Cambridge University Press, 1992.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_books_published">Selected books published</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Selected books published">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about James Watson <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=90069089">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=90069089&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By James Watson <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=90069089">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=90069089&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li>James D. Watson, The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-1549-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-1549-0">978-1-4767-1549-0</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1968" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D. (1968). <a href="/wiki/The_Double_Helix" title="The Double Helix">The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA</a>. New York: Atheneum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Double+Helix%3A+A+Personal+Account+of+the+Discovery+of+the+Structure+of+DNA&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1981" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D. (1981). Gunther S. Stent (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/doublehelixpers00wats_0">The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95075-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95075-1"><bdi>0-393-95075-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Double+Helix%3A+A+Personal+Account+of+the+Discovery+of+the+Structure+of+DNA&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-393-95075-1&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdoublehelixpers00wats_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"> (Norton Critical Editions, 1981).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonBakerBellGann2003" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D.; Baker, T. A.; Bell, S. P.; Gann, A.; Levine, M.; Losick, R. (2003). Molecular Biology of the Gene (5th ed.). New York: Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-4635-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-4635-X"><bdi>0-8053-4635-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Gene&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8053-4635-X&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Baker%2C+T.+A.&rft.au=Bell%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Gann%2C+A.&rft.au=Levine%2C+M.&rft.au=Losick%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2002" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genesgirlsgamowa00wats">Genes, Girls, and Gamow: After the Double Helix</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-41283-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-41283-2"><bdi>0-375-41283-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47716375">47716375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genes%2C+Girls%2C+and+Gamow%3A+After+the+Double+Helix&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47716375&rft.isbn=0-375-41283-2&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenesgirlsgamowa00wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonBerry2003" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J. D.; Berry, A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dnasecretoflife00wats">DNA: The Secret of Life</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-41546-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-41546-7"><bdi>0-375-41546-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DNA%3A+The+Secret+of+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-375-41546-7&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Berry%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdnasecretoflife00wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2007" class="citation book cs1">Watson, J.D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/avoidboringpeopl00wats">Avoid Boring People and Other Lessons from a Life in Science</a>. New York: Random House. p. 366. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41284-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41284-4"><bdi>978-0-375-41284-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoid+Boring+People+and+Other+Lessons+from+a+Life+in+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=366&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-375-41284-4&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Favoidboringpeopl00wats&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Watson" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> James D. Watson at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/James D. Watson">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="c:Category:James D. Watson">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/James D. Watson">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="q:James D. Watson">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/James D. Watson">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/James_D._Watson" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/James D. Watson">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.cshl.edu/personal-collections/james-d-watson">James D. Watson Collection</a> at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna_double_helix/">DNA – The Double Helix</a> Game from Nobelprize.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560789/James_Watson.html">MSN Encarta biography</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028182156/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761560789/James_Watson.html">Archived</a> 2009-10-31)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnai.org/">DNA Interactive</a> – This site from the Dolan DNA Learning Center (part of CSHL) commemorates the discovery of the structure of DNA and includes dozens of animations, as well as interviews with James Watson and others.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnaftb.org/">DNA from the Beginning</a> – another DNA Learning Center site on the basics of DNA, genes, and heredity, from Mendel to the Human Genome Project.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?84374">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://charlierose.com/videos/79">James Watson</a> on <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Rose_(talk_show)" title="Charlie Rose (talk show)">Charlie Rose</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ted.com/speakers/james_watson">James Watson</a> at <a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83333#P2611" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0914677/">James Watson</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83333#P345" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/james-d-watson">James D. Watson</a> collected news and commentary at <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/indexes/2003/02/25/health/genetics/index.html">A Revolution at 50</a>, February 25, 2003</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/373">James Watson</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83333#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Articles and interviews</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml">BBC Four Interviews</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111212220420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml">Archived</a> December 12, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Watson and Crick speaking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1074946">NPR Science Friday: "A Conversation with Genetics Pioneer James Watson"</a> – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on the history of DNA and his recent book A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society. 2002-06-02</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1250481">NPR Science Friday "DNA: The Secret of Life"</a> – Ira Flatow interviews Watson on his new book. 2003-05-02</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/watson_interview.html">Discover "Reversing Bad Truths"</a> – David Duncan interviews Watson. 2003-07-01</li> <li>Two remembrances of James Watson by one of the founders of molecular genetics, <a href="/wiki/Esther_Lederberg" title="Esther Lederberg">Esther Lederberg</a>, can be found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON1">http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON2">http://www.estherlederberg.com/Anecdotes.html#WATSON2</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webofstories.com/gl/james.watson">James Watson telling his life story</a> at Web of Stories</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/american-masters-decoding-watson-full-film/10923/">American Masters: Decoding Watson</a> <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> film about Watson, including extensive interviews with him, his family, and colleagues. 2019-01-02.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://achievement.org/achiever/james-d-watson/#interview">James D. Watson, Ph.D. Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:FRS_1981" title="Template:FRS 1981"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:FRS_1981" title="Template talk:FRS 1981"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:FRS_1981" title="Special:EditPage/Template:FRS 1981"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1981" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellows</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1981" title="List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1981">in 1981</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fellows</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165582" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165582">John Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Barnard" title="Eric Barnard">Eric Barnard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_Bergersen" title="Fraser Bergersen">Fraser John Bergersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Bradshaw_(aeronautical_engineer)" title="Peter Bradshaw (aeronautical engineer)">Peter Bradshaw</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1175374" class="extiw" title="d:Q1175374">David Brink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Brown_(virologist)" title="Fred Brown (virologist)">Fred Brown</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165112" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165112">Ian Butterworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandon_Carter" title="Brandon Carter">Brandon Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Clarke_(zoologist)" title="Malcolm Clarke (zoologist)">Malcolm Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Horton_Conway" title="John Horton Conway">John Conway</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165380" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165380">Rex Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_F._Evans" title="Dennis F. Evans">Dennis Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._R._Farmer" title="F. R. Farmer">Frank Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165004" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165004">Ned Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165674" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165674">Christopher Graham</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165007" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165007">Norman Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gutfreund" title="Herbert Gutfreund">Herbert Gutfreund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Hay" title="Allan Hay">Allan Hay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McGregor_Hill" title="John McGregor Hill">John Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Holmes" title="Kenneth Holmes">Kenneth Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Honeycombe" title="Robert Honeycombe">Robert Honeycombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Horne_(engineer)" title="Michael Horne (engineer)">Michael Horne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuet_Wai_Kan" title="Yuet Wai Kan">Yuet Wai Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Langlands" title="Robert Langlands">Robert Langlands</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166006" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166006">Simon Maddrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McGregor_(malariologist)" title="Ian McGregor (malariologist)">Ian McGregor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nelder" title="John Nelder">John Nelder</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166765" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166765">Mike O'Hara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autar_Singh_Paintal" title="Autar Singh Paintal">Autar Singh Paintal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Phillips_(zoologist)" title="John Phillips (zoologist)">John Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Roy_Pike" title="Edward Roy Pike">Edward Roy Pike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Plowright" title="Walter Plowright">Walter Plowright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Pounds" title="Ken Pounds">Ken Pounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Rees_(biochemist)" title="Dai Rees (biochemist)">Dai Rees</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165707" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165707">Colin Reese</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166153" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166153">Edward Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_L._W._Sargent" title="Wallace L. W. Sargent">Wal Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clayton_Taylor" title="John Clayton Taylor">John Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Wheeler_(computer_scientist)" title="David Wheeler (computer scientist)">David Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Shafarevich" title="Igor Shafarevich">Igor Shafarevich</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></li> <li>1915</li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917</li> <li>1918</li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></li> <li>1921</li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></li> <li>1925</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (posthumously)</li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1962_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1962_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1962 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1962_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1962 Nobel Prize in Literature">1962</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James D. Watson</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> (Great Britain/Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners">1960</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd> <dd>1962 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1964_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1964 Nobel Prize winners">1964</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners">1965</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1966_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1966 Nobel Prize winners">1966</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners">1967</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Template talk:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_Medal_of_Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National Medal of Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_National_Medal_of_Science_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">United States National Medal of Science</a> <a href="/wiki/Laureate" title="Laureate">laureates</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Behavioral_and_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Behavioral and social science</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal Elgar Miller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Anastasi" title="Anne Anastasi">Anne Anastasi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George J. Stigler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_J._Gibson" title="Eleanor J. Gibson">Eleanor J. Gibson</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Shepard" title="Roger Shepard">Roger N. Shepard</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Paul Samuelson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Kaye_Estes" title="William Kaye Estes">William K. Estes</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Robert M. Solow</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/R._Duncan_Luce" title="R. Duncan Luce">R. Duncan Luce</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Kenneth Arrow</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gordon_H._Bower" title="Gordon H. Bower">Gordon H. Bower</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael I. Posner</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Mishkin" title="Mortimer Mishkin">Mortimer Mishkin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Axelrod_(political_scientist)" title="Robert Axelrod (political scientist)">Robert Axelrod</a></dd> <dt>2015</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Biological_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Biological sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">C. B. van Niel</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky" title="Theodosius Dobzhansky">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall W. Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis P. Rous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson" title="George Gaylord Simpson">George G. Simpson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Van_Slyke" title="Donald Van Slyke">Donald D. Van Slyke</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Knipling" title="Edward F. Knipling">Edward F. Knipling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Albert Lipmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Cumming_Rose" title="William Cumming Rose">William C. Rose</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Stewart_Cole" title="Kenneth Stewart Cole">Kenneth S. Cole</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry F. Harlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heidelberger" title="Michael Heidelberger">Michael Heidelberger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant" title="Alfred Sturtevant">Alfred H. Sturtevant</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Horace_Barker" title="Horace Barker">Horace Barker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Brodie_(biochemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Brodie (biochemist)">Bernard B. Brodie</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Detlev_Bronk" title="Detlev Bronk">Detlev W. Bronk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jay_Laurence_Lush" title="Jay Laurence Lush">Jay Lush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Burrhus Frederic Skinner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Huebner" title="Robert Huebner">Robert Huebner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert B. Sabin</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_W._Sutherland_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Earl W. Sutherland Jr.">Earl W. Sutherland Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Britton Chance</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_V._Neel" title="James V. Neel">James V. Neel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Augustine_Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="James Augustine Shannon">James Augustine Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hallowell_Davis" title="Hallowell Davis">Hallowell Davis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gyorgy" title="Paul Gyorgy">Paul Gyorgy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sterling_B._Hendricks" title="Sterling B. Hendricks">Sterling B. Hendricks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orville_Vogel" title="Orville Vogel">Orville Alvin Vogel</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Keith_Roberts_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Keith Roberts Porter">Keith Roberts Porter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Racker" title="Efraim Racker">Efraim Racker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Burris" title="Robert H. Burris">Robert H. Burris</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_C._Crosby" title="Elizabeth C. Crosby">Elizabeth C. Crosby</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_Reece_Stadtman" title="Earl Reece Stadtman">Earl Reece Stadtman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Ledyard_Stebbins" title="G. Ledyard Stebbins">George Ledyard Stebbins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Alfred_Weiss" title="Paul Alfred Weiss">Paul Alfred Weiss</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1981</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Handler" title="Philip Handler">Philip Handler</a></dd> <dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Seymour_Benzer" title="Seymour Benzer">Seymour Benzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Burton" title="Glenn W. Burton">Glenn W. Burton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Cohn" title="Mildred Cohn">Mildred Cohn</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Bachrach" title="Howard Bachrach">Howard L. Bachrach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wendell_L._Roelofs" title="Wendell L. Roelofs">Wendell L. Roelofs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berta_Scharrer" title="Berta Scharrer">Berta Scharrer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Henderson" title="Donald Henderson">Donald A. Henderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Mountcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Mountcastle">Vernon B. Mountcastle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Emil Palade</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._DeBakey" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael E. DeBakey">Michael E. DeBakey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodor_O._Diener" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor O. Diener">Theodor O. Diener</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_Eagle" title="Harry Eagle">Harry Eagle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Gobind Khorana</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael S. Brown">Michael S. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Norman Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice R. Hilleman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric R. Kandel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Sussman Yalow</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Esau" title="Katherine Esau">Katherine Esau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Hamburger" title="Viktor Hamburger">Viktor Hamburger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_W._Sperry" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger W. Sperry">Roger W. Sperry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harland_G._Wood" title="Harland G. Wood">Harland G. Wood</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert W. Boyer">Herbert W. Boyer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr." title="Daniel E. Koshland Jr.">Daniel E. Koshland Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_G._Nathan" title="David G. Nathan">David G. Nathan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ellen_Avery" title="Mary Ellen Avery">Mary Ellen Avery</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elvin_A._Kabat" title="Elvin A. Kabat">Elvin A. Kabat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kates" title="Robert Kates">Robert W. Kates</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)" title="Paul Marks (scientist)">Paul A. Marks</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Folke_K._Skoog" title="Folke K. Skoog">Folke K. Skoog</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Zamecnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Zamecnik">Paul C. Zamecnik</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Singer" title="Maxine Singer">Maxine Singer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Martin Temin</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Salome_G._Waelsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Salome G. Waelsch">Salome G. Waelsch</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Eisner" title="Thomas Eisner">Thomas Eisner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld" title="Elizabeth F. Neufeld">Elizabeth F. Neufeld</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rich" title="Alexander Rich">Alexander Rich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Patrick" title="Ruth Patrick">Ruth Patrick</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Watson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Weinberg">Robert A. Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Janet_Rowley" title="Janet Rowley">Janet Rowley</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nancy_C._Andreasen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nancy C. Andreasen">Nancy C. Andreasen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Raven" title="Peter H. Raven">Peter H. Raven</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George F. Bass</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mario_R._Capecchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mario R. Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ann_Graybiel" title="Ann Graybiel">Ann Graybiel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gene_Likens" title="Gene Likens">Gene E. Likens</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_A._McKusick" title="Victor A. McKusick">Victor A. McKusick</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Varmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Varmus">Harold Varmus</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Darnell" title="James E. Darnell">James E. Darnell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_M._Witkin" title="Evelyn M. Witkin">Evelyn M. Witkin</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_H._Snyder" title="Solomon H. Snyder">Solomon H. Snyder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Yanofsky" title="Charles Yanofsky">Charles Yanofsky</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman E. Borlaug</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Phillip_A._Sharp" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillip A. Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Starzl" title="Thomas Starzl">Thomas E. Starzl</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Torsten_N._Wiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Torsten N. Wiesel">Torsten N. Wiesel</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rita_R._Colwell" title="Rita R. Colwell">Rita R. Colwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nina_Fedoroff" title="Nina Fedoroff">Nina Fedoroff</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert J. Lefkowitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bert_W._O%27Malley" title="Bert W. O'Malley">Bert W. O'Malley</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis S. Collins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fuchs" title="Elaine Fuchs">Elaine Fuchs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">J. Craig Venter</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_L._Lindquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan L. Lindquist">Susan L. Lindquist</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_L._Brinster" title="Ralph L. Brinster">Ralph L. Brinster</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Shapiro" title="Lucy Shapiro">Lucy Shapiro</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leroy_Hood" title="Leroy Hood">Leroy Hood</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sallie_Chisholm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sallie Chisholm">Sallie Chisholm</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/May_Berenbaum" title="May Berenbaum">May Berenbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce Alberts</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_K._Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakesh K. Jain">Rakesh K. Jain</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Falkow" title="Stanley Falkow">Stanley Falkow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">Mary-Claire King</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Levin" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon Levin">Simon Levin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Chemistry</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/F._Albert_Cotton" title="F. Albert Cotton">F. Albert Cotton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Stork" title="Gilbert Stork">Gilbert Stork</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Zare" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard N. Zare">Richard N. Zare</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_B._Gray" title="Harry B. Gray">Harry B. Gray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Tseh_Lee" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Tseh Lee">Yuan Tseh Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_S._Marvel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl S. Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_H._Westheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank H. Westheimer">Frank H. Westheimer</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Summer_Johnson" title="William Summer Johnson">William S. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_H._Stockmayer" title="Walter H. Stockmayer">Walter H. Stockmayer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_O._Baker" title="William O. Baker">William O. Baker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Konrad_E._Bloch" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad E. Bloch">Konrad E. Bloch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_J._Corey" class="mw-redirect" title="Elias J. Corey">Elias J. Corey</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Bernstein" title="Richard Barry Bernstein">Richard B. Bernstein</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harden_M._McConnell" title="Harden M. McConnell">Harden M. McConnell</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elkan_Blout" title="Elkan Blout">Elkan Blout</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Roberts" title="John D. Roberts">John D. Roberts</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howard_Ensign_Simmons_Jr." title="Howard Ensign Simmons Jr.">Howard E. Simmons Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Hackerman" title="Norman Hackerman">Norman Hackerman</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_S._Hammond" title="George S. Hammond">George S. Hammond</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isabella_L._Karle" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella L. Karle">Isabella L. Karle</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davidson_(biologist)" title="Norman Davidson (biologist)">Norman Davidson</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Darleane_C._Hoffman" title="Darleane C. Hoffman">Darleane C. Hoffman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_S._Johnston" title="Harold S. Johnston">Harold S. Johnston</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Cahn" title="John W. Cahn">John W. Cahn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_M._Whitesides" title="George M. Whitesides">George M. Whitesides</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Rice" title="Stuart A. Rice">Stuart A. Rice</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_(chemist)" title="John Ross (chemist)">John Ross</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Susan_Solomon" title="Susan Solomon">Susan Solomon</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_D._Baldeschwieler" title="John D. Baldeschwieler">John D. Baldeschwieler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_F._Hirschmann" title="Ralph F. Hirschmann">Ralph F. Hirschmann</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernest_R._Davidson" title="Ernest R. Davidson">Ernest R. Davidson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A1bor_A._Somorjai" title="Gábor A. Somorjai">Gábor A. Somorjai</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_I._Brauman" class="mw-redirect" title="John I. Brauman">John I. Brauman</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Lippard" title="Stephen J. Lippard">Stephen J. Lippard</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tobin_J._Marks" title="Tobin J. Marks">Tobin J. Marks</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_H._Caruthers" title="Marvin H. Caruthers">Marvin H. Caruthers</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Dervan" title="Peter Dervan">Peter B. Dervan</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Sayed" title="Mostafa El-Sayed">Mostafa A. El-Sayed</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Fowler" title="Joanna Fowler">Joanna Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/JoAnne_Stubbe" title="JoAnne Stubbe">JoAnne Stubbe</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Benkovic" title="Stephen J. Benkovic">Stephen J. Benkovic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marye_Anne_Fox" title="Marye Anne Fox">Marye Anne Fox</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Stang" title="Peter J. Stang">Peter J. Stang</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_J._Bard" title="Allen J. Bard">Allen J. Bard</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/M._Frederick_Hawthorne" title="M. Frederick Hawthorne">M. Frederick Hawthorne</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Judith_P._Klinman" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith P. Klinman">Judith P. Klinman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerrold_Meinwald" title="Jerrold Meinwald">Jerrold Meinwald</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_L._Richmond" title="Geraldine L. Richmond">Geraldine L. Richmond</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/A._Paul_Alivisatos" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Paul Alivisatos">A. Paul Alivisatos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Engineering_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Engineering sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1962</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a></dd> <dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Robinson_Pierce" class="mw-redirect" title="John Robinson Pierce">John Robinson Pierce</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles S. Draper">Charles S. Draper</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Ammann" title="Othmar Ammann">Othmar H. Ammann</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hugh_L._Dryden" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh L. Dryden">Hugh L. Dryden</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Clarence_L._Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence L. Johnson">Clarence L. Johnson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_K._Lewis" title="Warren K. Lewis">Warren K. Lewis</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igor_I._Sikorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor I. Sikorsky">Igor I. Sikorsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nathan_M._Newmark" title="Nathan M. Newmark">Nathan M. Newmark</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_St._Clair_Kilby" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack St. Clair Kilby">Jack St. Clair Kilby</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_E._Mueller" class="mw-redirect" title="George E. Mueller">George E. Mueller</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Edgerton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold E. Edgerton">Harold E. Edgerton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_T._Whitcomb" title="Richard T. Whitcomb">Richard T. Whitcomb</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Kompfner" title="Rudolf Kompfner">Rudolf Kompfner</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Brazelton_Peck" title="Ralph Brazelton Peck">Ralph Brazelton Peck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abel_Wolman" title="Abel Wolman">Abel Wolman</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Manson_Benedict" title="Manson Benedict">Manson Benedict</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Hayward_Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hayward Pickering">William Hayward Pickering</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Terman" title="Frederick Terman">Frederick E. Terman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Morris_Cohen_(scientist)" title="Morris Cohen (scientist)">Morris Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Goldmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Goldmark">Peter C. Goldmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Wilhelm_M%C3%BCller" title="Erwin Wilhelm Müller">Erwin Wilhelm Müller</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Emmett_N._Leith" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmett N. Leith">Emmett N. Leith</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_D._Mindlin" title="Raymond D. Mindlin">Raymond D. Mindlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Noyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert N. Noyce">Robert N. Noyce</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Earl_R._Parker" title="Earl R. Parker">Earl R. Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Heinemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward H. Heinemann">Edward H. Heinemann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Katz" title="Donald L. Katz">Donald L. Katz</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hewlett" title="Bill Hewlett">Bill Hewlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Low" title="George Low">George Low</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_G._Trump" title="John G. Trump">John G. Trump</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wolfgang_Liepmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Wolfgang Liepmann">Hans Wolfgang Liepmann</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tung-Yen_Lin" title="Tung-Yen Lin">Tung-Yen Lin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bernard_M._Oliver" title="Bernard M. Oliver">Bernard M. Oliver</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Byron_Bird" title="Robert Byron Bird">Robert Byron Bird</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Bolton_Seed" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Bolton Seed">H. Bolton Seed</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Weber_(engineer)" title="Ernst Weber (engineer)">Ernst Weber</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Drucker" title="Daniel C. Drucker">Daniel C. Drucker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_M._Hawkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis M. Hawkins">Willis M. Hawkins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_W._Housner" title="George W. Housner">George W. Housner</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harry_George_Drickamer" title="Harry George Drickamer">Harry George Drickamer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Grier" title="Herbert E. Grier">Herbert E. Grier</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak Jr.">Nick Holonyak Jr.</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luna_B._Leopold" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna B. Leopold">Luna B. Leopold</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Guyford_Stever" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Guyford Stever">H. Guyford Stever</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calvin_F._Quate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin F. Quate">Calvin F. Quate</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ray_W._Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray W. Clough">Ray W. Clough</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hermann_A._Haus" title="Hermann A. Haus">Hermann A. Haus</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_L._Flanagan" title="James L. Flanagan">James L. Flanagan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar N. Patel</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eli_Ruckenstein" title="Eli Ruckenstein">Eli Ruckenstein</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_N._Stevens" title="Kenneth N. Stevens">Kenneth N. Stevens</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Yuan-Cheng B. Fung</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Acrivos" title="Andreas Acrivos">Andreas Acrivos</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Beranek" title="Leo Beranek">Leo Beranek</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Prausnitz" title="John Prausnitz">John M. Prausnitz</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_N._Lightfoot" title="Edwin N. Lightfoot">Edwin N. Lightfoot</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jan_D._Achenbach" title="Jan D. Achenbach">Jan D. Achenbach</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert S. Langer</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">David J. Wineland</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_E._K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n" title="Rudolf E. Kálmán">Rudolf E. Kálmán</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amnon_Yariv" title="Amnon Yariv">Amnon Yariv</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shu_Chien" title="Shu Chien">Shu Chien</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kailath" title="Thomas Kailath">Thomas Kailath</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mathematical,_statistical,_and_computer_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Lefschetz" title="Solomon Lefschetz">Solomon Lefschetz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marston_Morse" title="Marston Morse">H. Marston Morse</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Zariski" title="Oscar Zariski">Oscar Zariski</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Milnor" title="John Milnor">John Milnor</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Neyman" title="Jerzy Neyman">Jerzy Neyman</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Feller" title="William Feller">William Feller</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brauer" title="Richard Brauer">Richard Brauer</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_W._Backus" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Backus">John W. Backus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shiing-Shen_Chern" title="Shiing-Shen Chern">Shiing-Shen Chern</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kurt_O._Friedrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt O. Friedrichs">Kurt Otto Friedrichs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hassler_Whitney" title="Hassler Whitney">Hassler Whitney</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Doob" title="Joseph L. Doob">Joseph L. Doob</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Donald E. Knuth</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_H._Stone" title="Marshall H. Stone">Marshall H. Stone</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Goldstine" title="Herman Goldstine">Herman Goldstine</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Isadore_Singer" title="Isadore Singer">Isadore Singer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lax" title="Peter Lax">Peter Lax</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Zygmund" title="Antoni Zygmund">Antoni Zygmund</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Bott" title="Raoul Bott">Raoul Bott</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Freedman" title="Michael Freedman">Michael Freedman</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_E._Gomory" title="Ralph E. Gomory">Ralph E. Gomory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Keller" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph B. Keller">Joseph B. Keller</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Karlin" title="Samuel Karlin">Samuel Karlin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane" title="Saunders Mac Lane">Saunders Mac Lane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Donald_C._Spencer" title="Donald C. Spencer">Donald C. Spencer</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_F._Carrier" title="George F. Carrier">George F. Carrier</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Cole_Kleene" title="Stephen Cole Kleene">Stephen Cole Kleene</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)" title="John McCarthy (computer scientist)">John McCarthy</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Calder%C3%B3n" title="Alberto Calderón">Alberto Calderón</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal" title="Martin David Kruskal">Martin David Kruskal</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Cocke_(computer_scientist)" title="John Cocke (computer scientist)">John Cocke</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nirenberg" title="Louis Nirenberg">Louis Nirenberg</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Karp" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Karp">Richard Karp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Smale" title="Stephen Smale">Stephen Smale</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau" title="Shing-Tung Yau">Shing-Tung Yau</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cathleen_Synge_Morawetz" title="Cathleen Synge Morawetz">Cathleen Synge Morawetz</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Felix_Browder" title="Felix Browder">Felix Browder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald R. Coifman</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karen_Uhlenbeck" title="Karen Uhlenbeck">Karen Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calyampudi_Radhakrishna_Rao" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao">Calyampudi R. Rao</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Glimm" title="James Glimm">James G. Glimm</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_R._de_Boor" title="Carl R. de Boor">Carl R. de Boor</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Sullivan" title="Dennis Sullivan">Dennis P. Sullivan</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Efron" title="Bradley Efron">Bradley Efron</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyman_Bass" title="Hyman Bass">Hyman Bass</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Viterbi" title="Andrew Viterbi">Andrew J. Viterbi</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_B._Mumford" class="mw-redirect" title="David B. Mumford">David B. Mumford</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2010</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Tapia" title="Richard A. Tapia">Richard A. Tapia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/S._R._Srinivasa_Varadhan" title="S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan">S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan</a></dd> <dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_W._Golomb" title="Solomon W. Golomb">Solomon W. Golomb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Barry_Mazur" title="Barry Mazur">Barry Mazur</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Chorin" title="Alexandre Chorin">Alexandre Chorin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/David_Blackwell" title="David Blackwell">David Blackwell</a></dd> <dt>2013</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Michael_Artin" title="Michael Artin">Michael Artin</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physical_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physical sciences</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1963</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis W. Alvarez</a></dd> <dt>1964</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a></dd> <dt>1965</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Leon M. Lederman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Rubey" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rubey">William Rubey</a></dd> <dt>1966</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bjerknes" title="Jacob Bjerknes">Jacob Bjerknes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Vleck" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Van Vleck">John H. Van Vleck</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></dd> <dt>1967</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Francis_Birch_(geophysicist)" title="Francis Birch (geophysicist)">Francis Birch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hammett" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Hammett">Louis Hammett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></dd> <dt>1968</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doughty_Bartlett" title="Paul Doughty Bartlett">Paul Bartlett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Friedman" title="Herbert Friedman">Herbert Friedman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></dd> <dt>1969</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Panofsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfgang Panofsky">Wolfgang Panofsky</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1970</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Dicke" title="Robert H. Dicke">Robert H. Dicke</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Sandage" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan R. Sandage">Allan R. Sandage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saul_Winstein" title="Saul Winstein">Saul Winstein</a></dd> <dt>1973</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carl_Djerassi" title="Carl Djerassi">Carl Djerassi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ewing" title="Maurice Ewing">Maurice Ewing</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arie_Jan_Haagen-Smit" title="Arie Jan Haagen-Smit">Arie Jan Haagen-Smit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Haensel" title="Vladimir Haensel">Vladimir Haensel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rathbun_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Rathbun Wilson">Robert Rathbun Wilson</a></dd> <dt>1974</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Linus_Carl_Pauling" class="mw-redirect" title="Linus Carl Pauling">Linus Carl Pauling</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Sanborn_Pitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer">Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer</a></dd> <dt>1975</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_A._Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans A. Bethe">Hans A. Bethe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Joseph_O._Hirschfelder" title="Joseph O. Hirschfelder">Joseph O. Hirschfelder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Sarett" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Sarett">Lewis Sarett</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Bright_Wilson" title="Edgar Bright Wilson">Edgar Bright Wilson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></dd> <dt>1976</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Gutowsky" title="Herbert S. Gutowsky">Herbert S. Gutowsky</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Rossini" title="Frederick Rossini">Frederick Rossini</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Verner_Suomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Verner Suomi">Verner Suomi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a></dd> <dt>1979</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Feynman" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard P. Feynman">Richard P. Feynman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Mark">Herman Mark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_M._Purcell" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward M. Purcell">Edward M. Purcell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_Sinfelt" class="mw-redirect" title="John Sinfelt">John Sinfelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer" title="Lyman Spitzer">Lyman Spitzer</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1982</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Yoichiro Nambu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a></dd> <dt>1983</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/E._Margaret_Burbidge" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Margaret Burbidge">E. Margaret Burbidge</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut Landsberg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Munk" title="Walter Munk">Walter Munk</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Frederick Reines</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bruno_B._Rossi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruno B. Rossi">Bruno B. Rossi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a></dd> <dt>1986</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Solomon_J._Buchsbaum" title="Solomon J. Buchsbaum">Solomon J. Buchsbaum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Crane" title="H. Richard Crane">H. Richard Crane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Robert Hofstadter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Chen-Ning Yang</a></dd> <dt>1987</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philip_Abelson" title="Philip Abelson">Philip Abelson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Elsasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Elsasser">Walter Elsasser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paul_C._Lauterbur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul C. Lauterbur">Paul C. Lauterbur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_A._Van_Allen" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Van Allen">James A. Van Allen</a></dd> <dt>1988</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chu_Ching-wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu Ching-wu">Paul Ching-Wu Chu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Jack Steinberger</a></dd> <dt>1989</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Parker" title="Eugene Parker">Eugene Parker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._Sharp" title="Robert P. Sharp">Robert Sharp</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>1990</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Allan_McLeod_Cormack" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan McLeod Cormack">Allan M. Cormack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edwin_M._McMillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin M. McMillan">Edwin M. McMillan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_Pound" title="Robert Pound">Robert Pound</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Roger_Revelle" title="Roger Revelle">Roger Revelle</a></dd> <dt>1991</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Schawlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur L. Schawlow">Arthur L. Schawlow</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Stone" title="Edward C. Stone">Ed Stone</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Steven Weinberg</a></dd> <dt>1992</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eugene_M._Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene M. Shoemaker">Eugene M. Shoemaker</a></dd> <dt>1993</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vera_Rubin" title="Vera Rubin">Vera Rubin</a></dd> <dt>1994</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Albert_Overhauser" title="Albert Overhauser">Albert Overhauser</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Frank_Press" title="Frank Press">Frank Press</a></dd> <dt>1995</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hans_Dehmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Dehmelt">Hans Dehmelt</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peter_Goldreich" title="Peter Goldreich">Peter Goldreich</a></dd> <dt>1996</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace S. Broecker</a></dd> <dt>1997</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Rosenbluth" title="Marshall Rosenbluth">Marshall Rosenbluth</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild" title="Martin Schwarzschild">Martin Schwarzschild</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/George_Wetherill" title="George Wetherill">George Wetherill</a></dd> <dt>1998</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Don_L._Anderson" title="Don L. Anderson">Don L. Anderson</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a></dd> <dt>1999</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">James Cronin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2000</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Willis_E._Lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Willis E. Lamb">Willis E. Lamb</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_P._Ostriker" title="Jeremiah P. Ostriker">Jeremiah P. Ostriker</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_F._White" title="Gilbert F. White">Gilbert F. White</a></dd> <dt>2001</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Keeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Keeling">Charles Keeling</a></dd> <dt>2002</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/W._Jason_Morgan" title="W. Jason Morgan">W. Jason Morgan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Edward_Witten" title="Edward Witten">Edward Witten</a></dd> <dt>2003</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/G._Brent_Dalrymple" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Brent Dalrymple">G. Brent Dalrymple</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a></dd> <dt>2004</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Clayton" title="Robert N. Clayton">Robert N. Clayton</a></dd> <dt>2005</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Alpher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph A. Alpher">Ralph A. Alpher</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Lonnie Thompson</a></dd> <dt>2006</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kleppner" title="Daniel Kleppner">Daniel Kleppner</a></dd> <dt>2007</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fay_Ajzenberg-Selove" title="Fay Ajzenberg-Selove">Fay Ajzenberg-Selove</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pence_Slichter" title="Charles Pence Slichter">Charles P. Slichter</a></dd> <dt>2008</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berni_Alder" title="Berni Alder">Berni Alder</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/James_E._Gunn_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Gunn (astronomer)">James E. Gunn</a></dd> <dt>2009</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Yakir Aharonov</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Esther_M._Conwell" title="Esther M. Conwell">Esther M. Conwell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warren_M._Washington" title="Warren M. Washington">Warren M. Washington</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>2011</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Faber" title="Sandra Faber">Sandra Faber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates</a></dd> <dt>2012</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sean_Solomon" title="Sean Solomon">Sean C. Solomon</a></dd> <dt>2014</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Ann_Jackson" title="Shirley Ann Jackson">Shirley Ann Jackson</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1951–2000)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Keilin" title="David Keilin">David Keilin</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kluyver" title="Albert Kluyver">Albert Kluyver</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">John Edensor Littlewood</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Lawrence Bragg</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander R. Todd</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Robert Porter</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robin Hill</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1992)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James D. Watson</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank" title="Frederick Charles Frank">Frederick Charles Frank</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cottrell" title="Alan Cottrell">Alan Cottrell</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Huxley" title="Hugh Huxley">Hugh Huxley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_R._Battersby" title="Alan R. Battersby">Alan Battersby</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d3d3d3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" title="Template:Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" title="Template talk:Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eli_Lilly_Award_in_Biological_Chemistry" title="Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry">Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_M._Allen_(chemist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William M. Allen (chemist) (page does not exist)">William M. Allen</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harold_S._Alcott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold S. Alcott (page does not exist)">Harold S. Alcott</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abraham_White&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abraham White (page does not exist)">Abraham White</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eric_G._Ball&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eric G. Ball (page does not exist)">Eric G. Ball</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Rittenberg" title="David Rittenberg">David Rittenberg</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Evans_(scientist)" title="Earl Evans (scientist)"> Earl A. Evans, Jr.</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._E._Carter" title="H. E. Carter">Herbert E. Carter</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_S._Fruton" title="Joseph S. Fruton">Joseph S. Fruton</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Lauffer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Lauffer (page does not exist)">Max A. Lauffer</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Ferry" title="John D. Ferry">John D. Ferry</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Colowick" title="Sidney Colowick">Sidney Colowick</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dilworth_Woodley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dilworth Woodley (page does not exist)">Dilworth Woodley</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Irving_M._Klotz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Irving M. Klotz (page does not exist)">Irving M. Klotz</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Shive (page does not exist)">William Shive</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Buchanan_(biologist)" title="John Buchanan (biologist)">John M. Buchanan</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_M._Bonner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David M. Bonner (page does not exist)">David M. Bonner</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_O._Kaplan" title="Nathan O. Kaplan">Nathan O. Kaplan</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Itano" title="Harvey Itano">Harvey Itano</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Neuman" title="William F. Neuman">William F. Neuman</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Alberty" title="Robert A. Alberty">Robert A. Alberty</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_A._Scheraga" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold A. Scheraga">Harold A. Scheraga</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_J._Reed" title="Lester J. Reed">Lester J. Reed</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> (1959)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Watson</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Crane_(biologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick Crane (biologist) (page does not exist)">Frederick Crane</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerard_Hurwitz" title="Jerard Hurwitz">Jerard Hurwitz</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jencks" title="William Jencks">William P. Jencks</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Ames" title="Bruce Ames">Bruce Ames</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald M. Edelman</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_W._Robbins" class="mw-redirect" title="Phillips W. Robbins">Phillips W. Robbins</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Hammes" title="Gordon Hammes">Gordon G. Hammes</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Richardson" title="Charles C. Richardson">Charles C. Richardson</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario R. Capecchi</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubert_Stryer" title="Lubert Stryer">Lubert Stryer</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=David_F._Wilson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David F. Wilson (page does not exist)">David F. Wilson</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Alberts" title="Bruce Alberts">Bruce M. Alberts</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=C._Fred_Fox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C. Fred Fox (page does not exist)">C. Fred Fox</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_E._Dahlberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James E. Dahlberg (page does not exist)">James E. Dahlberg</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ptashne" title="Mark Ptashne">Mark Ptashne</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_A._Steitz" title="Joan A. Steitz">Joan A. Steitz</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Roeder" title="Robert G. Roeder">Robert G. Roeder</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cantor" title="Charles Cantor">Charles R. Cantor</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_T._Walsh" title="Christopher T. Walsh">Christopher T. Walsh</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip A. Sharp</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Kornberg" title="Roger D. Kornberg">Roger D. Kornberg</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_M._Weintraub" title="Harold M. Weintraub">Harold M. Weintraub</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Goeddel" title="David Goeddel">David V. Goeddel</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_M._Rubin" title="Gerald M. Rubin">Gerald M. Rubin</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James E. Rothman</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_K._Barton" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline K. Barton">Jacqueline K. Barton</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Walter" title="Peter Walter">Peter Walter</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_M._Cox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael M. Cox (page does not exist)">Michael M. Cox</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McLendon" title="George McLendon">George L. McLendon</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_G._Schultz" title="Peter G. Schultz">Peter G. Schultz</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_DeGrado" title="William DeGrado">William DeGrado</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Schreiber" title="Stuart Schreiber">Stuart L. Schreiber</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_S._Kim" title="Peter S. Kim">Peter S. Kim</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_M._Berg" title="Jeremy M. Berg">Jeremy M. Berg</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_L._Verdine" title="Gregory L. Verdine">Gregory L. Verdine</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanna_Schepartz" title="Alanna Schepartz">Alanna Schepartz</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kuriyan" title="John Kuriyan">John Kuriyan</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitan_Khosla" title="Chaitan Khosla">Chaitan Khosla</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaodong_Wang_(biochemist)" title="Xiaodong Wang (biochemist)">Xiaodong Wang</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevan_M._Shokat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevan M. Shokat">Kevan M. Shokat</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Matouschek" title="Andreas Matouschek">Andreas Matouschek</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Cravatt_III" title="Benjamin Cravatt III">Benjamin Cravatt III</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dewey_G._McCafferty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dewey G. McCafferty (page does not exist)">Dewey G. McCafferty</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Hsieh-Wilson" title="Linda Hsieh-Wilson">Linda Hsieh-Wilson</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_K._Mapp" title="Anna K. Mapp">Anna K. Mapp</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Hergenrother" title="Paul J. Hergenrother">Paul J. Hergenrother</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_K._Silverman" title="Scott K. Silverman">Scott K. Silverman</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Y._Ting" title="Alice Y. Ting">Alice Y. Ting</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathanael_Gray" title="Nathanael Gray">Nathanael Gray</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chang" title="Christopher Chang">Christopher J. Chang</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Matthew_D._Disney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matthew D. Disney (page does not exist)">Matthew D. Disney</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yi_Tang_(chemist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yi Tang (chemist) (page does not exist)">Yi Tang</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minkui_Luo" title="Minkui Luo">Minkui Luo</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Nolan" title="Elizabeth Nolan">Elizabeth Nolan</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Hang" title="Howard Hang">Howard Hang</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_L._Pentelute" title="Bradley L. Pentelute">Bradley Pentelute</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neal_K._Devaraj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neal K. Devaraj (page does not exist)">Neal K. Devaraj</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yimon_Aye" title="Yimon Aye">Yimon Aye</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jordan_L._Meier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jordan L. Meier (page does not exist)">Jordan L. Meier</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields, disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories, concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Time 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst" title="Emmeline Pankhurst">Emmeline Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9" title="Pelé">Pelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_W." title="Bill W.">Bill W.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83333#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83333#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000114514801">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/90069089">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/49920/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmTk79KXq8kc3VDHrdRKd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118629468">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80015458">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11928929d">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11928929d">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00460283">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV066511">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35675916">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000720325&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX941126">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/47473">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068411650">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810556297805606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007279860405171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058514966106706">Catalonia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14141411">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00103568?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=7404155667">Scopus</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:watson.james">zbMATH</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1037626">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118629468.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118629468">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027193454">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6pc3ns4">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&oldid=1257190781">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Watson&oldid=1257190781</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:James_Watson" title="Category:James Watson">James Watson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1928_births" title="Category:1928 births">1928 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Living_people" title="Category:Living people">Living 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