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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_and_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frequency_and_risk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frequency_and_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Frequency and risk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frequency_and_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Airbursts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airbursts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Airbursts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airbursts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geological_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geological_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Geological significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geological_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biospheric_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biospheric_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Biospheric effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biospheric_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_and_cultural_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_and_cultural_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Sociological and cultural effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociological_and_cultural_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earth_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Earth impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precambrian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precambrian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Precambrian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precambrian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleozoic_and_Mesozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleozoic_and_Mesozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Paleozoic and Mesozoic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleozoic_and_Mesozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleogene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleogene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Paleogene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleogene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pleistocene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleistocene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.4</span> <span>Pleistocene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleistocene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holocene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holocene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.5</span> <span>Holocene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holocene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.6</span> <span>20th-century impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st-century_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st-century_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.7</span> <span>21st-century impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st-century_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asteroid_impact_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asteroid_impact_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.7.1</span> <span>Asteroid impact prediction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asteroid_impact_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_response_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_response_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Current response status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_response_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elsewhere_in_the_Solar_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elsewhere_in_the_Solar_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Elsewhere in the Solar System</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elsewhere_in_the_Solar_System-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Elsewhere in the Solar System subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elsewhere_in_the_Solar_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evidence_of_massive_past_impact_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence_of_massive_past_impact_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Evidence of massive past impact events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence_of_massive_past_impact_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observed_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observed_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Observed events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observed_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jupiter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jupiter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Jupiter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jupiter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Other impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extrasolar_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extrasolar_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Extrasolar impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extrasolar_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact event</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83)" title="اصطدام (علم الفلك) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اصطدام (علم الفلك)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toqqu%C5%9Fma_hadis%C9%99si" title="Toqquşma hadisəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Toqquşma hadisəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Імпактная падзея – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імпактная падзея" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacte_astron%C3%B2mic" title="Impacte astronòmic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Impacte astronòmic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impakt_astronomick%C3%A9ho_t%C4%9Blesa" title="Impakt astronomického tělesa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Impakt astronomického tělesa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoritnedslag" title="Meteoritnedslag – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Meteoritnedslag" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impakt" title="Impakt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Impakt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_astron%C3%B3mico" title="Impacto astronómico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Impacto astronómico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="رویداد برخوردی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رویداد برخوردی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_cosmique" title="Impact cosmique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impact cosmique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B6%A9%EB%8F%8C%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4" title="충돌사건 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="충돌사건" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իմպակտ իրադարձություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իմպակտ իրադարձություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristiwa_tumbukan" title="Peristiwa tumbukan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peristiwa tumbukan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impatto_astronomico" title="Impatto astronomico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impatto astronomico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אירועי התנגשות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אירועי התנגשות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enpak_kosmik" title="Enpak kosmik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Enpak kosmik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impakt" title="Impakt – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Impakt" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becsap%C3%B3d%C3%A1si_esem%C3%A9ny" title="Becsapódási esemény – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Becsapódási esemény" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejadian_hentaman" title="Kejadian hentaman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kejadian hentaman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inslagproces" title="Inslagproces – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Inslagproces" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E8%A1%9D%E7%AA%81" title="天体衝突 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="天体衝突" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmisk_nedslag" title="Kosmisk nedslag – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kosmisk nedslag" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%BC%DA%A9%D8%B1_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%87" title="د ټکر پېښه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ټکر پېښه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastrofa_kosmiczna" title="Katastrofa kosmiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Katastrofa kosmiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evento_de_impacto" title="Evento de impacto – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evento de impacto" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_astronomic" title="Impact astronomic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Impact astronomic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Импактное событие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Импактное событие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Impact event" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Impact event" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impakt_astronomick%C3%A9ho_telesa" title="Impakt astronomického telesa – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Impakt astronomického telesa" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Космички судар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Космички судар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impakti" title="Impakti – Finnish" lang="fi" 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/310px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/465px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/620px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Damage to trees caused by the <a href="/wiki/Tunguska_event" title="Tunguska event">Tunguska event</a>. The object, just 50–80 metres (150–240 feet) across, exploded 6–10 km (4–6 miles) above the surface, shattering windows hundreds of km away.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>impact event</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collision</a> between <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical objects</a> causing measurable effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Rumpf_3433–3440_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rumpf_3433–3440-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impact events have been found to regularly occur in <a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">planetary systems</a>, though the most frequent involve <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a> or <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroids</a> and have minimal effect. When large objects impact <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">terrestrial planets</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, there can be significant physical and biospheric consequences, as the impacting body is usually traveling at several kilometres a second (a minimum of 11.2 km/s (7.0 mi/s) for an Earth impacting body<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), though atmospheres mitigate many surface impacts through <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry">atmospheric entry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">Impact craters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Impact_structure" title="Impact structure">structures</a> are dominant landforms on many of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>'s solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency and scale. </p><p>Impact events appear to have played a significant role in the <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">evolution of the Solar System</a> since its formation. Major impact events have significantly shaped <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Earth">Earth's history</a>, and have been implicated in the <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact theory">formation of the Earth–Moon system</a>. Impact events also appear to have played a significant role in the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a>. Impacts may have helped deliver the building blocks for life (the <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">panspermia</a> theory relies on this premise). Impacts have been suggested as the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">origin of water on Earth</a>. They have also been implicated in several <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a>. The prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater#Impact_specifics" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub impact</a>, 66 million years ago, is believed to not only be the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated76_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated76-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but acceleration of the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">evolution of mammals</a>, leading to their dominance and, in turn, setting in place conditions for the eventual rise of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_Berv_Chester_Sargis_pp._14540–14554_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_Berv_Chester_Sargis_pp._14540–14554-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout recorded history, hundreds of Earth impacts (and exploding <a href="/wiki/Bolide" title="Bolide">bolides</a>) have been reported, with some occurrences causing deaths, injuries, property damage, or other significant localised consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the best-known recorded events in modern times was the <a href="/wiki/Tunguska_event" title="Tunguska event">Tunguska event</a>, which occurred in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, Russia, in 1908. The 2013 <a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_meteor" title="Chelyabinsk meteor">Chelyabinsk meteor</a> event is the only known such incident in modern times to result in numerous injuries. Its meteor is the largest recorded object to have encountered the Earth since the Tunguska event. The <a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9" title="Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9</a> impact provided the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects, when the comet broke apart and collided with Jupiter in July 1994. An extrasolar impact was observed in 2013, when a massive terrestrial planet impact was detected around the star ID8 in the star cluster <a href="/wiki/NGC_2547" title="NGC 2547">NGC 2547</a> by NASA's <a href="/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope" title="Spitzer Space Telescope">Spitzer Space Telescope</a> and confirmed by ground observations.<sup id="cite_ref-space.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impact events have been a plot and background element in <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>. </p><p>In April 2018, the <a href="/wiki/B612_Foundation" title="B612 Foundation">B612 Foundation</a> reported: "It's 100 percent certain we'll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 percent certain when."<sup id="cite_ref-INQ-20180428_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INQ-20180428-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 2018, physicist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> considered in his final book <i><a href="/wiki/Brief_Answers_to_the_Big_Questions_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brief Answers to the Big Questions (book)">Brief Answers to the Big Questions</a></i> that an asteroid collision was the biggest threat to the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-WP-20181015_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-20181015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QZ-20181014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QZ-20181014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2018, the US <a href="/wiki/National_Science_and_Technology_Council" title="National Science and Technology Council">National Science and Technology Council</a> warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the "National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan" to better prepare.<sup id="cite_ref-WH-20180621_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WH-20180621-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GIZ-20180621_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GIZ-20180621-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ICARUS-220180522_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICARUS-220180522-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20180614_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180614-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20180614c_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180614c-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to expert testimony in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> in 2013, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> would require at least five years of preparation before <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">a mission to intercept an asteroid</a> could be launched.<sup id="cite_ref-US-Congress-20130410_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US-Congress-20130410-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 26 September 2022, the <a href="/wiki/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test" title="Double Asteroid Redirection Test">Double Asteroid Redirection Test</a> demonstrated the deflection of an asteroid. It was the first such experiment to be carried out by humankind and was considered to be highly successful. The orbital period of the target body was changed by 32 minutes. The criterion for success was a change of more than 73 seconds. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_and_the_Earth">Impacts and the Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Impacts and the Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg/220px-Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg/330px-Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg/440px-Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>World map in <a href="/wiki/Equirectangular_projection" title="Equirectangular projection">equirectangular projection</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Impact_structure" title="Impact structure">impact structures</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Impact_Database" title="Earth Impact Database">Earth Impact Database</a> as of November 2017 (in <a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Earth_Impact_Database_world_map.svg">the SVG file,</a> hover over a structure to show its details)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_on_Earth" title="List of impact structures on Earth">List of impact structures on Earth</a></div> <p>Major impact events have significantly shaped <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Earth">Earth's history</a>, having been implicated in the <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact theory">formation of the Earth–Moon system</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">origin of water on Earth</a>, and several <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Impact_structure" title="Impact structure">Impact structures</a> are the result of impact events on solid objects and, as the dominant landforms on many of the System's solid objects, present the most solid evidence of prehistoric events. Notable impact events include the hypothesized <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a>, which would have occurred early in the history of the Earth–Moon system, and the confirmed <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub impact">Chicxulub impact</a> 66 million years ago, believed to be the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequency_and_risk">Frequency and risk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Frequency and risk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:508px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frequency of small asteroids roughly 1 to 20 meters in diameter impacting Earth's atmosphere."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/500px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/750px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/1000px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1519" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" title="File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg"> </a></div>Frequency of small asteroids roughly 1 to 20 meters in diameter impacting Earth's atmosphere.</div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolide.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bolide.jpg/220px-Bolide.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Bolide.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="251" data-file-height="164" /></a><figcaption>A bolide undergoing atmospheric entry</figcaption></figure> <p>Small objects frequently collide with Earth. There is an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse relationship">inverse relationship</a> between the size of the object and the frequency of such events. The lunar cratering record shows that the frequency of impacts decreases as approximately the <a href="/wiki/Cube_(algebra)" title="Cube (algebra)">cube</a> of the resulting crater's diameter, which is on average proportional to the diameter of the impactor.<sup id="cite_ref-ArvidsonEtAl79_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ArvidsonEtAl79-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asteroids with a 1 km (0.62 mi) diameter strike Earth every 500,000 years on average.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2002_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2002-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-types_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-types-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large collisions – with 5 km (3 mi) objects – happen approximately once every twenty million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last known impact of an object of 10 km (6 mi) or more in diameter was at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-UCB2013_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCB2013-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The energy released by an impactor depends on diameter, density, velocity, and angle.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diameter of most near-Earth asteroids that have not been studied by radar or infrared can generally only be estimated within about a factor of two, by basing it on the asteroid's brightness. The density is generally assumed, because the diameter and mass, from which density can be calculated, are also generally estimated. Due to <a href="/wiki/Earth_escape_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth escape velocity">Earth's escape velocity</a>, the minimum impact velocity is <a href="/wiki/Earth_escape_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth escape velocity">11 km/s</a> with asteroid impacts averaging around 17 km/s on the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most probable impact angle is 45 degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Impact conditions such as asteroid size and speed, but also density and impact angle determine the kinetic energy released in an impact event. The more energy is released, the more damage is likely to occur on the ground due to the environmental effects triggered by the impact. Such effects can be shock waves, heat radiation, the formation of craters with associated earthquakes, and tsunamis if bodies of water are hit. Human populations are vulnerable to these effects if they live within the affected zone.<sup id="cite_ref-Rumpf_3433–3440_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rumpf_3433–3440-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large <a href="/wiki/Seiche_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Seiche wave">seiche waves</a> arising from earthquakes and large-scale deposit of debris can also occur within minutes of impact, thousands of kilometres from impact.<sup id="cite_ref-pnas1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Airbursts">Airbursts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Airbursts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Meteor_air_burst" title="Meteor air burst">Meteor air burst</a></div> <p>Stony asteroids with a diameter of 4 meters (13 ft) enter Earth's atmosphere about once a year.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asteroids with a diameter of 7 meters enter the atmosphere about every 5 years with as much <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> as <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima</a> (approximately 16 <a href="/wiki/Kiloton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloton">kilotons</a> of TNT), but the <a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">air burst</a> is reduced to just 5 kilotons.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ordinarily explode in the <a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">upper atmosphere</a> and most or all of the solids are <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">vaporized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, asteroids with a diameter of 20 m (66 ft), and which strike Earth approximately twice every century, produce more powerful airbursts. The 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor was estimated to be about 20 m in diameter with an airburst of around 500 kilotons, an explosion 30 times the Hiroshima bomb impact. Much larger objects may impact the solid earth and create a crater. </p> <table class="wikitable floatleft" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Stony asteroid impacts that generate an airburst<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Impactor<br />diameter</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic energy</a> at</th> <th rowspan="2">Airburst<br />altitude</th> <th rowspan="2">Average<br />frequency<br />(years)</th> <th rowspan="2">Recorded fireballs<br />(CNEOS)<br />(1988–2018) </th></tr> <tr> <th>atmospheric<br />entry </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">airburst</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>4 <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">m</a> (13 <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">ft</a>)</td> <td>3 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">kt</a></td> <td>0.75 kt</td> <td>42.5 <a href="/wiki/Kilometre" title="Kilometre">km</a> (139,000 <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">ft</a>)</td> <td>1.3</td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 m (23 ft)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">16 kt</a></td> <td>5 kt</td> <td>36.3 km (119,000 ft)</td> <td>4.6</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 m (33 ft)</td> <td>47 kt</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">19 kt</a></td> <td>31.9 km (105,000 ft)</td> <td>10</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 m (49 ft)</td> <td>159 kt</td> <td><a href="/wiki/W76" title="W76">82 kt</a></td> <td>26.4 km (87,000 ft)</td> <td>27</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_superbolide" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka superbolide"><b>1</b></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>20 m (66 ft)</td> <td>376 kt</td> <td><a href="/wiki/TN_81" title="TN 81">230 kt</a></td> <td>22.4 km (73,000 ft)</td> <td>60</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_meteor" title="Chelyabinsk meteor"><b>1</b></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>30 m (98 ft)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/B83_nuclear_bomb" title="B83 nuclear bomb">1.3</a> <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">Mt</a></td> <td>930 kt</td> <td>16.5 km (54,000 ft)</td> <td>185</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>50 m (160 ft)</td> <td>5.9 Mt</td> <td>5.2 Mt</td> <td>8.7 km (29,000 ft)</td> <td>764</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>70 m (230 ft)</td> <td>16 Mt</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">15.2 Mt</a></td> <td>3.6 km (12,000 ft)</td> <td>1,900</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>85 m (279 ft)</td> <td>29 Mt</td> <td>28 Mt</td> <td>0.58 km (1,900 ft)</td> <td>3,300</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6" style="font-size: 0.9em; font-weight: normal; text-align: left; padding: 6px;">Based on density of 2600 kg/m<sup>3</sup>, speed of 17 km/s, and an impact angle of 45° </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:left; margin-top:0;"> <caption>Stony asteroids that impact sedimentary rock and create a crater<sup id="cite_ref-Earth-impact_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth-impact-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Impactor<br />diameter</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic energy</a> at</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">Crater</a><br />diameter</th> <th rowspan="2">Frequency<br />(years) </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry">atmospheric<br />entry</a> </th> <th>impact </th></tr> <tr> <td>100 <a href="/wiki/Metre" title="Metre">m</a> (330 <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">ft</a>)</td> <td>47 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">Mt</a></td> <td>3.4 Mt</td> <td>1.2 <a href="/wiki/Kilometre" title="Kilometre">km</a> (0.75 <a href="/wiki/Mile" title="Mile">mi</a>)</td> <td>5,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>130 m (430 ft)</td> <td>103 Mt</td> <td>31.4 Mt</td> <td>2 km (1.2 mi)</td> <td>11,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>150 m (490 ft)</td> <td>159 Mt</td> <td>71.5 Mt</td> <td>2.4 km (1.5 mi)</td> <td>16,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>200 m (660 ft)</td> <td>376 Mt</td> <td>261 Mt</td> <td>3 km (1.9 mi)</td> <td>36,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>250 m (820 ft)</td> <td>734 Mt</td> <td>598 Mt</td> <td>3.8 km (2.4 mi)</td> <td>59,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>300 m (980 ft)</td> <td>1270 Mt</td> <td>1110 Mt</td> <td>4.6 km (2.9 mi)</td> <td>73,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>400 m (1,300 ft)</td> <td>3010 Mt</td> <td>2800 Mt</td> <td>6 km (3.7 mi)</td> <td>100,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>700 m (2,300 ft)</td> <td>16100 Mt</td> <td>15700 Mt</td> <td>10 km (6.2 mi)</td> <td>190,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1,000 m (3,300 ft)</td> <td>47000 Mt</td> <td>46300 Mt</td> <td>13.6 km (8.5 mi)</td> <td>440,000 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="font-size: 0.9em; font-weight: normal; text-align: left; padding: 6px;">Based on <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">ρ</a> = 2600 kg/m<sup>3</sup>; <a href="/wiki/Speed" title="Speed">v</a> = 17 km/s; and an angle of 45° </th></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <p>Objects with a diameter less than 1 m (3.3 ft) are called <a href="/wiki/Meteoroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteoroids">meteoroids</a> and seldom make it to the ground to become meteorites. An estimated 500 meteorites reach the surface each year, but only 5 or 6 of these typically create a <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radar</a> signature with a <a href="/wiki/Strewn_field" title="Strewn field">strewn field</a> large enough to be recovered and be made known to scientists. </p><p>The late <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Shoemaker">Eugene Shoemaker</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a> estimated the rate of Earth impacts, concluding that an event about the size of the nuclear weapon that destroyed <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> occurs about once a year.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Such events would seem to be spectacularly obvious, but they generally go unnoticed for a number of reasons: the majority of the Earth's surface is covered by water; a good portion of the land surface is uninhabited; and the explosions generally occur at relatively high altitude, resulting in a huge flash and thunderclap but no real damage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although no human is known to have been killed directly by an impact<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Disputed statement"><span title="This claim has reliable sources with contradicting facts (January 2017)">disputed</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Impact_event#.22Although_no_human_is_known_to_have_been_killed_directly_by_an_impact.22_-_not_true" title="Talk:Impact event">discuss</a></i>]</sup>, over 1000 people were injured by the Chelyabinsk meteor airburst event over Russia in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005 it was estimated that the chance of a single person born today dying due to an impact is around 1 in 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two to four-meter-sized asteroids <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_TC3" title="2008 TC3">2008 TC<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;"><span style="font-size:80%;">3</span></span></a></span>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_AA" title="2014 AA">2014 AA</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/2018_LA" title="2018 LA">2018 LA</a>, <a href="/wiki/2019_MO" title="2019 MO">2019 MO</a>, <a href="/wiki/2022_EB5" title="2022 EB5">2022 EB5</a>, and the suspected artificial satellite <a href="/wiki/WT1190F" title="WT1190F">WT1190F</a> are the only known objects to be detected before impacting the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geological_significance">Geological significance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geological significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Impacts have had, during the history of the Earth, a significant geological and climatic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>'s existence is widely attributed to a <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact hypothesis">huge impact early in Earth's history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nature412_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature412-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impact events earlier in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">history of Earth</a> have been credited with creative as well as destructive events; it has been proposed that impacting comets delivered the Earth's water, and some have suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of life">origins of life</a> may have been influenced by impacting objects by bringing organic chemicals or lifeforms to the Earth's surface, a theory known as <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">exogenesis</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg/170px-Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg/255px-Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg/340px-Eugene_Shoemaker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1794" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Merle_Shoemaker" title="Eugene Merle Shoemaker">Eugene Merle Shoemaker</a> was first to prove that <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> impacts have affected the Earth.</figcaption></figure> <p>These modified views of Earth's history did not emerge until relatively recently, chiefly due to a lack of direct observations and the difficulty in recognizing the signs of an Earth impact because of erosion and weathering. Large-scale terrestrial impacts of the sort that produced the <a href="/wiki/Barringer_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Barringer Crater">Barringer Crater</a>, locally known as <a href="/wiki/Meteor_Crater" title="Meteor Crater">Meteor Crater</a>, east of Flagstaff, Arizona, are rare. Instead, it was widely thought that cratering was the result of <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>: the Barringer Crater, for example, was ascribed to a prehistoric volcanic explosion (not an unreasonable hypothesis, given that the volcanic <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Peaks" title="San Francisco Peaks">San Francisco Peaks</a> stand only 48 km or 30 mi to the west). Similarly, the craters on the surface of the Moon were ascribed to volcanism. </p><p>It was not until 1903–1905 that the Barringer Crater was correctly identified as an impact crater, and it was not until as recently as 1963 that research by <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Merle_Shoemaker" title="Eugene Merle Shoemaker">Eugene Merle Shoemaker</a> conclusively proved this hypothesis. The findings of late 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> and the work of scientists such as Shoemaker demonstrated that impact cratering was by far the most widespread geological process at work on the Solar System's solid bodies. Every surveyed solid body in the Solar System was found to be cratered, and there was no reason to believe that the Earth had somehow escaped bombardment from space. In the last few decades of the 20th century, a large number of highly modified impact craters began to be identified. The first direct observation of a major impact event occurred in 1994: the collision of the <a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9">comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</a> with <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>. </p><p>Based on crater formation rates determined from the Earth's closest celestial partner, the Moon, <a href="/wiki/Astrogeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrogeology">astrogeologists</a> have determined that during the last 600 million years, the Earth has been struck by 60 objects of a diameter of 5 km (3 mi) or more.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2002_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2002-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smallest of these impactors would leave a crater almost 100 km (60 mi) across. Only three confirmed craters from that time period with that size or greater have been found: <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popigai_impact_structure" title="Popigai impact structure">Popigai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manicouagan_Reservoir" title="Manicouagan Reservoir">Manicouagan</a>, and all three have been suspected of being linked to <a href="/wiki/Extinction_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinction events">extinction events</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though only Chicxulub, the largest of the three, has been consistently considered. The impact that caused <a href="/wiki/Mistastin_crater" title="Mistastin crater">Mistastin crater</a> generated temperatures exceeding 2,370 °C, the highest known to have occurred on the surface of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Gizmodo_2017-09-17_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gizmodo_2017-09-17-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the direct effect of asteroid impacts on a planet's surface topography, global climate and life, recent studies have shown that several consecutive impacts might have an effect on the <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamo mechanism">dynamo mechanism</a> at a planet's core responsible for maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_of_celestial_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic field of celestial bodies">magnetic field of the planet</a>, and may have contributed to Mars' lack of current magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An impact event may cause a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plume</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antipodal_hotspot" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipodal hotspot">volcanism</a>) at the <a href="/wiki/Antipodal_point" title="Antipodal point">antipodal point</a> of the impact.<sup id="cite_ref-Hagstrum_2005_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hagstrum_2005-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chicxulub impact may have increased volcanism at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a> <sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been proposed to have triggered <a href="/wiki/Flood-basalt_volcanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood-basalt volcanism">flood basalt volcanism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan Traps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While numerous impact craters have been confirmed on land or in the shallow seas over <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a>, no impact craters in the deep ocean have been widely accepted by the scientific community.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impacts of projectiles as large as one km in diameter are generally thought to explode before reaching the sea floor, but it is unknown what would happen if a much larger impactor struck the deep ocean. The lack of a crater, however, does not mean that an ocean impact would not have dangerous implications for humanity. Some scholars have argued that an impact event in an <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a> may create a <a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a>, which can cause destruction both at sea and on land along the coast,<sup id="cite_ref-GaultEtAl79_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GaultEtAl79-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Melosh03_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Melosh03-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Eltanin_impact" title="Eltanin impact">Eltanin impact</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> 2.5 Mya is thought to involve an object about 1 to 4 kilometres (0.62 to 2.49 mi) across but remains craterless. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biospheric_effects">Biospheric effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biospheric effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effect of impact events on the biosphere has been the subject of scientific debate. Several theories of impact-related mass extinction have been developed. In the past 500 million years there have been five generally accepted major mass extinctions that on average extinguished half of all <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the largest mass extinctions to have affected <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life on Earth</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic</a>, which ended the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> period 250 million years ago and killed off 90 percent of all species;<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> life on Earth took 30 million years to recover.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause of the Permian-Triassic extinction is still a matter of debate; the age and origin of proposed impact craters, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Bedout" title="Bedout">Bedout</a> High structure, hypothesized to be associated with it are still controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-Muller2005_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muller2005-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last such mass extinction led to the demise of the non-avian <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a> and coincided with a large <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> impact; this is the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (also known as the K–T or K–Pg extinction event), which occurred 66 million years ago. There is no definitive evidence of impacts leading to the three other major mass extinctions. </p><p>In 1980, physicist <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a>; his son, geologist <a href="/wiki/Walter_Alvarez" title="Walter Alvarez">Walter Alvarez</a>; and nuclear chemists Frank Asaro and Helen V. Michael from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> discovered unusually high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a> in a specific layer of rock <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> in the Earth's crust. Iridium is an element that is rare on Earth but relatively abundant in many meteorites. From the amount and distribution of iridium present in the 65-million-year-old "iridium layer", the Alvarez team later estimated that an asteroid of 10 to 14 km (6 to 9 mi) must have collided with Earth. This iridium layer at the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a> has been found worldwide at 100 different sites. Multidirectionally <a href="/wiki/Shocked_quartz" title="Shocked quartz">shocked quartz</a> (coesite), which is normally associated with large impact events<sup id="cite_ref-Fulgurite_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fulgurite-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> explosions, has also been found in the same layer at more than 30 sites. <a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ash" class="extiw" title="wikt:ash">ash</a> at levels tens of thousands times normal levels were found with the above. </p><p>Anomalies in chromium isotopic ratios found within the <a href="/wiki/K-T_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="K-T boundary">K-T boundary</a> layer strongly support the impact theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Shukolyukov1998_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shukolyukov1998-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chromium isotopic ratios are homogeneous within the earth, and therefore these isotopic anomalies exclude a volcanic origin, which has also been proposed as a cause for the iridium enrichment. Further, the chromium isotopic ratios measured in the K-T boundary are similar to the chromium isotopic ratios found in <a href="/wiki/Carbonaceous_chondrite" title="Carbonaceous chondrite">carbonaceous chondrites</a>. Thus a probable candidate for the impactor is a carbonaceous asteroid, but a comet is also possible because comets are assumed to consist of material similar to carbonaceous chondrites. </p><p>Probably the most convincing evidence for a worldwide catastrophe was the discovery of the crater which has since been named <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub Crater">Chicxulub Crater</a>. This crater is centered on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and was discovered by Tony Camargo and Glen Penfield while working as <a href="/wiki/Geophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysicist">geophysicists</a> for the Mexican oil company <a href="/wiki/PEMEX" class="mw-redirect" title="PEMEX">PEMEX</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What they reported as a circular feature later turned out to be a crater estimated to be 180 km (110 mi) in diameter. This convinced the vast majority of scientists that this extinction resulted from a point event that is most probably an extraterrestrial impact and not from increased volcanism and climate change (which would spread its main effect over a much longer time period). </p><p>Although there is now general agreement that there was a huge impact at the end of the Cretaceous that led to the iridium enrichment of the K-T boundary layer, remnants have been found of other, smaller impacts, some nearing half the size of the Chicxulub crater, which did not result in any mass extinctions, and there is no clear linkage between an impact and any other incident of mass extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paleontologists <a href="/wiki/David_M._Raup" title="David M. Raup">David M. Raup</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Sepkoski" title="Jack Sepkoski">Jack Sepkoski</a> have proposed that an excess of extinction events occurs roughly every 26 million years (though many are relatively minor). This led physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Muller" title="Richard A. Muller">Richard A. Muller</a> to suggest that these extinctions could be due to a hypothetical companion star to the Sun called <a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis</a> periodically disrupting the orbits of comets in the <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a>, leading to a large increase in the number of comets reaching the inner Solar System where they might hit Earth. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Melott" title="Adrian Melott">Adrian Melott</a> and paleontologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Bambach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Bambach (page does not exist)">Richard Bambach</a> have more recently verified the Raup and Sepkoski finding, but argue that it is not consistent with the characteristics expected of a Nemesis-style periodicity.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociological_and_cultural_effects">Sociological and cultural effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sociological and cultural effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/End_of_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="End of civilization">End of civilization</a></div> <p>An impact event is commonly seen as a scenario that would bring about the <a href="/wiki/End_of_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="End of civilization">end of civilization</a>. In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Discover_(magazine)" title="Discover (magazine)"><i>Discover</i> magazine</a> published a list of 20 possible sudden <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Doomsday event">doomsday scenarios</a> with an impact event listed as the most likely to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A joint <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian magazine">Smithsonian</a></i> survey from April 21 to 26, 2010 found that 31 percent of Americans believed that an asteroid will collide with Earth by 2050. A majority (61 percent) disagreed.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth_impacts">Earth impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Earth impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/220px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/330px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/440px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Artist's depiction of a collision between two planetary bodies. Such an impact between the Earth and a Mars-sized object likely <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact theory">formed the Moon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early history of the Earth (about four billion years ago), bolide impacts were almost certainly common since the Solar System contained far more discrete bodies than at present. Such impacts could have included strikes by asteroids hundreds of kilometers in diameter, with explosions so powerful that they vaporized all the Earth's oceans. It was not until this heavy bombardment slackened that life appears to have begun to evolve on Earth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Precambrian">Precambrian</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Precambrian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The leading theory of the Moon's origin is the giant impact theory, which postulates that Earth was once hit by a <a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">planetoid</a> the size of Mars; such a theory is able to explain the size and composition of the Moon, something not done by other theories of lunar formation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a>, there should have been 22,000 or more impact craters with diameters >20 km (12 mi), about 40 impact basins with diameters about 1,000 km (620 mi), and several impact basins with diameters about 5,000 km (3,100 mi). However, hundreds of millions of years of deformation at the Earth's crust pose significant challenges to conclusively identifying impacts from this period. Only two pieces of pristine <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> are believed to remain from this era: <a href="/wiki/Kaapvaal_Craton" title="Kaapvaal Craton">Kaapvaal Craton</a> (in contemporary South Africa) and <a href="/wiki/Pilbara_Craton" title="Pilbara Craton">Pilbara Craton</a> (in contemporary Western Australia) to search within which may potentially reveal evidence in the form of physical craters. Other methods may be used to identify impacts from this period, for example, indirect gravitational or magnetic analysis of the mantle, but may prove inconclusive. </p><p>In 2021, evidence for a probable impact 3.46 billion-years ago at Pilbara Craton has been found in the form of a 150 kilometres (93 mi) crater created by the impact of a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) asteroid (named "The Apex Asteroid") into the sea at a depth of 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) (near the site of <a href="/wiki/Marble_Bar,_Western_Australia" title="Marble Bar, Western Australia">Marble Bar, Western Australia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Ohmoto_Graham_Liu_Tsukamoto_p._52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohmoto_Graham_Liu_Tsukamoto_p.-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The event caused global tsunamis. It is also coincidental to some of the earliest evidence of life on Earth, fossilized <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolites</a>. </p><p>Evidence for at least 4 impact events have been found in spherule layers (dubbed S1 through S8) from the <a href="/wiki/Barberton_Greenstone_Belt" title="Barberton Greenstone Belt">Barberton Greenstone Belt</a> in South Africa, spanning around 3.5-3.2 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sites of the impacts are thought to have been distant from the location of the belt. The impactors that generated these events are thought to have been much larger than those that created the largest known still existing craters/impact structures on Earth, with the impactors having estimated diameters of ~20–50 kilometres (12–31 mi), with the craters generated by these impacts having an estimated diameter of 400–1,000 kilometres (250–620 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest impacts like those represented by the S2 layer are likely to have had far-reaching effects, such as the boiling of the surface layer of the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-10.1073/pnas.2408721121PNAS_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1073/pnas.2408721121PNAS-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Maniitsoq_structure" title="Maniitsoq structure">Maniitsoq structure</a>, dated to around 3 billion years old (3 Ga), was once thought to be the result of an impact;<sup id="cite_ref-garde_2012_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garde_2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, follow-up studies have not confirmed its nature as an impact structure.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Maniitsoq structure is not recognised as an impact structure by the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Impact_Database" title="Earth Impact Database">Earth Impact Database</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, scientists discovered the world's oldest confirmed impact crater, the <a href="/wiki/Yarrabubba_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarrabubba crater">Yarrabubba crater</a>, caused by an impact that occurred in <a href="/wiki/Yilgarn_Craton" title="Yilgarn Craton">Yilgarn Craton</a> (what is now <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>), dated at more than 2.2 billion years ago with the impactor estimated to be around 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20200121_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20200121-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NC-20200121_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC-20200121-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-erickson_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-erickson-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed that, at this time, the Earth was mostly or completely frozen, commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vredefort_impact_structure" title="Vredefort impact structure">Vredefort impact event</a>, which occurred around 2 billion years ago in <a href="/wiki/Kaapvaal_Craton" title="Kaapvaal Craton">Kaapvaal Craton</a> (what is now <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>), caused the largest verified crater, a multi-ringed structure 160–300 km (100–200 mi) across, forming from an impactor approximately 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-DB_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DB-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-current_record_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-current_record-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Basin" title="Sudbury Basin">Sudbury impact event</a> occurred on the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Nuna supercontinent</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>) from a bolide approximately 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) in diameter approximately 1.849 billion years ago<sup id="cite_ref-Davis_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Debris from the event would have been scattered across the globe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paleozoic_and_Mesozoic">Paleozoic and Mesozoic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Paleozoic and Mesozoic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two 10-kilometre sized (6.2 mi) asteroids are now believed to have struck Australia between 360 and 300 million years ago at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Warburton_Basin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Warburton Basin (page does not exist)">Western Warburton</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Warburton_Basin" title="East Warburton Basin">East Warburton Basins</a>, creating a 400-kilometre impact zone (250 mi). According to evidence found in 2015, it is the largest ever recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Diamantina_River_ring_feature" title="Diamantina River ring feature">third, possible impact</a> was also identified in 2015 to the north, on the upper <a href="/wiki/Diamantina_River" title="Diamantina River">Diamantina River</a>, also believed to have been caused by an asteroid 10 km across about 300 million years ago, but further studies are needed to establish that this crustal anomaly was indeed the result of an impact event.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicxulub-animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chicxulub-animation.gif/220px-Chicxulub-animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chicxulub-animation.gif/330px-Chicxulub-animation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chicxulub-animation.gif/440px-Chicxulub-animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>An animation modelling the impact, and subsequent crater formation of the Chicxulub impact (University of Arizona, Space Imagery Center)</figcaption></figure> <p>The prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater#Impact_specifics" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub impact</a>, 66 million years ago, believed to be the cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, was caused by an asteroid estimated to be about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated76_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated76-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paleogene">Paleogene</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Paleogene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Hiawatha_v45_scene1_4k_5mtopo.1760.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>The Hiawatha impact crater in Greenland is buried under more than a kilometre of ice</figcaption></figure> <p>Analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Hiawatha_Glacier" title="Hiawatha Glacier">Hiawatha Glacier</a> reveals the presence of a 31 km wide impact crater dated at 58 million years of age, less than 10 million years after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, scientists believe that the impactor was a metallic asteroid with a diameter in the order of 1.5 kilometres (0.9 mi). The impact would have had global effects.<sup id="cite_ref-InitialStudy_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InitialStudy-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pleistocene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg/220px-Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg/330px-Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg/440px-Barringer_Crater_aerial_photo_by_USGS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1605" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of <a href="/wiki/Barringer_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Barringer Crater">Barringer Crater</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Stone_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone tools">Artifacts</a> recovered with <a href="/wiki/Tektites" class="mw-redirect" title="Tektites">tektites</a> from the 803,000-year-old <a href="/wiki/Australasian_strewnfield" title="Australasian strewnfield">Australasian strewnfield</a> event in Asia link a <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> population to a significant meteorite impact and its aftermath.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant examples of Pleistocene impacts include the <a href="/wiki/Lonar_crater_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Lonar crater lake">Lonar crater lake</a> in India, approximately 52,000 years old (though a study published in 2010 gives a much greater age), which now has a flourishing semi-tropical jungle around it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Holocene">Holocene</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Holocene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rio_Cuarto_craters" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Cuarto craters">Rio Cuarto craters</a> in Argentina were produced approximately 10,000 years ago, at the beginning of the Holocene. If proved to be impact craters, they would be the first impact of the Holocene. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Campo_del_Cielo" title="Campo del Cielo">Campo del Cielo</a> ("Field of Heaven") refers to an area bordering Argentina's <a href="/wiki/Chaco_Province" title="Chaco Province">Chaco Province</a> where a group of iron meteorites were found, estimated as dating to 4,000–5,000 years ago. It first came to attention of Spanish authorities in 1576; in 2015, police arrested four alleged smugglers trying to steal more than a ton of protected meteorites.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Henbury_craters" class="mw-redirect" title="Henbury craters">Henbury craters</a> in Australia (~5,000 years old) and <a href="/wiki/Kaali_crater" title="Kaali crater">Kaali craters</a> in Estonia (~2,700 years old) were apparently produced by objects that broke up before impact.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Whitecourt_crater" title="Whitecourt crater">Whitecourt crater</a> in Alberta, Canada is estimated to be between 1,080 and 1,130 years old. The crater is approximately 36 m (118 ft) in diameter and 9 m (30 ft) deep, is heavily forested and was discovered in 2007 when a metal detector revealed fragments of meteoric iron scattered around the area.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Chinese record states that 10,000 people were killed in the 1490 <a href="/wiki/Qingyang_event" title="Qingyang event">Qingyang event</a> with the deaths caused by a hail of "falling stones"; some astronomers hypothesize that this may describe an actual meteorite fall, although they find the number of deaths implausible.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kamil_Crater" title="Kamil Crater">Kamil Crater</a>, discovered from <a href="/wiki/Google_Earth" title="Google Earth">Google Earth</a> image review in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, 45 m (148 ft) in diameter and 10 m (33 ft) deep, is thought to have been formed less than 3,500 years ago in a then-unpopulated region of western Egypt. It was found February 19, 2009 by V. de Michelle on a Google Earth image of the East Uweinat Desert, Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="20th-century_impacts">20th-century impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 20th-century impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/220px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/330px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg/440px-Tunguska_Ereignis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Trees knocked over by the <a href="/wiki/Tunguska_event" title="Tunguska event">Tunguska blast</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the best-known recorded impacts in modern times was the Tunguska event, which occurred in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, Russia, in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This incident involved an explosion that was probably caused by the airburst of an asteroid or comet 5 to 10 km (3.1 to 6.2 mi) above the Earth's surface, <a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">felling</a> an estimated 80 million trees over 2,150 km<sup>2</sup> (830 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1947, another large bolide impacted the Earth in the <a href="/wiki/Sikhote-Alin_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikhote-Alin Mountains">Sikhote-Alin Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primorsky_Krai" title="Primorsky Krai">Primorye</a>, Soviet Union. It was during daytime hours and was witnessed by many people, which allowed <a href="/wiki/V._G._Fesenkov" class="mw-redirect" title="V. G. Fesenkov">V. G. Fesenkov</a>, then chairman of the meteorite committee of the USSR Academy of Science, to estimate the meteoroid's orbit before it encountered the Earth. <a href="/wiki/Sikhote-Alin_meteorite" title="Sikhote-Alin meteorite">Sikhote-Alin</a> is a massive fall with the overall size of the <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroid</a> estimated at 90,000 kg (200,000 lb). A more recent estimate by Tsvetkov (and others) puts the mass at around 100,000 kg (220,000 lb).<sup id="cite_ref-metmag_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metmag-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an iron meteorite belonging to the chemical group IIAB and with a coarse octahedrite structure. More than 70 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metric_ton" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric ton">metric tons</a>) of material survived the collision. </p><p>A case of a human injured by a space rock occurred on November 30, 1954, in <a href="/wiki/Sylacauga,_Alabama" title="Sylacauga, Alabama">Sylacauga, Alabama</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There a 4 kg (8.8 lb) stone chondrite crashed through a roof and hit Ann Hodges in her living room after it bounced off her radio. She was badly bruised by the <a href="/wiki/Hodges_Meteorite#Fragments" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodges Meteorite">fragments</a>. Several persons have since claimed to have been struck by "meteorites" but no verifiable meteorites have resulted. </p><p>A small number of <a href="/wiki/Meteorite_fall" title="Meteorite fall">meteorite falls</a> have been observed with automated cameras and recovered following calculation of the impact point. The first was the <a href="/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbram_meteorite" title="Příbram meteorite">Příbram meteorite</a>, which fell in Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, two cameras used to photograph meteors captured images of the fireball. The images were used both to determine the location of the stones on the ground and, more significantly, to calculate for the first time an accurate orbit for a recovered meteorite. </p><p>Following the Příbram fall, other nations established automated observing programs aimed at studying infalling meteorites.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these was the <a href="/wiki/Prairie_Meteorite_Network" title="Prairie Meteorite Network">Prairie Meteorite Network</a>, operated by the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Astrophysical_Observatory" title="Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory">Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory</a> from 1963 to 1975 in the midwestern U.S. This program also observed a meteorite fall, the "Lost City" chondrite, allowing its recovery and a calculation of its orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another program in Canada, the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Project, ran from 1971 to 1985. It too recovered a single meteorite, "Innisfree", in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, observations by the European Fireball Network, a descendant of the original Czech program that recovered Příbram, led to the discovery and orbit calculations for the <a href="/wiki/Neuschwanstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuschwanstein">Neuschwanstein</a> meteorite in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On August 10, 1972, a meteor which became known as the <a href="/wiki/1972_Great_Daylight_Fireball" title="1972 Great Daylight Fireball">1972 Great Daylight Fireball</a> was witnessed by many people as it moved north over the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> from the U.S. Southwest to Canada. It was filmed by a tourist at the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Teton_National_Park" title="Grand Teton National Park">Grand Teton National Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> with an 8-millimeter color movie camera.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In size range the object was roughly between a car and a house, and while it could have ended its life in a Hiroshima-sized blast, there was never any explosion. Analysis of the trajectory indicated that it never came much lower than 58 km (36 mi) off the ground, and the conclusion was that it had grazed Earth's atmosphere for about 100 seconds, then skipped back out of the atmosphere to return to its orbit around the Sun. </p><p>Many impact events occur without being observed by anyone on the ground. Between 1975 and 1992, American missile <a href="/wiki/Early_warning_satellite" title="Early warning satellite">early warning satellites</a> picked up 136 major explosions in the upper atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the November 21, 2002, edition of the journal <i>Nature</i>, Peter Brown of the University of Western Ontario reported on his study of U.S. early warning satellite records for the preceding eight years. He identified 300 flashes caused by 1 to 10 m (3 to 33 ft) meteors in that time period and estimated the rate of Tunguska-sized events as once in 400 years.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Shoemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Shoemaker">Eugene Shoemaker</a> estimated that an event of such magnitude occurs about once every 300 years, though more recent analyses have suggested he may have overestimated by an order of magnitude. </p><p>In the dark morning hours of January 18, 2000, a <a href="/wiki/Tagish_Lake_(meteorite)" title="Tagish Lake (meteorite)">fireball</a> exploded over the city of <a href="/wiki/Whitehorse,_Yukon_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitehorse, Yukon Territory">Whitehorse, Yukon Territory</a> at an altitude of about 26 km (16 mi), lighting up the night like day. The meteor that produced the fireball was estimated to be about 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter, with a weight of 180 tonnes. This blast was also featured on the Science Channel series <i>Killer Asteroids</i>, with several witness reports from residents in <a href="/wiki/Atlin,_British_Columbia" title="Atlin, British Columbia">Atlin, British Columbia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="21st-century_impacts">21st-century impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 21st-century impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_bolides" title="List of bolides">List of bolides</a></div> <p>On 7 June 2006, a meteor was observed striking a location in the <a href="/wiki/Reisadalen" title="Reisadalen">Reisadalen</a> valley in <a href="/wiki/Nordreisa_Municipality" title="Nordreisa Municipality">Nordreisa Municipality</a> in <a href="/wiki/Troms" title="Troms">Troms</a> County, Norway. Although initial witness reports stated that the resultant fireball was equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">the Hiroshima nuclear explosion</a>, scientific analysis places the force of the blast at anywhere from 100 to 500 <a href="/wiki/Tonne#Use_of_mass_as_proxy_for_energy" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> TNT equivalent, around three percent of Hiroshima's yield.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 September 2007, a chondritic <a href="/wiki/Carancas_impact_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Carancas impact event">meteor crashed near the village of Carancas</a> in southeastern Peru near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Titicaca" title="Lake Titicaca">Lake Titicaca</a>, leaving a water-filled hole and spewing gases across the surrounding area. Many residents became ill, apparently from the noxious gases shortly after the impact. </p><p>On 7 October 2008, an approximately 4 meter asteroid labeled <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_TC3" title="2008 TC3">2008 TC<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;"><span style="font-size:80%;">3</span></span></a></span> was tracked for 20 hours as it approached Earth and as it fell through the atmosphere and impacted in Sudan. This was the first time an object was detected before it reached the atmosphere and hundreds of pieces of the meteorite were recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_Desert" title="Nubian Desert">Nubian Desert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg/220px-Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg/330px-Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg/440px-Chelyabinsk_meteor_trace_15-02-2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Trail left by the exploding Chelyabinsk meteor as it passed over the city.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 15 February 2013, an asteroid entered Earth's atmosphere over <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Bolide" title="Bolide">fireball</a> and exploded above the city of <a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk" title="Chelyabinsk">Chelyabinsk</a> during its passage through the <a href="/wiki/Ural_(region)" title="Ural (region)">Ural Mountains region</a> at 09:13 <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg_Time" title="Yekaterinburg Time">YEKT</a> (03:13 <a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-meteor_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meteor-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The object's air burst occurred at an altitude between 30 and 50 km (19 and 31 mi) above the ground,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and about 1,500 people were injured, mainly by broken window glass shattered by the shock wave. Two were reported in serious condition; however, there were no fatalities.<sup id="cite_ref-chelyabinsk_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chelyabinsk-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially some 3,000 buildings in six cities across the region were reported damaged due to the explosion's shock wave, a figure which rose to over 7,200 in the following weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chelyabinsk meteor was estimated to have caused over $30 million in damage.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RBTH-23513_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RBTH-23513-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the largest recorded object to have encountered the Earth since the 1908 Tunguska event.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meteor is estimated to have an initial diameter of 17–20 metres and a mass of roughly 10,000 tonnes. On 16 October 2013, a team from Ural Federal University led by Victor Grokhovsky recovered a large fragment of the meteor from the bottom of Russia's Lake Chebarkul, about 80 km west of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 January 2014, a 3-meter (10 foot) asteroid, <a href="/wiki/2014_AA" title="2014 AA">2014 AA</a> was discovered by the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lemmon_Survey" title="Mount Lemmon Survey">Mount Lemmon Survey</a> and observed over the next hour, and was soon found to be on a collision course with Earth. The exact location was uncertain, constrained to a line between <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, the central Atlantic Ocean, <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a>, and Ethiopia. Around roughly the time expected (2 January 3:06 UTC) an infrasound burst was detected near the center of the impact range, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Farnocchia2016_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnocchia2016-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marcos2016_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marcos2016-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marks the second time a natural object was identified prior to impacting earth after 2008 TC3. </p><p>Nearly two years later, on October 3, <a href="/wiki/WT1190F" title="WT1190F">WT1190F</a> was detected orbiting Earth on a highly eccentric orbit, taking it from well within the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric satellite ring</a> to nearly twice the orbit of the Moon. It was estimated to be perturbed by the Moon onto a collision course with Earth on November 13. With over a month of observations, as well as precovery observations found dating back to 2009, it was found to be far less dense than a natural asteroid should be, suggesting that it was most likely an unidentified artificial satellite. As predicted, it fell over <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> at 6:18 UTC (11:48 local time). The sky in the region was very overcast, so only an airborne observation team was able to successfully observe it falling above the clouds. It is now thought to be a remnant of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Prospector" title="Lunar Prospector">Lunar Prospector</a> mission in 1998, and is the third time any previously unknown object – natural or artificial – was identified prior to impact. </p><p>On 22 January 2018, an object, <a href="/wiki/A106fgF" class="mw-redirect" title="A106fgF">A106fgF</a>, was discovered by the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_Terrestrial-impact_Last_Alert_System" title="Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System">Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System</a> (ATLAS) and identified as having a small chance of impacting Earth later that day.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As it was very dim, and only identified hours before its approach, no more than the initial 4 observations covering a 39-minute period were made of the object. It is unknown if it impacted Earth or not, but no fireball was detected in either infrared or infrasound, so if it did, it would have been very small, and likely near the eastern end of its potential impact area – in the western Pacific Ocean. </p><p>On 2 June 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lemmon_Survey" title="Mount Lemmon Survey">Mount Lemmon Survey</a> detected <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2018_LA" title="2018 LA">2018 LA</a></span> (ZLAF9B2), a small 2–5 meter asteroid which further observations soon found had an 85% chance of impacting Earth. Soon after the impact, a fireball report from <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> arrived to the <a href="/wiki/American_Meteor_Society" title="American Meteor Society">American Meteor Society</a>. Further observations with ATLAS extended the observation arc from 1 hour to 4 hours and confirmed that the asteroid orbit indeed impacted Earth in southern Africa, fully closing the loop with the fireball report and making this the third natural object confirmed to impact Earth, and the second on land after <span class="nowrap">2008 TC<sub>3</sub></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-orientation_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orientation-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pre-impact2_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pre-impact2-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-excess_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-excess-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 8 March 2019, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> announced the detection of a large airburst that occurred on 18 December 2018 at 11:48 local time off the eastern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka Peninsula</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_superbolide" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka superbolide">Kamchatka superbolide</a> is estimated to have had a mass of roughly 1600 tons, and a diameter of 9 to 14 meters depending on its density, making it the third largest asteroid to impact Earth since 1900, after the Chelyabinsk meteor and the Tunguska event. The fireball exploded in an airburst 25.6 kilometres (15.9 mi) above Earth's surface. </p><p><a href="/wiki/2019_MO" title="2019 MO">2019 MO</a>, an approximately 4m asteroid, was detected by <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_Terrestrial-impact_Last_Alert_System" title="Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System">ATLAS</a> a few hours before it impacted the Caribbean Sea near Puerto Rico in June 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, a small meteorite is believed to have crashed through the roof of a home in Trenton, New Jersey. The metallic rock was approximately 4 inches by 6 inches and weighed 4 pounds. The item was seized by police and tested for radioactivity.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The object was later confirmed to be a meteorite by scientists at The College of New Jersey, as well as meteorite expert Jerry Delaney, who previously worked at Rutgers University and the American Museum of Natural History.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Asteroid_impact_prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Asteroid impact prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2018_LA-orbit.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2018_LA-orbit.png/250px-2018_LA-orbit.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2018_LA-orbit.png/375px-2018_LA-orbit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/2018_LA-orbit.png/500px-2018_LA-orbit.png 2x" data-file-width="2873" data-file-height="3017" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">Orbit</a> and positions of <a href="/wiki/2018_LA" title="2018 LA">2018 LA</a> and Earth, 30 days before impact. The diagram illustrates how orbit data can be used to predict impacts well in advance. Note that in this particular instance the asteroid's orbit was not known until a few hours before impact. The diagram was constructed afterwards for illustration.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 20th and early 21st century scientists put in place measures to detect <a href="/wiki/Near_Earth_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Near Earth object">Near Earth objects</a>, and predict the dates and times of <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a> impacting Earth, along with the locations at which they will impact. The <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a> <a href="/wiki/Minor_Planet_Center" title="Minor Planet Center">Minor Planet Center</a> (MPC) is the global clearing house for information on asteroid orbits. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sentry_(monitoring_system)" title="Sentry (monitoring system)">Sentry System</a> continually scans the MPC catalog of known asteroids, analyzing their orbits for any possible future impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently none are predicted (the single highest probability impact currently listed is ~7 m asteroid <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2010_RF12" title="2010 RF12">2010 RF<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;"><span style="font-size:80%;">12</span></span></a></span>, which is due to pass earth in September 2095 with only a 5% predicted chance of impacting).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently prediction is mainly based on cataloging <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a> years before they are due to impact. This works well for larger asteroids (> 1 <a href="/wiki/Kilometre" title="Kilometre">km</a> across) as they are easily seen from a long distance. Over 95% of them are already known and their <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a> have been measured, so any future impacts can be predicted long before they are on their final approach to Earth. Smaller objects are too faint to observe except when they come very close and so most cannot be observed before their final approach. Current mechanisms for detecting asteroids on final approach rely on wide-field ground based <a href="/wiki/Telescopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Telescopes">telescopes</a>, such as the ATLAS system. However, current telescopes only cover part of the Earth and even more importantly cannot detect asteroids on the day-side of the planet, which is why so few of the smaller asteroids that commonly impact Earth are detected during the few hours that they would be visible.<sup id="cite_ref-JPL-2017-SDT-Update_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JPL-2017-SDT-Update-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So far only four impact events have been successfully predicted, all from innocuous 2–5 m diameter asteroids and detected a few hours in advance. </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:508px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ground based telescopes can only detect objects approaching on the night-side of the planet, away from the Sun. Roughly half of impacts occur on the day-side of the planet."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/500px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/750px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg/1000px-SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1519" data-file-height="1064" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg" title="File:SmallAsteroidImpacts-Frequency-Bolide-20141114.jpg"> </a></div>Ground based telescopes can only detect objects approaching on the night-side of the planet, away from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. Roughly half of impacts occur on the day-side of the planet.</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_response_status">Current response status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Current response status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></div> <p>In April 2018, the <a href="/wiki/B612_Foundation" title="B612 Foundation">B612 Foundation</a> reported "It's 100 per cent certain we’ll be hit [by a devastating asteroid], but we're not 100 per cent certain when."<sup id="cite_ref-INQ-20180428_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INQ-20180428-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 2018, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, in his final book <i><a href="/wiki/Brief_Answers_to_the_Big_Questions_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brief Answers to the Big Questions (book)">Brief Answers to the Big Questions</a></i>, considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-WP-20181015_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-20181015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-QZ-20181014_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QZ-20181014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2018, the US National Science and Technology Council warned that America is unprepared for an <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">asteroid impact event</a>, and has developed and released the <i>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/National-Near-Earth-Object-Preparedness-Strategy-and-Action-Plan-23-pages-1MB.pdf">National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan</a>"</i> to better prepare.<sup id="cite_ref-WH-20180621_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WH-20180621-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GIZ-20180621_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GIZ-20180621-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ICARUS-220180522_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICARUS-220180522-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20180614_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180614-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20180614c_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180614c-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> would require at least five years of preparation to launch a mission to intercept an asteroid.<sup id="cite_ref-US-Congress-20130410_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US-Congress-20130410-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The preferred method is to deflect rather than disrupt an asteroid.<sup id="cite_ref-PHYS-20190304_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PHYS-20190304-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ICRS-20190315_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICRS-20190315-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20190308_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20190308-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elsewhere_in_the_Solar_System">Elsewhere in the Solar System</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Elsewhere in the Solar System"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence_of_massive_past_impact_events">Evidence of massive past impact events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Evidence of massive past impact events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg/220px-Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg/330px-Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg/440px-Aitken_Kagu_big.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption>Topographical map of the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole%E2%80%93Aitken_basin" title="South Pole–Aitken basin">South Pole–Aitken basin</a> based on <a href="/wiki/SELENE" title="SELENE">Kaguya</a> data provides evidence of a massive impact event on the Moon some 4.3 billion years ago</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_craters_in_the_Solar_System" title="List of largest craters in the Solar System">List of largest craters in the Solar System</a></div> <p>Impact craters provide evidence of past impacts on other planets in the Solar System, including possible interplanetary terrestrial impacts. Without carbon dating, other points of reference are used to estimate the timing of these impact events. Mars provides some significant evidence of possible interplanetary collisions. The <a href="/wiki/North_Polar_Basin_(Mars)" title="North Polar Basin (Mars)">North Polar Basin</a> on Mars is speculated by some to be evidence for a planet-sized impact on the surface of Mars between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years ago, while <a href="/wiki/Utopia_Planitia" title="Utopia Planitia">Utopia Planitia</a> is the largest confirmed impact and <a href="/wiki/Hellas_Planitia" title="Hellas Planitia">Hellas Planitia</a> is the largest visible crater in the Solar System. The Moon provides similar evidence of massive impacts, with the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole%E2%80%93Aitken_basin" title="South Pole–Aitken basin">South Pole–Aitken basin</a> being the biggest. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Caloris_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Caloris Basin">Caloris Basin</a> is another example of a crater formed by a massive impact event. <a href="/wiki/Rheasilvia" title="Rheasilvia">Rheasilvia</a> on <a href="/wiki/4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">Vesta</a> is an example of a crater formed by an impact capable of, based on ratio of impact to size, severely deforming a planetary-mass object. Impact craters on the <a href="/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn" title="Moons of Saturn">moons of Saturn</a> such as Engelier and Gerin on <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)" title="Iapetus (moon)">Iapetus</a>, Mamaldi on <a href="/wiki/Rhea_(moon)" title="Rhea (moon)">Rhea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odysseus_(crater)" title="Odysseus (crater)">Odysseus</a> on <a href="/wiki/Tethys_(moon)" title="Tethys (moon)">Tethys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herschel_(Mimantean_crater)" title="Herschel (Mimantean crater)">Herschel</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mimas_(moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimas (moon)">Mimas</a> form significant surface features. Models developed in 2018 to explain the unusual spin of <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> support a long-held hypothesis that this was caused by an oblique collision with a massive object twice the size of Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-KegerreisTeodoro2018_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KegerreisTeodoro2018-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observed_events">Observed events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Observed events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jupiter">Jupiter</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Jupiter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png/220px-Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png/330px-Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png/440px-Impact_site_of_fragment_G.png 2x" data-file-width="4315" data-file-height="2544" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</a>'s scar on Jupiter (dark area near Jupiter's <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/limb#Etymology_2" class="extiw" title="wikt:limb">limb</a>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Jupiter" title="Impact events on Jupiter">Impact events on Jupiter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jupiter_events" title="List of Jupiter events">List of Jupiter events</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> is the most massive planet in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, and because of its large mass it has a vast sphere of gravitational influence, the region of space where an <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_capture" title="Asteroid capture">asteroid capture</a> can take place under favorable conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jupiter is able to capture <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a> in orbit around the Sun with a certain frequency. In general, these comets travel some revolutions around the planet following unstable orbits as highly elliptical and perturbable by solar gravity. While some of them eventually recover a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_orbit" title="Heliocentric orbit">heliocentric orbit</a>, others crash on the planet or, more rarely, on its satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the mass factor, its relative proximity to the inner solar system allows Jupiter to influence the distribution of minor bodies there. For a long time it was believed that these characteristics led the gas giant to expel from the system or to attract most of the wandering objects in its vicinity and, consequently, to determine a reduction in the number of potentially dangerous objects for the Earth. Subsequent dynamic studies have shown that in reality the situation is more complex: the presence of Jupiter, in fact, tends to reduce the frequency of impact on the Earth of objects coming from the <a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while it increases it in the case of asteroids<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and short period comets.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For this reason Jupiter is the planet of the Solar System characterized by the highest frequency of impacts, which justifies its reputation as the "sweeper" or "cosmic vacuum cleaner" of the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-Overbye_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Overbye-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 2009 studies suggest an impact frequency of one every 50–350 years, for an object of 0.5–1 km in diameter; impacts with smaller objects would occur more frequently. Another study estimated that comets 0.3 km (0.19 mi) in diameter impact the planet once in approximately 500 years and those 1.6 km (0.99 mi) in diameter do so just once in every 6,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1994, <a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9" title="Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9</a> was a comet that broke apart and collided with Jupiter, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA2005_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA2005-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The event served as a "wake-up call", and astronomers responded by starting programs such as <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Near-Earth_Asteroid_Research" title="Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research">Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research</a> (LINEAR), <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Asteroid_Tracking" title="Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking">Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking</a> (NEAT), <a href="/wiki/Lowell_Observatory_Near-Earth_Object_Search" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search">Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search</a> (LONEOS) and several others which have drastically increased the rate of asteroid discovery. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_2009_impact_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter 2009 impact event">2009 impact event</a> happened on July 19 when a new black spot about the size of Earth was discovered in Jupiter's southern hemisphere by <a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">amateur astronomer</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wesley" title="Anthony Wesley">Anthony Wesley</a>. Thermal infrared analysis showed it was warm and spectroscopic methods detected ammonia. <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">JPL</a> scientists confirmed that there was another impact event on Jupiter, probably involving a small undiscovered comet or other icy body.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impactor is estimated to have been about 200–500 meters in diameter. </p><p>Later minor impacts were observed by amateur astronomers in 2010, 2012, 2016, and 2017; one impact was observed by <i><a href="/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)" title="Juno (spacecraft)">Juno</a></i> in 2020. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_impacts">Other impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Mars" title="Impact events on Mars">Impact events on Mars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg/220px-Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="382" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg/330px-Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg/440px-Asteroid_Collision_Hubble.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1706" data-file-height="2965" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wide_Field_Camera_3" title="Wide Field Camera 3">Wide Field Camera 3</a> clearly shows the slow evolution of the debris coming from asteroid <a href="/wiki/P/2010_A2" class="mw-redirect" title="P/2010 A2">P/2010 A2</a>, assumed to be due to a collision with a smaller asteroid.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1998, two comets were observed plunging toward the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> in close succession. The first of these was on June 1 and the second the next day. A video of this, followed by a dramatic ejection of solar gas (unrelated to the impacts), can be found at the NASA<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> website. Both of these comets evaporated before coming into contact with the surface of the Sun. According to a theory by NASA <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> scientist <a href="/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_Sekanina" class="mw-redirect" title="Zdeněk Sekanina">Zdeněk Sekanina</a>, the latest impactor to actually make contact with the Sun was the "supercomet" <a href="/wiki/Comet_Howard-Koomen-Michels" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet Howard-Koomen-Michels">Howard-Koomen-Michels</a> on August 30, 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (February 2017)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup> (See also <a href="/wiki/Sungrazer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sungrazer">sungrazer</a>.) </p><p>In 2010, between January and May, <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a>'s Wide Field Camera 3<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> took images of an unusual X shape originated in the aftermath of the collision between asteroid <a href="/wiki/P/2010_A2" class="mw-redirect" title="P/2010 A2">P/2010 A2</a> with a smaller <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a>. </p><p>Around March 27, 2012, based on evidence, there were signs of an impact on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>. Images from the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a> provide compelling evidence of the largest impact observed to date on Mars in the form of fresh craters, the largest measuring 48.5 by 43.5 meters. It is estimated to be caused by an impactor 3 to 5 meters long.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 19, 2013, an impact occurred on the Moon that was visible from Earth, when a boulder-sized 30 cm meteoroid slammed into the lunar surface at 90,000 km/h (25 km/s; 56,000 mph) creating a 20-meter crater.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NASA has actively monitored lunar impacts since 2005,<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tracking hundreds of candidate events.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 18 September 2021 an impact event on Mars formed a cluster of craters, the largest being 130m in diameter. On 24 December 2021 an impact created a 150m-wide crater. Debris was ejected up to 35 km (19 miles) from the impact site.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extrasolar_impacts">Extrasolar impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Extrasolar impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg/220px-PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg/330px-PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg/440px-PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4005" data-file-height="2253" /></a><figcaption>Asteroid collision led to the building of planets near star <a href="/wiki/NGC_2547" title="NGC 2547">NGC 2547</a>-ID8 (artist concept).</figcaption></figure> <p>Collisions between galaxies, or <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_merger" title="Galaxy merger">galaxy mergers</a>, have been observed directly by space telescopes such as Hubble and Spitzer. However, collisions in planetary systems including <a href="/wiki/Stellar_collisions" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar collisions">stellar collisions</a>, while long speculated, have only recently begun to be observed directly. </p><p>In 2013, an impact between minor planets was detected around the star NGC 2547 ID 8 by Spitzer and confirmed by ground observations. Computer modelling suggests that the impact involved large asteroids or <a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">protoplanets</a> similar to the events believed to have led to the formation of terrestrial planets like the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-space.com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_capture" title="Asteroid capture">Asteroid capture</a> – Orbital insertion of an asteroid around a larger planetary body</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a> – Methods to prevent destructive asteroid hits</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroids_in_fiction" title="Asteroids in fiction">Asteroids in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B612_Foundation" title="B612 Foundation">B612 Foundation</a> – Planetary defense nonprofit organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central-peak_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Central-peak crater">Central-peak crater</a> – Large impact craters with uplifted centres<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Impact_Database" title="Earth Impact Database">Earth Impact Database</a> – Database of impact structures on Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a> – Hypothetical global-scale disaster risk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_events_in_fiction" title="Impact events in fiction">Impact events in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_gardening" title="Impact gardening">Impact gardening</a> – Effects of astronomic impacts on crusts of moons and planets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a> – Hypothesized astronomical event</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bolides" title="List of bolides">List of bolides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_on_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="List of impact craters on Earth">List of impact craters on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possible_impact_structures_on_Earth" title="List of possible impact structures on Earth">List of possible impact structures on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_air_burst" title="Meteor air burst">Meteor air burst</a> – Atmospheric explosion of a meteor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-Earth asteroids">Near-Earth asteroids</a> – Small Solar System body with an orbit that can bring it close to Earth<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a> – Small Solar System body with an orbit that can bring it close to Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Object_Camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-Earth Object Camera">Near-Earth Object Camera</a> – Space-based infrared telescope<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palermo_Technical_Impact_Hazard_Scale" title="Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale">Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale</a> – Logarithmic scale in astronomy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-STARRS" title="Pan-STARRS">Pan-STARRS</a> – Multi-telescope astronomical survey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_ring_(crater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak ring (crater)">Peak ring (crater)</a> – Roughly circular ring or plateau, possibly discontinuous, surrounding an impact crater's center<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> – Hazardous near-Earth asteroid or comet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceguard" title="Spaceguard">Spaceguard</a> – Efforts to study asteroids that might impact Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torino_scale" title="Torino scale">Torino scale</a> – Measure for the hazard from asteroids and comets, 0 to 10</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em ;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Rumpf_3433–3440-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rumpf_3433–3440_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rumpf_3433–3440_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Nasa+space+probes+document+big+impacts+on+Mars&rft.date=2022-10-27&rft.aulast=Amos&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-63418056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlvarezAlvarezAsaroMichel1980" class="citation cs2">Alvarez, L. W.; Alvarez, W.; Asaro, F.; Michel, H. V. (1980), "Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction", <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>, <b>208</b> (4448): 1095–1108, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980Sci...208.1095A">1980Sci...208.1095A</a>, <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.126.8496">10.1.1.126.8496</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.208.4448.1095">10.1126/science.208.4448.1095</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17783054">17783054</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16017767">16017767</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Extraterrestrial+Cause+for+the+Cretaceous-Tertiary+Extinction&rft.volume=208&rft.issue=4448&rft.pages=1095-1108&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16017767%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980Sci...208.1095A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.126.8496%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17783054&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.208.4448.1095&rft.aulast=Alvarez&rft.aufirst=L.+W.&rft.au=Alvarez%2C+W.&rft.au=Asaro%2C+F.&rft.au=Michel%2C+H.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton2003" class="citation cs2">Benton, Michael J. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whenlifenearlydi00bent"><i>When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time</i></a>, New York: Thames and Hudson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0500051160" title="Special:BookSources/978-0500051160"><bdi>978-0500051160</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Life+Nearly+Died%3A+The+Greatest+Mass+Extinction+of+All+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0500051160&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhenlifenearlydi00bent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownAssinkAstizBlaauw2013" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, P. G.; Assink, J. D.; Astiz, L.; Blaauw, R.; Boslough, M. B.; Borovička, J.; Brachet, N.; Brown, D.; Campbell-Brown, M.; Ceranna, L.; Cooke, W.; de Groot-Hedlin, C.; Drob, D. P.; Edwards, W.; Evers, L. G.; Garces, M.; Gill, J.; Hedlin, M.; Kingery, A.; Laske, G.; Le Pichon, A.; Mialle, P.; Moser, D. E.; Saffer, A.; Silber, E.; Smets, P.; Spalding, R. E.; Spurný, P.; Tagliaferri, E.; et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3A02a22da9-f92f-4bec-bfb8-c3d9192a8ef5/datastream/OBJ/download">"A 500-kiloton airburst over Chelyabinsk and an enhanced hazard from small impactors"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>503</b> (7475): 238–241. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Natur.503..238B">2013Natur.503..238B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12741">10.1038/nature12741</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F33201">10125/33201</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24196713">24196713</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4450349">4450349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+500-kiloton+airburst+over+Chelyabinsk+and+an+enhanced+hazard+from+small+impactors&rft.volume=503&rft.issue=7475&rft.pages=238-241&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F33201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4450349%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Natur.503..238B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24196713&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature12741&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=P.+G.&rft.au=Assink%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Astiz%2C+L.&rft.au=Blaauw%2C+R.&rft.au=Boslough%2C+M.+B.&rft.au=Borovi%C4%8Dka%2C+J.&rft.au=Brachet%2C+N.&rft.au=Brown%2C+D.&rft.au=Campbell-Brown%2C+M.&rft.au=Ceranna%2C+L.&rft.au=Cooke%2C+W.&rft.au=de+Groot-Hedlin%2C+C.&rft.au=Drob%2C+D.+P.&rft.au=Edwards%2C+W.&rft.au=Evers%2C+L.+G.&rft.au=Garces%2C+M.&rft.au=Gill%2C+J.&rft.au=Hedlin%2C+M.&rft.au=Kingery%2C+A.&rft.au=Laske%2C+G.&rft.au=Le+Pichon%2C+A.&rft.au=Mialle%2C+P.&rft.au=Moser%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Saffer%2C+A.&rft.au=Silber%2C+E.&rft.au=Smets%2C+P.&rft.au=Spalding%2C+R.+E.&rft.au=Spurn%C3%BD%2C+P.&rft.au=Tagliaferri%2C+E.&rft.au=Uren%2C+D.&rft.au=Weryk%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+R.&rft.au=Krzeminski%2C+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.tudelft.nl%2Fislandora%2Fobject%2Fuuid%253A02a22da9-f92f-4bec-bfb8-c3d9192a8ef5%2Fdatastream%2FOBJ%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmitHertogen1980" class="citation cs2">Smit, J.; Hertogen, J. (1980), "An extraterrestrial event at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary", <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, <b>285</b> (5762): 198–200, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980Natur.285..198S">1980Natur.285..198S</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F285198a0">10.1038/285198a0</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4339429">4339429</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+extraterrestrial+event+at+the+Cretaceous-Tertiary+boundary&rft.volume=285&rft.issue=5762&rft.pages=198-200&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4339429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F285198a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980Natur.285..198S&rft.aulast=Smit&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Hertogen%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2008" class="citation cs2">Stone, R. (August 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080718082921/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/08/earth-scars/stone-text">"Target earth"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Magazine">National Geographic Magazine</a></i>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/08/earth-scars/stone-text">the original</a> on 18 July 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Magazine&rft.atitle=Target+earth&rft.date=2008-08&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fngm.nationalgeographic.com%2F2008%2F08%2Fearth-scars%2Fstone-text&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYauWeissmanYeomans1994" class="citation journal cs1">Yau, Kevin; Weissman, Paul; Yeomans, Donald (1994). "Meteorite falls in China and some related human casualty events". <i><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteoritics (journal)">Meteoritics</a></i>. <b>29</b> (6): 864–871. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Metic..29..864Y">1994Metic..29..864Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1945-5100.1994.tb01101.x">10.1111/j.1945-5100.1994.tb01101.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-1114">0026-1114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Meteoritics&rft.atitle=Meteorite+falls+in+China+and+some+related+human+casualty+events&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=864-871&rft.date=1994&rft.issn=0026-1114&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1945-5100.1994.tb01101.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Metic..29..864Y&rft.aulast=Yau&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Weissman%2C+Paul&rft.au=Yeomans%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImpact+event" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Impact_event&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_impact_events" title="Template:Modern impact events"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modern_impact_events" title="Template talk:Modern impact events"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modern_impact_events" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modern impact events"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Modern_impact_events" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern impact events</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">On Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Pre-2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1490 <a href="/wiki/Qingyang_event" title="Qingyang event">Qingyang</a></li> <li>1783 <a href="/wiki/1783_Great_Meteor" title="1783 Great Meteor">Great Meteor</a></li> <li>1860 <a href="/wiki/1860_Great_Meteor" title="1860 Great Meteor">Great Meteor</a></li> <li>1908 <a href="/wiki/Tunguska_event" title="Tunguska event">Tunguska</a></li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/1913_Great_Meteor_Procession" title="1913 Great Meteor Procession">Great Meteor Procession</a></li> <li>1930 <a href="/wiki/1930_Curu%C3%A7%C3%A1_River_event" title="1930 Curuçá River event">Curuçá River</a></li> <li>1938 <a href="/wiki/Chicora_meteor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicora meteor">Chicora meteor</a></li> <li>1947 <a href="/wiki/Sikhote-Alin_meteorite" title="Sikhote-Alin meteorite">Sikhote-Alin meteor</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Murchison_meteorite" title="Murchison meteorite">Murchison meteor</a></li> <li>1972 <a href="/wiki/1972_Great_Daylight_Fireball" title="1972 Great Daylight Fireball">Great Daylight Fireball</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Earth-grazing_meteoroid_of_13_October_1990" title="Earth-grazing meteoroid of 13 October 1990">Earth-grazing meteoroid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Post-2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002_Eastern_Mediterranean_event" title="2002 Eastern Mediterranean event">2002 Eastern Mediterranean event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Carancas_impact_event" title="2007 Carancas impact event">2007 Carancas impact event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_TC3" title="2008 TC3"><span class="nowrap">2008 TC<sub>3</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li>2008 <a href="/wiki/Buzzard_Coulee_meteorite" title="Buzzard Coulee meteorite">Buzzard Coulee meteor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Sulawesi_superbolide" title="2009 Sulawesi superbolide">2009 Sulawesi superbolide</a></li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/Sutter%27s_Mill_meteorite" title="Sutter's Mill meteorite">Sutter's Mill meteor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_United_Kingdom_meteoroid" title="2012 United Kingdom meteoroid">2012 United Kingdom meteoroid</a></li> <li>2012 <a href="/wiki/Novato_meteorite" title="Novato meteorite">Novato meteor</a></li> <li>2013 <a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_meteor" title="Chelyabinsk meteor">Chelyabinsk meteor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_meteorite" title="Chelyabinsk meteorite">Chelyabinsk meteorite</a></li></ul></li> <li>2013 <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig_meteorite" title="Braunschweig meteorite">Braunschweig meteor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_AA" title="2014 AA">2014 AA impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Ontario_fireball" title="2014 Ontario fireball">2014 Ontario fireball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Kerala_meteoroid" title="2015 Kerala meteoroid">2015 Kerala meteoroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Thailand_bolide" title="2015 Thailand bolide">2015 Thailand bolide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WT1190F" title="WT1190F">WT1190F impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_China_bolide" title="2017 China bolide">2017 China bolide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_LA" title="2018 LA">2018 LA impact</a></li> <li>2018 <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_meteor" title="Kamchatka meteor">Kamchatka meteor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_MO" title="2019 MO">2019 MO impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_China_bolide" title="2020 China bolide">2020 China bolide</a></li> <li>2021 <a href="/wiki/Winchcombe_meteorite" title="Winchcombe meteorite">Winchcombe meteor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_EB5" title="2022 EB5"><span class="nowrap">2022 EB<sub>5</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_WJ1" title="2022 WJ1"><span class="nowrap">2022 WJ<sub>1</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_CX1" title="2023 CX1"><span class="nowrap">2023 CX<sub>1</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_BX1" title="2024 BX1"><span class="nowrap">2024 BX<sub>1</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_RW1" title="2024 RW1"><span class="nowrap">2024 RW<sub>1</sub></span> impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_UQ" title="2024 UQ">2024 UQ impact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">On <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Mars" title="Impact events on Mars">Impact events on Mars</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">On <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impact_events_on_Jupiter" title="Impact events on Jupiter">Impact events on Jupiter</a></li> <li>1994 <a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9" title="Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9</a></li> <li>2009 <a href="/wiki/2009_Jupiter_impact_event" title="2009 Jupiter impact event">Jupiter impact</a></li> <li>2010 <a href="/wiki/2010_Jupiter_impact_event" title="2010 Jupiter impact event">Jupiter impact</a></li> <li>2016 <a href="/wiki/2016_Jupiter_impact_event" title="2016 Jupiter impact event">Jupiter impact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_predicted_asteroid_impacts_on_Earth" title="List of predicted asteroid impacts on Earth">Predicted asteroid impacts on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_asteroid_close_approaches_to_Earth" title="List of asteroid close approaches to Earth">Asteroid close approaches to Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_comets" title="Lists of comets">Comets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bolides" title="List of bolides">Bolides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_air_burst" title="Meteor air burst">Meteor air bursts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_meteorite_falls" class="mw-redirect" title="List of meteorite falls">Meteorite falls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_minor_planets" title="List of minor planets">Minor planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth-crossing_asteroids" title="List of Earth-crossing asteroids">Asteroids crossing Earth's orbit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolide" title="Bolide">Bolide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth-grazing_fireball" title="Earth-grazing fireball">Earth-grazing fireball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_procession" title="Meteor procession">Meteor procession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">Meteor shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">Meteorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">Meteoroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Impact_cratering_on_Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c8b890;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Impact_cratering_on_Earth" title="Template:Impact cratering on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Impact_cratering_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Impact cratering on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Impact_cratering_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Impact cratering on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Impact_cratering_on_Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_on_Earth" title="List of impact structures on Earth">Impact cratering on Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#c8b890;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">Impact crater</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Impact event</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#c8b890;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_on_Earth" title="List of impact structures on Earth">Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_Africa" title="List of impact structures in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_Antarctica" title="List of impact structures in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_Asia_and_Russia" title="List of impact structures in Asia and Russia">Asia and Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_Australia" title="List of impact structures in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_Europe" title="List of impact structures in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_North_America" title="List of impact structures in North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_structures_in_South_America" title="List of impact structures in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Impact_craters_by_country" title="Category:Impact craters by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possible_impact_structures_on_Earth" title="List of possible impact structures on Earth">Possible</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg/120px-Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg/180px-Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg/240px-Pingualuit_aerial_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Craterstructure.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Craterstructure.gif/120px-Craterstructure.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Craterstructure.gif/180px-Craterstructure.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Craterstructure.gif/240px-Craterstructure.gif 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="715" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#c8b890;;width:1%">Confirmed<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>≥20 km diameter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acraman_impact_structure" title="Acraman impact structure">Acraman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Creek_crater" title="Amelia Creek crater">Amelia Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araguainha_crater" title="Araguainha crater">Araguainha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaverhead_impact_structure" title="Beaverhead impact structure">Beaverhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boltysh_crater" title="Boltysh crater">Boltysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carswell_impact_structure" title="Carswell impact structure">Carswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlevoix_impact_structure" title="Charlevoix impact structure">Charlevoix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay_impact_crater" title="Chesapeake Bay impact crater">Chesapeake Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearwater_Lakes" title="Clearwater Lakes">Clearwater East and West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosses_Bluff_impact_structure" title="Gosses Bluff impact structure">Gosses Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haughton_impact_crater" title="Haughton impact crater">Haughton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamensk_crater" title="Kamensk crater">Kamensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_crater" title="Kara crater">Kara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakul_(Tajikistan)" title="Karakul (Tajikistan)">Karakul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keurusselk%C3%A4" title="Keurusselkä">Keurusselkä</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Lappaj%C3%A4rvi" title="Lake Lappajärvi">Lappajärvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logancha_crater" title="Logancha crater">Logancha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manicouagan_impact_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicouagan impact structure">Manicouagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manson_impact_structure" title="Manson impact structure">Manson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistastin_crater" title="Mistastin crater">Mistastin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mj%C3%B8lnir_crater" title="Mjølnir crater">Mjølnir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montagnais_crater" title="Montagnais crater">Montagnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morokweng_impact_structure" title="Morokweng impact structure">Morokweng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B6rdlinger_Ries" title="Nördlinger Ries">Nördlinger Ries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obolon%27_crater" title="Obolon' crater">Obolon'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popigai_impact_structure" title="Popigai impact structure">Popigai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presqu%27%C3%AEle_crater" title="Presqu'île crater">Presqu'île</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puchezh-Katunki_crater" title="Puchezh-Katunki crater">Puchezh-Katunki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rochechouart_impact_structure" title="Rochechouart impact structure">Rochechouart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Martin_impact_structure" title="Saint Martin impact structure">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoemaker_impact_structure" title="Shoemaker impact structure">Shoemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siljan_Ring" title="Siljan Ring">Siljan Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_Islands_(Ontario)" title="Slate Islands (Ontario)">Slate Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steen_River_impact_structure" title="Steen River impact structure">Steen River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangways_crater" title="Strangways crater">Strangways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Basin" title="Sudbury Basin">Sudbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tookoonooka_impact_structure" title="Tookoonooka impact structure">Tookoonooka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnunik_impact_structure" title="Tunnunik impact structure">Tunnunik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vredefort_impact_structure" title="Vredefort impact structure">Vredefort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodleigh_impact_structure" title="Woodleigh impact structure">Woodleigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarrabubba_impact_structure" title="Yarrabubba impact structure">Yarrabubba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#c8b890;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis" title="Alvarez hypothesis">Alvarez hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australite" title="Australite">Australite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Breccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coesite" title="Coesite">Coesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_crater" title="Complex crater">Complex crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptoexplosion" title="Cryptoexplosion">Cryptoexplosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejecta_blanket" title="Ejecta blanket">Ejecta blanket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_crater" title="Impact crater">Impact crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_structure" title="Impact structure">Impact structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impactite" title="Impactite">Impactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechatelierite" title="Lechatelierite">Lechatelierite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">Meteorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavite" title="Moldavite">Moldavite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordovician_meteor_event" title="Ordovician meteor event">Ordovician meteor event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippinite" title="Philippinite">Philippinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planar_deformation_features" title="Planar deformation features">Planar deformation features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatter_cone" title="Shatter cone">Shatter cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_metamorphism" title="Shock metamorphism">Shock metamorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shocked_quartz" title="Shocked quartz">Shocked quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stishovite" title="Stishovite">Stishovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suevite" title="Suevite">Suevite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektite" title="Tektite">Tektite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#c8b890;;width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Belknap_Baldwin" title="Ralph Belknap Baldwin">Ralph Belknap Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Barringer_(geologist)" title="Daniel Barringer (geologist)">Daniel Barringer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barringer_Medal" title="Barringer Medal">Barringer Medal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._T._Chao" title="Edward C. T. Chao">Edward C. T. Chao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Dietz" title="Robert S. Dietz">Robert S. Dietz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kenneth_Hartmann" title="William Kenneth Hartmann">William Kenneth Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Jay_Melosh" title="H. Jay Melosh">H. Jay Melosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Ryder" title="Graham Ryder">Graham Ryder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Schultz" title="Peter H. Schultz">Peter H. Schultz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Merle_Shoemaker" title="Eugene Merle Shoemaker">Eugene Merle Shoemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Impact_Database" title="Earth Impact Database">Earth Impact Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_Field_Studies_Group" title="Impact Field Studies Group">Impact Field Studies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_and_Planetary_Institute" title="Lunar and Planetary Institute">Lunar and Planetary Institute</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Traces_of_Catastrophe" title="Traces of Catastrophe">Traces of Catastrophe</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Planetary_defense" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Planetary_defense" title="Template:Planetary defense"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Planetary_defense" title="Template talk:Planetary defense"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Planetary_defense" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Planetary defense"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Planetary_defense" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Planetary defense</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">Asteroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolide" title="Bolide">Bolide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth-grazing_fireball" title="Earth-grazing fireball">Earth-grazing fireball</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Impact event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_air_burst" title="Meteor air burst">Meteor air burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_procession" title="Meteor procession">Meteor procession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">Meteor shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">Meteorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">Meteoroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Defense</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_laser_ablation" title="Asteroid laser ablation">Asteroid laser ablation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_tractor" title="Gravity tractor">Gravity tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion-beam_shepherd" title="Ion-beam shepherd">Ion-beam shepherd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_asteroid_close_approaches_to_Earth" title="List of asteroid close approaches to Earth">Asteroid close approaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Earth-crossing_minor_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Earth-crossing minor planets">Earth-crossing minor planets</a></li> <li>Damage scales <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palermo_Technical_Impact_Hazard_Scale" title="Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale">Palermo scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torino_scale" title="Torino scale">Torino scale</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Space probes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)" title="Dawn (spacecraft)">Dawn</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)" title="Deep Impact (spacecraft)">Deep Impact</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HAMMER_(spacecraft)" title="HAMMER (spacecraft)">HAMMER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_(mission)" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDA (mission)">AIDA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hera_(space_mission)" title="Hera (space mission)">Hera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Asteroid_Redirection_Test" title="Double Asteroid Redirection Test"><i>DART</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halley_Armada" title="Halley Armada">Halley Armada</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa" title="Hayabusa">Hayabusa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa2" title="Hayabusa2">Hayabusa2</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa2#MASCOT" title="Hayabusa2">MASCOT</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker" title="NEAR Shoemaker">NEAR Shoemaker</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Asteroid_Scout" title="Near-Earth Asteroid Scout">NEA Scout</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-REx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PROCYON" title="PROCYON">PROCYON</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Philae_(spacecraft)" title="Philae (spacecraft)">Philae</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stardust_(spacecraft)" title="Stardust (spacecraft)">Stardust</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">NEO</a> tracking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_Terrestrial-impact_Last_Alert_System" title="Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System">ATLAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalina_Sky_Survey" title="Catalina Sky Survey">Catalina Sky Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Near-Earth_Asteroid_Research" title="Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research">LINEAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowell_Observatory_Near-Earth-Object_Search" title="Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search">LONEOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_Asteroid_Tracking" title="Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking">NEAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NEODyS" title="NEODyS">NEODyS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NEO_Surveyor" title="NEO Surveyor">NEO Surveyor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Earth_Object_Surveillance_Satellite" title="Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite">NEOSSat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESA_Optical_Ground_Station" title="ESA Optical Ground Station">OGS Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbit@home" title="Orbit@home">Orbit@home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-STARRS" title="Pan-STARRS">Pan-STARRS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Schmidt_CCD_Asteroid_Program" title="Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program">SCAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_Space_Telescope" title="Sentinel Space Telescope">Sentinel Space Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_(monitoring_system)" title="Sentry (monitoring system)">Sentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacewatch" title="Spacewatch">Spacewatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer" title="Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer">WISE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B612_Foundation" title="B612 Foundation">B612 Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Spaceguard_Association" title="Japan Spaceguard Association">Japan Spaceguard Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteoritical Society">Meteoritical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance#Ongoing_projects" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">NEOShield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceguard" title="Spaceguard">Spaceguard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spaceguard_Foundation" title="The Spaceguard Foundation">The Spaceguard Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Situational_Awareness_Programme" title="Space Situational Awareness Programme">Space Situational Awareness Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_Defense_Coordination_Office" title="Planetary Defense Coordination Office">Planetary Defense Coordination Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Potential threats</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/(29075)_1950_DA" title="(29075) 1950 DA">1950 DA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/101955_Bennu" title="101955 Bennu">101955 Bennu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_RF12" title="2010 RF12">2010 RF<sub>12</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/99942_Apophis" title="99942 Apophis">99942 Apophis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Impact_events" title="Category:Impact events">Impact events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_meteoroids" title="Category:Fiction about meteoroids">Fiction about meteoroids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_impact_events" title="Category:Fiction about impact events">Fiction about impact events</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tribulation_rapture" title="Post-tribulation rapture">Post-tribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_doomsday_devices" title="List of fictional doomsday devices">List of fictional doomsday devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Apocalypticism" title="Category:Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Future_problems" title="Category:Future problems">Future problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hazards" title="Category:Hazards">Hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Risk_analysis" title="Category:Risk analysis">Risk analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Doomsday_scenarios" title="Category:Doomsday scenarios">Doomsday scenarios</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_earthquakes" title="Lists of earthquakes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hydrological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_floods" title="List of floods">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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