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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Crime-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Crime subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide_Convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide_Convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Genocide Convention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genocide_Convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosecutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosecutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Prosecutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosecutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Genocide studies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genocide_studies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genocide studies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genocide_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Definitions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_concept_of_genocide_and_alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_concept_of_genocide_and_alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Criticism of the concept of genocide and alternatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_concept_of_genocide_and_alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perpetrators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perpetrators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Perpetrators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perpetrators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Effects and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>Collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.3</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genocide</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 109 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">109 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksmoord" title="Volksmoord – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Volksmoord" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkermord" title="Völkermord – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Völkermord" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folcmor%C3%B0or" title="Folcmorðor – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Folcmorðor" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إبادة جماعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إبادة جماعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ցեղասպանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ցեղասպանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="নৰসংহাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নৰসংহাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocidiu" title="Xenocidiu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xenocidiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyq%C4%B1r%C4%B1m" title="Soyqırım – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Soyqırım" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="পরিকল্পিত গণহত্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরিকল্পিত গণহত্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A9ng-cho%CC%8Dk_bia%CC%8Dt-choa%CC%8Dt" title="Chéng-cho̍k bia̍t-choa̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chéng-cho̍k bia̍t-choa̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B4" title="Генацыд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Генацыд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B4" title="Генацыд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Генацыд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouennlazh" title="Gouennlazh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gouennlazh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidi" title="Genocidi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genocidi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocida" title="Genocida – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genocida" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hil-laddiad" title="Hil-laddiad – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hil-laddiad" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkedrab" title="Folkedrab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Folkedrab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkermord" title="Völkermord – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Völkermord" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotsiid" title="Genotsiid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Genotsiid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γενοκτονία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενοκτονία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidio" title="Genocidio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genocidio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocido" title="Genocido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genocido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genozidio" title="Genozidio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genozidio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="نسل‌کشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نسل‌کشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nocide" title="Génocide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génocide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoside" title="Genoside – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Genoside" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinedh%C3%ADoth%C3%BA" title="Cinedhíothú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cinedhíothú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocidio" title="Xenocidio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenocidio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="집단학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="집단학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ցեղասպանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցեղասպանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नरसंहार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नरसंहार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentocido" title="Gentocido – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gentocido" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genosida" title="Genosida – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genosida" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ej%C3%B3%C3%B0armor%C3%B0" title="Þjóðarmorð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þjóðarmorð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidio" title="Genocidio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genocidio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%97_%D7%A2%D7%9D" title="רצח עם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רצח עם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genosida" title="Genosida – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Genosida" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="გენოციდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენოციდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauaji_ya_kimbari" title="Mauaji ya kimbari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mauaji ya kimbari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komkuj%C3%AE" title="Komkujî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Komkujî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genozide" title="Genozide – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Genozide" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidium" title="Genocidium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Genocidium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoc%C4%ABds" title="Genocīds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Genocīds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidas" title="Genocidas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genocidas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Genocide" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenoside" title="Jenoside – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jenoside" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9pirt%C3%A1s" title="Népirtás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Népirtás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="വംശഹത്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വംശഹത്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="გენოციდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გენოციდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%A8" title="ابادة الشعوب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ابادة الشعوب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%99%E1%81%A0%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%82%E1%80%80%E1%80%B0" title="ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembasmian_kaum" title="Pembasmian kaum – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembasmian kaum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Геноцидсь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Геноцидсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BB%D3%A9%D3%A9%D1%80_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%85" title="Төрлөөр устгах – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Төрлөөр устгах" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genocide" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkermoard" title="Volkermoard – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Volkermoard" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="नरसंहार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नरसंहार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%8E%E3%82%B5%E3%82%A4%E3%83%89" title="ジェノサイド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジェノサイド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkemord" title="Folkemord – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Folkemord" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkemord" title="Folkemord – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Folkemord" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocidi" title="Genocidi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Genocidi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotsid" title="Genotsid – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Genotsid" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80" title="ਨਸਲਕੁਸ਼ੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਸਲਕੁਸ਼ੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86%D9%87" title="نسل وژنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نسل وژنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludob%C3%B3jstwo" title="Ludobójstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ludobójstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoc%C3%ADdio" title="Genocídio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genocídio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B4" title="Ґеноцід – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґеноцід" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Гэноцид – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гэноцид" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotz%C3%ACdiu" title="Genotzìdiu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Genotzìdiu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjenocidi" title="Gjenocidi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjenocidi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="වර්ග සංහාරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වර්ග සංහාරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genocide" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%DA%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A" title="نسل ڪشي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نسل ڪشي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoc%C3%ADda_(pr%C3%A1vo)" title="Genocída (právo) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Genocída (právo)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="جینۆساید – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جینۆساید" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocid" title="Genocid – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genocid" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansanmurha" title="Kansanmurha – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansanmurha" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkmord" title="Folkmord – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Folkmord" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagpatay_ng_lahi" title="Pagpatay ng lahi – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagpatay ng lahi" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="இனப்படுகொலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இனப்படுகொலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%86%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%8C" title="การฆ่าล้างเผ่าพันธุ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การฆ่าล้างเผ่าพันธุ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D3%A3" title="Наслкушӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Наслкушӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyk%C4%B1r%C4%B1m" title="Soykırım – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Soykırım" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Геноцид – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геноцид" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="نسل کشی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نسل کشی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%82%D9%89_%D9%82%D9%89%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%89%D9%86%DA%86%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82" title="ئىرىقى قىرغىنچىلىق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىرىقى قىرغىنچىلىق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenos%C3%ACdio" title="Zenosìdio – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Zenosìdio" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%E1%BB%87t_ch%E1%BB%A7ng" title="Diệt chủng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Diệt chủng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenocide" title="Djenocide – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Djenocide" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henosidyo" title="Henosidyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Henosidyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a 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.mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this article is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Genocide##" title="Talk:Genocide">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Intentional destruction of a people</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg/300px-Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg/450px-Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg/600px-Killing_Fields_20170222-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>During the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a>, many perceived dissidents were killed using axes, poles or other agricultural tools. The sites of their <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass burial</a> are now collectively referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Killing_Fields" title="Killing Fields">Killing Fields</a>, and many memorials have been created to honor them.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Genocide</b> is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202311_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202311-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a>, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by means such as "the disintegration of [its] political and social institutions, of [its] <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguicide" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguicide">language</a>, national feelings, <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religion</a>, and [its] economic existence".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202248_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202248-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the struggle to ratify the <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a>, powerful countries restricted Lemkin's definition to exclude their own actions from being classified as genocide, ultimately limiting it to any of five "acts committed with <a href="/wiki/Intent_to_destroy" class="mw-redirect" title="Intent to destroy">intent to destroy</a>, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genocide has occurred throughout <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>, even during <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric times">prehistoric times</a>, but is particularly likely in situations of imperial expansion and power consolidation. Therefore, it is usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonies</a>, as well as with both <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world wars</a> and repressive governments in the twentieth century. The colloquial understanding of genocide is heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> as its archetype and is conceived as innocent victims targeted for their ethnic identity rather than for any political reason. Genocide is widely considered to be the epitome of human <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> and often referred to as the "crime of crimes"; consequently, events are often <a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">denounced as <i>genocide</i></a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg/220px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg/330px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg/440px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2766" data-file-height="1964" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> heavily influences the popular understanding of genocide, as <a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">mass killing</a> of innocent people based on their ethnic identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202319-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Conclusion_of_Chapter_4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Conclusion_of_Chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Polish-Jewish lawyer <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a> coined the term <i>genocide</i> between 1941 and 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin's coinage <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_word" title="Hybrid word">combined</a> the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Greek</a> word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Genos" title="Genos">γένος</a></span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">genos</i></span>, "race, people") with the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">-caedo</i></span> ("act of killing").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He submitted the manuscript for his book <i><a href="/wiki/Axis_Rule_in_Occupied_Europe" title="Axis Rule in Occupied Europe">Axis Rule in Occupied Europe</a></i> to the publisher in early 1942, and it was published in 1944 as <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> was coming to light outside Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin's proposal was more ambitious than simply outlawing this type of mass slaughter. He also thought that the law against genocide could promote more tolerant and <a href="/wiki/Plural_society" title="Plural society">pluralistic</a> societies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His response to Nazi criminality was sharply different from that of another international law scholar, <a href="/wiki/Hersch_Lauterpacht" title="Hersch Lauterpacht">Hersch Lauterpacht</a>, who argued that it was essential to protect individuals from atrocities, whether or not they were targeted as members of a group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202219–20_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202219–20-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Lemkin, the central definition of genocide was "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" in which its members were not targeted as individuals, but rather as members of the group. The objectives of genocide "would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202248_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202248-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were not separate crimes but different aspects of the same genocidal process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw201539_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw201539-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin's definition of nation was sufficiently broad to apply to nearly any type of human collectivity, even one based on a trivial characteristic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202315_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202315-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He saw genocide as an inherently colonial process, and in his later writings analyzed what he described as the colonial genocides occurring within European overseas territories as well as the Soviet and Nazi empires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, his definition of genocidal acts, which was to replace the national pattern of the victim with that of the perpetrator, was much broader than the five types enumerated in the Genocide Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin considered genocide to have occurred since the beginning of human history and dated the efforts to criminalize it to the Spanish critics of colonial excesses <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_Las_Casas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartolomé de Las Casas">Bartolomé de Las Casas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202311_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202311-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1946 judgement against <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Greiser" title="Arthur Greiser">Arthur Greiser</a> issued by a Polish court was the first legal verdict that mentioned the term, using Lemkin's original definition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237–8_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237–8-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crime">Crime</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315,_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0422-315%2C_Umsiedler_auf_dem_G%C3%BCterbahnhof_Berlin-Pankow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Germans">expulsion of Germans</a> was one of the instances of <a href="/wiki/State_violence" title="State violence">state violence</a> that was deliberately written out of the definition of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017267–268_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017267–268-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">legal instrument</a> used to prosecute defeated German leaders at the <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal">International Military Tribunal</a> at Nuremberg, <a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Atrocity crimes">atrocity crimes</a> were only prosecutable by international justice if they were committed as part of an <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">illegal war of aggression</a>. The powers prosecuting the trial were unwilling to restrict a government's actions against its own citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to criminalize peacetime genocide, Lemkin brought his proposal to criminalize genocide to the newly established <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opposition to the convention was greater than Lemkin expected due to states' concerns that it would lead their own policies - including treatment of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonialism">European colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_nationalities_policy" title="Soviet nationalities policy">Soviet nationalities policy</a> - to be labeled genocide. Before the convention was passed, powerful countries (both Western powers and the Soviet Union) secured changes in an attempt to make the convention unenforceable and applicable to their <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">geopolitical rivals</a>' actions but not their own.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320–21_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320–21-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few formerly colonized countries were represented and "most states had no interest in empowering their victims– past, present, and future".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2021b1021_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2021b1021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result severely diluted Lemkin's original concept; he privately considered it a failure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320–21_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202320–21-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lemkin's anti-colonial conception of genocide was transformed into one that favored colonial powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202322_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202322-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2021b1020_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2021b1020-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the violence freed from the stigma of genocide included the destruction of political groups, which the Soviet Union is particularly blamed for blocking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20174_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20174-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202253_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202253-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Lemkin credited women's NGOs with securing the passage of the convention, the gendered violence of forced pregnancy, marriage, and divorce was left out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20238_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20238-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally omitted was <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">the forced migration of populations</a>—which had been carried out by the Soviet Union and its satellites, condoned by the Western Allies, <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Germans">against millions of Germans from central and Eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017267–268,_283_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017267–268,_283-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genocide_Convention">Genocide Convention</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg/260px-Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg/390px-Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg/520px-Genocide_Convention_Participation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption> Participation in the Genocide Convention <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00aa00; color:black;"> </span> Signed and ratified</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> Acceded or succeeded</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#eeee00; color:black;"> </span> Only signed</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Two years after passing <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_96_(I)" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 (I)">a resolution affirming the criminalization of genocide</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> on 9 December 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20173_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20173-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It came into effect on 12 January 1951 after 20 countries ratified it without <a href="/wiki/Reservation_(law)" title="Reservation (law)">reservations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017158_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017158-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention defines genocide as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... any of the following acts committed with <a href="/wiki/Intent_to_destroy" class="mw-redirect" title="Intent to destroy">intent to destroy</a>, in whole or in part, a <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">national</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic">ethnical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial">racial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> group, as such:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style></p><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>(a) Killing members of the group;</li> <li>(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;</li> <li>(c) <a href="/wiki/Genocide_by_attrition" title="Genocide by attrition">Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part</a>;</li> <li>(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;</li> <li>(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></blockquote> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Dolus_specialis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolus specialis">specific</a> "<a href="/wiki/Intent_to_destroy" class="mw-redirect" title="Intent to destroy">intent to destroy</a>" is the <i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a></i> requirement of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchabas2010136,_138_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchabas2010136,_138-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of what it means to destroy a group "as such" and how to prove the required intent has been difficult for courts to resolve. The legal system has also struggled with how much of a group can be targeted before triggering the Genocide Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOzoráková2022292–295_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOzoráková2022292–295-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202313_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202313-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchabas2010136_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchabas2010136-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two main approaches to intent are the purposive approach, where the perpetrator expressly wants to destroy the group, and the knowledge-based approach, where the perpetrator understands that destruction of the protected group will result from his actions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202335_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202335-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202349–50_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202349–50-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intent is the most difficult aspect for prosecutors to prove;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20234,_9_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20234,_9-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202228,_30_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202228,_30-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the perpetrators often claim that they merely sought the removal of the group from a given territory, instead of destruction as such,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202257_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202257-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that the genocidal actions were <a href="/wiki/Collateral_damage" title="Collateral damage">collateral damage</a> of military activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202247_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202247-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attempted_genocide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attempted genocide (page does not exist)">Attempted genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (law)">conspiracy</a> to commit genocide, <a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">incitement to genocide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Complicity_in_genocide" title="Complicity in genocide">complicity in genocide</a> are criminalized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20232_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20232-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention does not allow the retroactive prosecution of events that took place prior to 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20232_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20232-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Signatories are also required to <a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">prevent genocide</a> and prosecute its perpetrators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202232_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202232-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many countries have incorporated genocide into their <a href="/wiki/Municipal_law" title="Municipal law">municipal law</a>, varying to a lesser or greater extent from the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchabas2010123_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchabas2010123-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The convention's definition of genocide was adopted verbatim by the <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc_international_criminal_tribunals" title="Ad hoc international criminal tribunals"><i>ad hoc</i> international criminal tribunals</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> that established the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOzoráková2022281_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOzoráková2022281-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crime of genocide also exists in <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a> and is therefore prohibited for non-signatories.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecutions">Prosecutions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg/220px-ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg/330px-ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg/440px-ICTY_-_Court_room_1_in_session.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> in session</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, genocide remained at the level of rhetoric because both <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a> (the United States and the Soviet Union) felt vulnerable to accusations of genocide, and were therefore unwilling to press charges against the other party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20179_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt20179-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite political pressure to charge "Soviet genocide", the United States government refused to ratify the convention fearing <a href="/wiki/We_Charge_Genocide" title="We Charge Genocide">countercharges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017266_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2017266-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authorities have been reluctant to prosecute the perpetrators of many genocides, although non-judicial commissions of inquiry have also been created by some states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013150_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013150-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first conviction for genocide in an <a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">international court</a> was in 1998 for a perpetrator of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>. </p><p>On 25 January 2010, Iraqi official <a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid#Trial_and_execution" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid"> Ali Hassan al-Majid </a> (1st cousin of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>) was executed by hanging after being convicted of committing genocide by using chemical weapons against Iraq's Kurdish population during the 1997-1998 Al-Anfal campaign. Al-Majid was captured following the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>. During the trial, the Iraqi court heard tape-recorded conversations between al-Majid and senior Ba'ath party officials regarding the use of chemical weapons: "I will kill them all with chemical weapons! Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck them! The international community and those who listen to them." In the recordings, Al-Majid calls the Iraqi Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani "wicked and a pimp", and promises not to leave alive anyone who speaks the Kurdish language.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first head of state to be convicted of genocide was in 2018 for the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although it is widely recognized that punishment of the perpetrators cannot be of an order with their crimes, the trials often serve other purposes such as attempting to shape public perception of the past.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013150_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013150-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genocide_studies">Genocide studies</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genocide_studies" title="Genocide studies">Genocide studies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two armed men standing by a ruined wall, surrounded by skulls and other human remains" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg/220px-Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg/330px-Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg/440px-Russian_soldiers_Sheykhalan_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Remains of the victims of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> committed by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the former Armenian village of Sheykhalan near <a href="/wiki/Mu%C5%9F" title="Muş">Mush</a>, 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>The field of genocide studies emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, as <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> began to consider the phenomenon of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202313,_17_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202313,_17-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202323_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202323-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the occurrence of the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosovo crisis">Kosovo crisis</a>, genocide studies exploded in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202317–18_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202317–18-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to earlier researchers who took for granted the idea that liberal and democratic societies were less likely to commit genocide, revisionists associated with the <a href="/wiki/International_Network_of_Genocide_Scholars" title="International Network of Genocide Scholars">International Network of Genocide Scholars</a> emphasized how Western ideas led to genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202323–24_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202323–24-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Genocides_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocides of indigenous peoples">genocides of indigenous peoples</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/European_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonialism">European colonialism</a> were initially not recognized as a form of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20236–10_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20236–10-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pioneers of research into <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolfe" title="Patrick Wolfe">Patrick Wolfe</a> spelled out the genocidal logic of settler projects, prompting a rethinking of colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20239_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor20239-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many genocide scholars are concerned both with objective study of the topic, and obtaining insights that will help prevent future genocides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202324_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202324-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definitions">Definitions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">Genocide definitions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Starving_woman_africa_biafra_nigeria_conflict_famine_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Biafra" title="Blockade of Biafra">blockade of Biafra</a>, which resulted in the death of at least 1 million people, was argued not to be genocide because it was the Nigerian government's aim to <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">suppress rebellion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses2021443–444_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses2021443–444-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The definition of genocide generates controversy whenever a new case arises and debate erupts as to whether or not it qualifies as a genocide. Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Shaw_(sociologist)" title="Martin Shaw (sociologist)">Martin Shaw</a> writes, “Few ideas are as important in public debate, but in few cases are the meaning and scope of a key idea less clearly agreed.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw201538_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw201538-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams20208_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20208-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars and activists use the Genocide Convention definition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202322_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202322-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others prefer narrower definitions that indicate genocide is rare in human history, reducing genocide to <a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">mass killing</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20144_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20144-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or distinguishing it from other types of violence by the innocence,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202319-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> helplessness, or defencelessness of its victims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Sociologists_redefine_genocide_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Sociologists_redefine_genocide-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most genocides occur during wartime,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202115_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202115-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20146–7_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20146–7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and distinguishing genocide or <a href="/wiki/War_of_extermination" class="mw-redirect" title="War of extermination">genocidal war</a> from non-genocidal warfare can be difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20146–7_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20146–7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, genocide is distinguished from violent and coercive forms of rule that aim to change behavior rather than destroy groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20147_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20147-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor202311–12_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernanMadleyTaylor202311–12-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some definitions include political or social groups as potential victims of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20233_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20233-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the more sociologically oriented definitions of genocide overlap that of the <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crime against humanity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Extermination_(crime)" title="Extermination (crime)">extermination</a>, which refers to large-scale killing or induced death as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20233–4_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20233–4-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isolated or short-lived phenomena that resemble genocide can be termed <a href="/wiki/Genocidal_massacre" title="Genocidal massacre">genocidal violence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20145_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20145-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a> or ethnocide—actions targeted at the reproduction of a group's language, culture, or way of life<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202256–57_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202256–57-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—was part of <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a>'s original concept, and its proponents in the 1940s argued that it, along with physical genocide, were two mechanisms aiming at the same goal: destruction of the targeted group. Because cultural genocide clearly applied to some colonial and assimilationist policies, several states with overseas colonies threatened to refuse to ratify the convention unless it was excluded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202262_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202262-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most genocide scholars believe that both cultural genocide and <a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">structural violence</a> should be included in the definition of genocide, if committed with intent to destroy the targeted group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2021a375_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2021a375-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although included in Lemkin's original concept and by some scholars, political groups were also excluded from the Genocide Convention. The result of this exclusion was that perpetrators of genocide could redefine their targets as being a political or military enemy, thus excluding them from consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202245–46,_48–49,_53_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202245–46,_48–49,_53-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_of_the_concept_of_genocide_and_alternatives">Criticism of the concept of genocide and alternatives</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command,_1942-1945._CL3400_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1842" data-file-height="1596" /></a><figcaption>The death of large numbers of civilians as <a href="/wiki/Collateral_damage" title="Collateral damage">collateral damage</a> of military activity such as <a href="/wiki/Aerial_bombardment_and_international_law" title="Aerial bombardment and international law">aerial bombings</a> is excluded from the definition of genocide, even when they make up a significant portion of a nation's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202322–23_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202322–23-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most civilian killings in the twentieth century were not from genocide, which only applies to select cases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202325_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202325-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraziosiSysyn202215_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraziosiSysyn202215-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternative terms have been coined to describe processes left outside narrower definitions of genocide. <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a>—the forced expulsion of a population from a given territory—has achieved widespread currency, although many scholars recognize that it frequently overlaps with genocide, even where Lemkin's definition is not used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_5_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_5-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other terms ending in -cide have proliferated for the destruction of particular types of groupings: <a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">democide</a> (people by a government), <a href="/wiki/Eliticide" title="Eliticide">eliticide</a> (the elite of a targeted group), ethnocide (ethnic groups), <a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">gendercide</a> (gendered groupings), <a href="/wiki/Politicide" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicide">politicide</a> (political groups), <a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">classicide</a> (social classes), and <a href="/wiki/Urbicide" title="Urbicide">urbicide</a> (the destruction of a particular locality).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_6_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_6-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202333_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202333-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>genocide</i> inherently carries a value judgement<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331–32_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331–32-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it is widely considered to be the epitome of human <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELang20055–17_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELang20055–17-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, violence that could be labeled genocide <a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">was sometimes celebrated</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202332_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202332-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—although it always had its critics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202345–46_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202345–46-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea that genocide sits on top of a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Atrocity crimes">atrocity crimes</a>—that it is worse than <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> or <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>—is controversial among scholars<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it suggests that the protection of groups is more important than of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2017364_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2017364-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Risk_factors_for_genocide" title="Risk factors for genocide">Risk factors for genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:28em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>We have been reproached for <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">making no distinction between the innocent Armenians and the guilty</a>: but that was utterly impossible in view of the fact that those who are innocent today might be guilty tomorrow. The concern for the safety of Turkey simply had to silence all other concerns. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Talaat_Pasha" title="Talaat Pasha">Talaat Pasha</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Berliner_Tageblatt" title="Berliner Tageblatt">Berliner Tageblatt</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/ODY7RTSKJEM56WMH3FYPHV3FPJDKPRNO?issuepage=4">4 May 1916</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIhrig2016162–163_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIhrig2016162–163-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202332_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202332-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468,_Berlin,_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14468%2C_Berlin%2C_NS-Boykott_gegen_j%C3%BCdische_Gesch%C3%A4fte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">SA</a> paramilitaries outside a Berlin store during the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses" title="Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a>, 1933</figcaption></figure> <p>The colloquial understanding of genocide is heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> as its archetype and is conceived as innocent victims <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">targeted because of racism</a> rather than for any political reason.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202319-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genocide is not an end of itself, but a means to another end—often chosen by perpetrators after other options failed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011737–738_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011737–738-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most are ultimately caused by its perpetrators perceiving an existential threat to their own existence, although this belief is usually exaggerated and can be entirely imagined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202316–17,_27_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202316–17,_27-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particular threats to existing elites that have been correlated to genocide include both successful and attempted <a href="/wiki/Regime_change" title="Regime change">regime change</a> via assassination, coups, revolutions, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252–53_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252–53-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most genocides were not planned long in advance, but emerged through a process of <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_radicalization" title="Cumulative radicalization">gradual radicalization</a>, often escalating to genocide following resistance by those targeted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202348–49_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202348–49-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genocide perpetrators often fear—usually irrationally—that if they do not commit atrocities, they will suffer a similar fate as they inflict on their victims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013146_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013146-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022245_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022245-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite perpetrators' utilitarian goals,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ideological factors are necessary to explain why genocide seems to be a desirable solution to the identified security problem.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013146_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013146-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noncombatants are harmed because of the <a href="/wiki/Collective_guilt" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective guilt">collective guilt</a> ascribed to an entire people—defined according to race but targeted because of its supposed security threat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses2021329_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses2021329-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other motives for genocide have included theft, <a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">land grabbing</a>, and revenge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>War is often described as the single most important enabler of genocide<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022233_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022233-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> providing the weaponry, ideological justification, polarization between allies and enemies, and cover for carrying out extreme violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022236–239_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022236–239-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large proportion of genocides occurred under the course of imperial expansion and power consolidation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202349_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202349-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although genocide is typically organized around pre-existing identity boundaries, it has the outcome of strengthening them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many scholars have emphasized the role of <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> in genocide, there is little agreement in how ideology contributes to violent outcomes;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022307_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022307-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others have cited rational explanations for atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perpetrators">Perpetrators</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Perpetrator_studies" title="Perpetrator studies">Perpetrator studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hate_studies" title="Hate studies">Hate studies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg/220px-Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg/330px-Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg/440px-Group_of_auxiliary_guards_at_the_Nazi_death_camp_Sobibor_in_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2632" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption>Group of auxiliary guards at <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor extermination camp</a> in 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>Genocides are usually driven by states<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202336–37_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202336–37-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their agents, such as elites, political parties, bureaucracies, armed forces, and paramilitaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civilians are often the leading agents when the genocide takes places in remote frontier areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022215–216_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022215–216-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common strategy is for state-sponsored atrocities to be carried out in secrecy by paramilitary groups, offering the benefit of <a href="/wiki/Plausible_deniability" title="Plausible deniability">plausible deniability</a> while widening complicity in the atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee202012_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee202012-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023146_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023146-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022179–180,_189_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022179–180,_189-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leaders who organize genocide usually believe that their actions <a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">were justified</a> and regret nothing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022186_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022186-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>How ordinary people can become involved in extraordinary violence under circumstances of acute conflict is poorly understood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20203_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20203-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021174_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021174-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The foot soldiers of genocide (as opposed to its organizers) are not demographically or psychologically aberrant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams20201–2,_211_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20201–2,_211-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20208–9_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20208–9-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021190_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021190-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022319_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022319-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who commit crimes during genocide are rarely true believers in the ideology behind genocide, although they are affected by it to some extent<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022152_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022152-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alongside other factors such as obedience, <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_responsibility" title="Diffusion of responsibility">diffusion of responsibility</a>, and conformity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other evidence suggests that ideological propaganda is not effective in inducing people to commit genocide<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20204_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20204-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that for some perpetrators, the <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanization</a> of victims, and adoption of nationalist or other ideologies that justify the violence occurs after they begin to perpetrate atrocities<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124–125_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124–125-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often coinciding with escalation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20205_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20205-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although genocide perpetrators have often been assumed to be male, the role of women in perpetrating genocide—although they were historically excluded from leadership—has also been explored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202310_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202310-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People's behavior changes under the course of events, and someone might choose to kill one genocide victim while saving another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023143_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023143-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021177_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021177-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20202_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20202-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Rechtman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Rechtman (page does not exist)">Richard Rechtman</a> writes that in circumstances where atrocities such as genocides are perpetrated, many people refuse to become perpetrators, which often entails great sacrifices such as risking their lives and fleeing their country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021181–182,_187,_191_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021181–182,_187,_191-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of the bodies of dozens of Armenians in a field" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/220px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/330px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg/440px-Ambassador_Morgenthau%27s_Story_p314.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3999" data-file-height="2731" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> victims. The corpses of Armenians beside a road, a common sight along deportation routes.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is a common misconception that genocide necessarily involves mass killing; indeed, it may occur without a single person being killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forced displacement is a common feature of many genocides, with the victims often transported to another location where their destruction is easier for the perpetrators. In some cases, victims are transported to sites where they are killed or deprived of the necessities of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202420_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202420-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People are often killed by the displacement itself, as was the case for many <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> victims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202421_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202421-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural destruction, such as that practised at <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Indian residential schools">Canadian boarding schools for indigenous children</a>, is often dependent on controlling the victims at a specific location.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202421_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202421-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Destruction of cultural objects, such as religious buildings, is common even when the primary method of genocide is not cultural.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural genocide, such as <a href="/wiki/Residential_schools" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Residential schools">residential schools</a>, is particularly common during settler-colonial consolidation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022213–214_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022213–214-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202343_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202343-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Men, particularly young adults, are disproportionately targeted for killing before other victims in order to stem resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202433_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202433-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022118_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022118-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although diverse forms of sexual violence—ranging from rape, forced pregnancy, forced marriage, sexual slavery, mutilation, forced sterilization—can affect either males or females, women are more likely to face it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022116–119_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022116–119-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The combination of killing of men and sexual violence against women is often intended to disrupt reproduction of the targeted group.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202433_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202433-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost all genocides are brought to an end either by the military defeat of the perpetrators or the accomplishment of their aims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamyMcLoughlin2022303_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamyMcLoughlin2022303-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactions">Reactions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stop_the_genocide,_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_(53274234547).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg/220px-Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg/330px-Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg/440px-Stop_the_genocide%2C_Free_Palestine_023_Mielenosoitus_palestiinalaisten_tueksi_%2853274234547%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protestors</a> holding a "Stop <a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">genocide</a>, free <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Palestinian_territories" title="Occupied Palestinian territories">Palestine</a>" banner during a march against Israeli actions during the <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israel–Hamas war">Israel–Hamas war</a> in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>, Finland, 21 October 2023</figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, it should be possible to intervene to prevent genocide by raising the costs of engaging in such violence relative to alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011738_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011738-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there are a number of organizations that compile lists of states where genocide is considered likely to occur,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202267–68_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202267–68-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the accuracy of these predictions are not known and there is no scholarly consensus over evidence-based <a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">genocide prevention</a> strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intervention to prevent genocide has often been considered a failure<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because most countries prioritize business, trade, and diplomatic relationships:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20223,_41_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20223,_41-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a consequence, "the usual powerful actors continue to use violence against vulnerable populations with impunity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_to_protect" title="Responsibility to protect">Responsibility to protect</a> is a doctrine that emerged around 2000, in the aftermath of several genocides around the world, that seeks to balance state sovereignty with the need for international intervention to prevent genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2022119_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2022119-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, disagreements in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> and lack of political will have hampered the implementation of this doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_intervention" title="Humanitarian intervention">military intervention to halt genocide</a> has been credited with reducing violence in some cases, it remains deeply controversial<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202117_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202117-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is usually illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202321_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202321-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researcher <a href="/wiki/Gregory_H._Stanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory H. Stanton">Gregory H. Stanton</a> found that calling crimes genocide rather than something else, such as ethnic cleansing, increased the chance of effective intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202243_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202243-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps for this reason, states are often reluctant to recognize crimes as genocide while they are taking place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">Genocides in history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides" title="List of genocides">List of genocides</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208,_KZ_Mauthausen,_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_192-208%2C_KZ_Mauthausen%2C_Sowjetische_Kriegsgefangene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Naked <a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a> held by the Nazis in <a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen concentration camp</a>. Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Adam Jones</a> wrote that "the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides".<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Lemkin applied the concept of genocide to a wide variety of events throughout <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>. He and other scholars date the first genocides to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric times">prehistoric times</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaimark2017vii_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaimark2017vii-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202311_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202311-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the advent of <a href="/wiki/Civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilizations">civilizations</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Sedentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedentary">sedentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">farmers</a>, humans lived in tribal societies, with intertribal warfare often ending with the obliteration of the defeated tribe, killing of adult males and integration of women and children into the victorious tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022203–204_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022203–204-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genocide is mentioned in various ancient sources <a href="/wiki/Genocide_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Genocide in the Hebrew Bible">including the Hebrew Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaimark20177–9_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaimark20177–9-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350–51_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350–51-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massacre of men and the enslavement or forced assimilation of women and children—often <a href="/wiki/Urbicide" title="Urbicide">limited to a particular town or city</a> rather than applied to a larger group—is a common feature of ancient warfare as described in written sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202339,_50_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202339,_50-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events that some scholars consider genocide in ancient and medieval times had more pragmatic than ideological motivations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_Levene" title="Mark Levene">Mark Levene</a> argue that genocide is inherently connected to the modern state—thus to the rise of the West in the early modern era and its expansion outside Europe—and earlier conflicts cannot be described as genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022170_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022170-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202384_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202384-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although all empires rely on violence, often extreme violence, to perpetuate their own existence, they also seek to preserve and rule the conquered rather than eradicate them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the desire to exploit populations was a disincentive to extermination,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022211_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022211-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> imperial rule could lead to genocide when resistance emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient and medieval genocides were often committed by empires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike traditional empires, <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>—particularly associated with the settlement of Europeans outside of Europe—is characterized by militarized populations of settlers in remote areas beyond effective state control. Rather than labor or economic surplus, the settlers want to acquire land from indigenous people<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022212–213_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022212–213-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making genocide more likely than with classical colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022218–219_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022218–219-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the lack of law enforcement on the frontier ensured <a href="/wiki/Impunity" title="Impunity">impunity</a> for settler violence, the advance of state authority enabled settlers to consolidate their gains using the legal system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202345–46_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202345–46-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genocide was committed on a large scale during both <a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">world wars</a>. The prototypical genocide, the Holocaust, involved such large-scale logistics that it reinforced the impression that genocide was the result of civilization drifting off course and required both the "weapons and infrastructure of the modern state and the radical ambitions of the modern man".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20237_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20237-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> and nationalism were common ideological drivers of many twentieth century genocides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20238_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20238-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the horrors of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, world leaders attempted to proscribe genocide via the Genocide Convention. Despite the promise of <a href="/wiki/Never_again" title="Never again">never again</a> and the international effort to outlaw genocide, it has continued to occur repeatedly into the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20221–2_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20221–2-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_and_aftermath">Effects and aftermath</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">Genocide recognition politics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg/170px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg/255px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg/340px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Women_Mourners_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Mourners at a 2007 funeral for victims of the <a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_massacre" title="Srebrenica massacre">Srebrenica massacre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the aftermath of genocide, common occurrences are the attempt to prosecute perpetrators through the legal system and obtain recognition and reparations for survivors, as well as reflection of the events in scholarship and culture, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genocide_museum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genocide museum (page does not exist)">genocide museums</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Except in <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_reparations" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust reparations">the case of the Holocaust</a>, few genocide victims receive any reparations despite the trend of requiring such reparations in international and municipal law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202124_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202124-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The perpetrators and their supporters often <a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">deny</a> the genocide and reject responsibility for the harms suffered by victims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212,_16_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212,_16-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efforts to achieve justice and reconciliation are common in postgenocide situations, but are necessarily incomplete and inadequate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of genocide on societies are under-researched.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the qualitative research on genocide has focused on the testimonies of victims, survivors, and other eyewitnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20207_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20207-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies of genocide survivors have examined rates of depression, anxiety, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, suicide, <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_growth" title="Post-traumatic growth">post-traumatic growth</a>. While some have found negative results, others find no association with genocide survival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''20192_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''20192-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no consistent findings that children of genocide survivors have worse health than comparable individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''2017246_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''2017246-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most societies are able to recover demographically from genocide, but this is dependent on their position early in the <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">demographic transition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKugler2016119–120_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKugler2016119–120-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because genocide is often perceived as the "crime of crimes", it grabs attention more effectively than other violations of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202322_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202322-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, victims of atrocities often label their suffering genocide as an attempt to gain attention to their plight and attract foreign intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202323_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202323-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although remembering genocide is often perceived as a way to develop tolerance and respect for human rights,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the charge of genocide often leads to increased <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">cohesion</a> among the targeted people—in some cases, it has been incorporated into <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a>—and stokes enmity towards the group blamed for the crime, reducing the chance of reconciliation and increasing the risk of future occurrence of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2017364_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2017364-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some genocides are commemorated in memorials or museums.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013151_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013151-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Usually defined as a "<a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">national</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">racial</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a> group."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202311-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202311_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023">Kiernan <i>et al.</i> 2023</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202248-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202248_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202248_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2022">Bachman 2022</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20236_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan2023">Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202319-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202319_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Conclusion_of_Chapter_4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Conclusion_of_Chapter_4_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2015">Shaw 2015</a>, Conclusion of Chapter 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson20237_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIrvin-Erickson2023">Irvin-Erickson 2023</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan20232_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan2023">Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvin-Erickson202314_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIrvin-Erickson2023">Irvin-Erickson 2023</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202219–20-10"><span 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw20145-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw20145_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2014">Shaw 2014</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202256–57-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202256–57_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2022">Bachman 2022</a>, pp. 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202262-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202262_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2022">Bachman 2022</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2021a375-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2021a375_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2021a">Bachman 2021a</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman202245–46,_48–49,_53-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman202245–46,_48–49,_53_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2022">Bachman 2022</a>, pp. 45–46, 48–49, 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202322–23-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202322–23_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202325-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202325_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraziosiSysyn202215-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraziosiSysyn202215_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraziosiSysyn2022">Graziosi & Sysyn 2022</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_5-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_5_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2015">Shaw 2015</a>, Chapter 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_6-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaw2015Chapter_6_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaw2015">Shaw 2015</a>, Chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202333-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202333_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202342–43_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2023">Jones 2023</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331–32-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331–32_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELang20055–17-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELang20055–17_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLang2005">Lang 2005</a>, pp. 5–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202332-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202332_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202345–46-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202345–46_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, pp. 45–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202111_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2017364-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2017364_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2017364_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSands2017">Sands 2017</a>, p. 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIhrig2016162–163-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIhrig2016162–163_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIhrig2016">Ihrig 2016</a>, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202332-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202332_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011737–738-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011737–738_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKathmanWood2011">Kathman & Wood 2011</a>, pp. 737–738.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoneJinks2022258_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStoneJinks2022">Stone & Jinks 2022</a>, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202316–17,_27-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202316–17,_27_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, pp. 16–17, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022">Nyseth Nzitatira 2022</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252–53-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202252–53_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022">Nyseth Nzitatira 2022</a>, pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202348–49-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202348–49_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2023">Jones 2023</a>, pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013146-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013146_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013146_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2013">Stone 2013</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022245-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022245_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoyd2022">Moyd 2022</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022308_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaynard2022">Maynard 2022</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses2021329-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses2021329_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2021">Moses 2021</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022233-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022233_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoyd2022">Moyd 2022</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022236–239-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022236–239_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoyd2022">Moyd 2022</a>, pp. 236–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202349-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202349_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022307-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022307_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaynard2022">Maynard 2022</a>, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202336–37-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202336–37_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, pp. 36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022189_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022">Weiss-Wendt 2022</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022215–216-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022215–216_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee202012-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee202012_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersonJessee2020">Anderson & Jessee 2020</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023146-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023146_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderton2023">Anderton 2023</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022179–180,_189-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022179–180,_189_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022">Weiss-Wendt 2022</a>, pp. 179–180, 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022186-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022186_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022">Weiss-Wendt 2022</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20203-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20203_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersonJessee2020">Anderson & Jessee 2020</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021174-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021174_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRechtman2021">Rechtman 2021</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams20201–2,_211-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams20201–2,_211_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams2020">Williams 2020</a>, pp. 1–2, 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20208–9-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20208–9_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersonJessee2020">Anderson & Jessee 2020</a>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021190-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021190_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRechtman2021">Rechtman 2021</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022319-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022319_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaynard2022">Maynard 2022</a>, p. 319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022152-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaynard2022152_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaynard2022">Maynard 2022</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDoom2020">McDoom 2020</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20204-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20204_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuft2020">Luft 2020</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124–125-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDoom2020124–125_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcDoom2020">McDoom 2020</a>, pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20205-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20205_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuft2020">Luft 2020</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202310-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''202310_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023">Kiernan <i>et al.</i> 2023</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023143-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderton2023143_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderton2023">Anderton 2023</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021177-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021177_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRechtman2021">Rechtman 2021</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuft20202-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuft20202_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuft2020">Luft 2020</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERechtman2021181–182,_187,_191-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERechtman2021181–182,_187,_191_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRechtman2021">Rechtman 2021</a>, pp. 181–182, 187, 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2023The_Origins_of_Genocide_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2023">Jones 2023</a>, The Origins of Genocide.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202420-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202420_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasso2024">Basso 2024</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202421-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202421_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202421_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasso2024">Basso 2024</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022213–214-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022213–214_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 213–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202343-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202343_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdhikari2023">Adhikari 2023</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasso202433-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202433_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasso202433_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasso2024">Basso 2024</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022118-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022118_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Joeden-Forgey2022">von Joeden-Forgey 2022</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022116–119-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Joeden-Forgey2022116–119_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Joeden-Forgey2022">von Joeden-Forgey 2022</a>, pp. 116–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamyMcLoughlin2022303-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamyMcLoughlin2022303_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellamyMcLoughlin2022">Bellamy & McLoughlin 2022</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011738-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKathmanWood2011738_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKathmanWood2011">Kathman & Wood 2011</a>, p. 738.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202267–68-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202267–68_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022">Nyseth Nzitatira 2022</a>, pp. 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENyseth_Nzitatira202268_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022">Nyseth Nzitatira 2022</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202116_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoyd2022250_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoyd2022">Moyd 2022</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20223,_41-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20223,_41_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOchabAlton2022">Ochab & Alton 2022</a>, pp. 3, 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachman2022119-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBachman2022119_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBachman2022">Bachman 2022</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202117-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202117_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202321-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202321_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202243-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton202243_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOchabAlton2022">Ochab & Alton 2022</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2017" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Adam (2017). <i>Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction</i> (3rd ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 377. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138823846" title="Special:BookSources/9781138823846"><bdi>9781138823846</bdi></a>. <q><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Werth" title="Alexander Werth">Alexander Werth</a>', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Catherine Merridale</a> acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+A+Comprehensive+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pages=377&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781138823846&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaimark2017vii-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaimark2017vii_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaimark2017">Naimark 2017</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202331_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022203–204-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022203–204_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 203–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaimark20177–9-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaimark20177–9_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaimark2017">Naimark 2017</a>, pp. 7–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350–51-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202350–51_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202339,_50-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202339,_50_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, pp. 39, 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELemosTaylorKiernan202343_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023">Lemos, Taylor & Kiernan 2023</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022170-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeiss-Wendt2022170_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022">Weiss-Wendt 2022</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones202384-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones202384_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2023">Jones 2023</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022219–220_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 219–220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022211-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022211_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022212–213-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022212–213_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 212–213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022218–219-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022218–219_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022">Häussler, Stucki & Veracini 2022</a>, pp. 218–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202345–46-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdhikari202345–46_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdhikari2023">Adhikari 2023</a>, pp. 45–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20237-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20237_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023">Kiernan <i>et al.</i> 2023</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20238-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan_''et_al.''20238_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023">Kiernan <i>et al.</i> 2023</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20221–2-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOchabAlton20221–2_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOchabAlton2022">Ochab & Alton 2022</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj202124-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj202124_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212,_16-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulaj20212,_16_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMulaj2021">Mulaj 2021</a>, pp. 2, 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20207-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersonJessee20207_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndersonJessee2020">Anderson & Jessee 2020</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''20192-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''20192_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindert_et_al.2019">Lindert <i>et al.</i> 2019</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''2017246-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindert_''et_al.''2017246_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindert_et_al.2017">Lindert <i>et al.</i> 2017</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKugler2016119–120-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKugler2016119–120_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKugler2016">Kugler 2016</a>, pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202322-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202322_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoses202323-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoses202323_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoses2023">Moses 2023</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2013151-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2013151_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2013">Stone 2013</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachman2022" class="citation book cs1">Bachman, Jeffrey S. (2022). <i>The Politics of Genocide: From the Genocide Convention to the Responsibility to Protect</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-2147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-2147-7"><bdi>978-1-9788-2147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Genocide%3A+From+the+Genocide+Convention+to+the+Responsibility+to+Protect&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-9788-2147-7&rft.aulast=Bachman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasso2024" class="citation book cs1">Basso, Andrew R. (2024). <i>Destroy Them Gradually: Displacement as Atrocity</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-3130-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-3130-8"><bdi>978-1-9788-3130-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Destroy+Them+Gradually%3A+Displacement+as+Atrocity&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-9788-3130-8&rft.aulast=Basso&rft.aufirst=Andrew+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIhrig2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stefan_Ihrig" title="Stefan Ihrig">Ihrig, Stefan</a> (2016). <a href="/wiki/Justifying_Genocide" title="Justifying Genocide"><i>Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-50479-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-50479-0"><bdi>978-0-674-50479-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justifying+Genocide%3A+Germany+and+the+Armenians+from+Bismarck+to+Hitler&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-674-50479-0&rft.aulast=Ihrig&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Jones, Adam</a> (2023). <i>Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95870-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95870-6"><bdi>978-1-000-95870-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+A+Comprehensive+Introduction&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-000-95870-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard2022" class="citation book cs1">Maynard, Jonathan Leader (2022). <i>Ideology and Mass Killing: The Radicalized Security Politics of Genocides and Deadly Atrocities</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-108266-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-108266-5"><bdi>978-0-19-108266-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideology+and+Mass+Killing%3A+The+Radicalized+Security+Politics+of+Genocides+and+Deadly+Atrocities&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-108266-5&rft.aulast=Maynard&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Leader&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoses2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Dirk_Moses" title="A. Dirk Moses">Moses, A. Dirk</a> (2021). <a href="/wiki/The_Problems_of_Genocide" title="The Problems of Genocide"><i>The Problems of Genocide: Permanent Security and the Language of Transgression</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02832-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-02832-5"><bdi>978-1-009-02832-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problems+of+Genocide%3A+Permanent+Security+and+the+Language+of+Transgression&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-009-02832-5&rft.aulast=Moses&rft.aufirst=A.+Dirk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimark2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Naimark" title="Norman Naimark">Naimark, Norman M.</a> (2017). <i>Genocide: A World History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976527-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976527-0"><bdi>978-0-19-976527-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+A+World+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976527-0&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOchabAlton2022" class="citation book cs1">Ochab, Ewelina U.; Alton, David (2022). <i>State Responses to Crimes of Genocide: What Went Wrong and How to Change It</i>. Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-99162-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-99162-3"><bdi>978-3-030-99162-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=State+Responses+to+Crimes+of+Genocide%3A+What+Went+Wrong+and+How+to+Change+It&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-030-99162-3&rft.aulast=Ochab&rft.aufirst=Ewelina+U.&rft.au=Alton%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRechtman2021" class="citation book cs1">Rechtman, Richard (2021). <i>Living in Death: Genocide and Its Functionaries</i>. Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-9788-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-9788-7"><bdi>978-0-8232-9788-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+in+Death%3A+Genocide+and+Its+Functionaries&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-9788-7&rft.aulast=Rechtman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSands2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Sands" title="Philippe Sands">Sands, Philippe</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/East_West_Street" title="East West Street"><i>East West Street: On the Origins of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity</i></a>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4746-0191-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4746-0191-7"><bdi>978-1-4746-0191-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+West+Street%3A+On+the+Origins+of+Genocide+and+Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4746-0191-7&rft.aulast=Sands&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Shaw_(sociologist)" title="Martin Shaw (sociologist)">Shaw, Martin</a> (2014). <i>Genocide and International Relations: Changing Patterns in the Transitions of the Late Modern World</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11013-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11013-6"><bdi>978-0-521-11013-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+International+Relations%3A+Changing+Patterns+in+the+Transitions+of+the+Late+Modern+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11013-6&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2015" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Martin (2015). <i>What is Genocide?</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-8710-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-8710-0"><bdi>978-0-7456-8710-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Genocide%3F&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-8710-0&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Weiss-Wendt" title="Anton Weiss-Wendt">Weiss-Wendt, Anton</a> (2017). <i>The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-31290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-31290-9"><bdi>978-0-299-31290-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Gutting+of+the+UN+Genocide+Convention&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-299-31290-9&rft.aulast=Weiss-Wendt&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2020" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Timothy (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/52460"><i>The Complexity of Evil: Perpetration and Genocide</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F52460">20.500.12657/52460</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-1431-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9788-1431-8"><bdi>978-1-9788-1431-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complexity+of+Evil%3A+Perpetration+and+Genocide&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F52460&rft.isbn=978-1-9788-1431-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F52460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collections">Collections</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonJessee2020" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Kjell; Jessee, Erin (2020). "Introduction". <i>Researching Perpetrators of Genocide</i>. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-32970-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-32970-9"><bdi>978-0-299-32970-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Researching+Perpetrators+of+Genocide&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-299-32970-9&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Kjell&rft.au=Jessee%2C+Erin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachman2021b" class="citation book cs1">Bachman, Jeffrey (2021b). "Genocide and Imperialism". <i>The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism</i>. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1012–1022. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29901-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29901-9"><bdi>978-3-030-29901-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+Imperialism&rft.btitle=The+Palgrave+Encyclopedia+of+Imperialism+and+Anti-Imperialism&rft.pages=1012-1022&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-030-29901-9&rft.aulast=Bachman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloxhamMoses2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Bloxham" title="Donald Bloxham">Bloxham, Donald</a>; <a href="/wiki/A._Dirk_Moses" title="A. Dirk Moses">Moses, A. Dirk</a>, eds. (2010). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161361-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161361-6"><bdi>978-0-19-161361-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Genocide+Studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-161361-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFSchabas2010" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/William_Schabas" title="William Schabas">Schabas, William A.</a> "The Law and Genocide". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2010">Bloxham & Moses (2010)</a>, pp. 123–141.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Bloxham" title="Donald Bloxham">Bloxham, Donald</a>; <a href="/wiki/A._Dirk_Moses" title="A. Dirk Moses">Moses, A. Dirk</a>, eds. (2022). <i>Genocide: Key Themes</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286526-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286526-7"><bdi>978-0-19-286526-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+Key+Themes&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286526-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022" class="citation">Nyseth Nzitatira, Hollie. "Predicting genocide". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 45-74.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFvon_Joeden-Forgey2022" class="citation">von Joeden-Forgey, Elisa. "Gender and genocide". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 100-131.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022" class="citation">Weiss-Wendt, Anton. "The state and genocide". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 161–190.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022" class="citation">Häussler, Matthias; Stucki, Andreas; Veracini, Lorenzo. "Genocide and empire". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 191–221.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFMoyd2022" class="citation">Moyd, Michelle. "Genocide and War". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 222–252.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFStoneJinks2022" class="citation">Stone, Dan; Jinks, Rebecca. "Genocide and memory". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>, pp. 253–276.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFBellamyMcLoughlin2022" class="citation">Bellamy, Alex J.; McLoughlin, Stephen. "Genocide and Military Intervention". In <a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022">Bloxham & Moses (2022)</a>.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraziosiSysyn2022" class="citation book cs1">Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (2022). "Introduction: Genocide and Mass Categorical Violence". In Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genocide-the-power-and-problems-of-a-concept-9780228009511_compress_202404"><i>Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/McGill-Queen%27s_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="McGill-Queen's University Press">McGill-Queen's University Press</a>. pp. 3–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0951-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0951-1"><bdi>978-0-2280-0951-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Genocide+and+Mass+Categorical+Violence&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+The+Power+and+Problems+of+a+Concept&rft.pages=3-21&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-2280-0951-1&rft.aulast=Graziosi&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft.au=Sysyn%2C+Frank+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenocide-the-power-and-problems-of-a-concept-9780228009511_compress_202404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a>; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S., eds. (2023). <i>The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 1, Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-64034-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-64034-3"><bdi>978-1-108-64034-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Genocide%3A+Volume+1%2C+Genocide+in+the+Ancient%2C+Medieval+and+Premodern+Worlds&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-108-64034-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFKiernan2023" class="citation">Kiernan, Ben. "General Editor’s Introduction to the Series: Genocide: Its Causes, Components, Connections and Continuing Challenges". In <a href="#CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023">Kiernan, Lemos & Taylor (2023)</a>, pp. 1–30.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023" class="citation">Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S.; Kiernan, Ben. "Introduction to Volume I". In <a href="#CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023">Kiernan, Lemos & Taylor (2023)</a>, pp. 31–56.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernanMadleyTaylor2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a>; Madley, Benjamin; <a href="/wiki/Rebe_Taylor" title="Rebe Taylor">Taylor, Rebe</a> (2023). "Introduction to Volume II". In <a href="/wiki/Ned_Blackhawk" title="Ned Blackhawk">Blackhawk, Ned</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a>; Madley, Benjamin; <a href="/wiki/Rebe_Taylor" title="Rebe Taylor">Taylor, Rebe</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge World History of Genocide</i>. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108765480">10.1017/9781108765480</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76548-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76548-0"><bdi>978-1-108-76548-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Volume+II&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Genocide&rft.pages=1-20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108765480&rft.isbn=978-1-108-76548-0&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Madley%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Rebe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023" class="citation book cs1">Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott (2023). "Introduction to Volume III". <i>The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3: Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76711-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76711-8"><bdi>978-1-108-76711-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Volume+III&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Genocide%3A+Volume+3%3A+Genocide+in+the+Contemporary+Era%2C+1914%E2%80%932020&rft.pages=1-28&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-108-76711-8&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Lower%2C+Wendy&rft.au=Naimark%2C+Norman&rft.au=Straus%2C+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKugler2016" class="citation book cs1">Kugler, Tadeusz (2016). "The Demography of Genocide". <i>Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Preventions</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 102–124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937829-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937829-6"><bdi>978-0-19-937829-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Demography+of+Genocide&rft.btitle=Economic+Aspects+of+Genocides%2C+Other+Mass+Atrocities%2C+and+Their+Preventions&rft.pages=102-124&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937829-6&rft.aulast=Kugler&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang2005" class="citation book cs1">Lang, Berel (2005). "The Evil in Genocide". <i>Genocide and Human Rights: A Philosophical Guide</i>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 5–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55483-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55483-2"><bdi>978-0-230-55483-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Evil+in+Genocide&rft.btitle=Genocide+and+Human+Rights%3A+A+Philosophical+Guide&rft.pages=5-17&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-230-55483-2&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Berel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoses2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._Dirk_Moses" title="A. Dirk Moses">Moses, A. Dirk</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110781328-002/html">"Genocide as a Category Mistake: Permanent Security and Mass Violence Against Civilians"</a>. <i>Genocidal Violence: Concepts, Forms, Impact</i>. <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. pp. 15–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110781328-002">10.1515/9783110781328-002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078132-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-078132-8"><bdi>978-3-11-078132-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+as+a+Category+Mistake%3A+Permanent+Security+and+Mass+Violence+Against+Civilians&rft.btitle=Genocidal+Violence%3A+Concepts%2C+Forms%2C+Impact&rft.pages=15-38&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110781328-002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-078132-8&rft.aulast=Moses&rft.aufirst=A.+Dirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110781328-002%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulaj2021" class="citation book cs1">Mulaj, Klejda (2021). "Introduction: Postgenocide: Living with Permutations of Genocide Harms". <i>Postgenocide: Interdisciplinary Reflections on the Effects of Genocide</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-264825-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-264825-9"><bdi>978-0-19-264825-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Postgenocide%3A+Living+with+Permutations+of+Genocide+Harms&rft.btitle=Postgenocide%3A+Interdisciplinary+Reflections+on+the+Effects+of+Genocide&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-264825-9&rft.aulast=Mulaj&rft.aufirst=Klejda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonKahn2023" class="citation book cs1">Simon, David J.; Kahn, Leora, eds. (2023). <i>Handbook of Genocide Studies</i>. Edward Elgar Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80037-934-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80037-934-3"><bdi>978-1-80037-934-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Genocide+Studies&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-80037-934-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFIrvin-Erickson2023" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Irvin-Erickson" title="Douglas Irvin-Erickson">Irvin-Erickson, Douglas</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781800379343/book-part-9781800379343-9.xml">The history of Rapha'l Lemkin and the UN Genocide Convention</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFSimonKahn2023">Simon & Kahn (2023)</a>, pp. 7–26.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFAdhikari2023" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Adhikari" title="Mohamed Adhikari">Adhikari, Mohamed</a>. "Destroying to replace: reflections on motive forces behind civilian-driven violence in settler genocides of Indigenous peoples". In <a href="#CITEREFSimonKahn2023">Simon & Kahn (2023)</a>, pp. 42–53.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFAnderton2023" class="citation">Anderton, Charles H. "Genocide prevention: perspectives from psychological and social economic choice models". In <a href="#CITEREFSimonKahn2023">Simon & Kahn (2023)</a>, pp. 142–156.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Stone_(historian)" title="Dan Stone (historian)">Stone, Dan</a> (2013). "Genocide and Memory". <i>The Holocaust, Fascism and Memory: Essays in the History of Ideas</i>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 143–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-02953-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-02953-9"><bdi>978-1-137-02953-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+Memory&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust%2C+Fascism+and+Memory%3A+Essays+in+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.pages=143-156&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-137-02953-9&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journals">Journals</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBachman2021a" class="citation journal cs1">Bachman, Jeffrey S (2021a). "Situating Contributions from Underrepresented Groups and Geographies within the Field of Genocide Studies". <i>International Studies Perspectives</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 361–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fisp%2Fekaa011">10.1093/isp/ekaa011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Situating+Contributions+from+Underrepresented+Groups+and+Geographies+within+the+Field+of+Genocide+Studies&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=361-382&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fisp%2Fekaa011&rft.aulast=Bachman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKathmanWood2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kathman, Jacob D.; Wood, Reed M. (2011). "Managing Threat, Cost, and Incentive to Kill: The Short- and Long-Term Effects of Intervention in Mass Killings". <i>Journal of Conflict Resolution</i>. <b>55</b> (5): 735–760. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022002711408006">10.1177/0022002711408006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Conflict+Resolution&rft.atitle=Managing+Threat%2C+Cost%2C+and+Incentive+to+Kill%3A+The+Short-+and+Long-Term+Effects+of+Intervention+in+Mass+Killings&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=735-760&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0022002711408006&rft.aulast=Kathman&rft.aufirst=Jacob+D.&rft.au=Wood%2C+Reed+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindert_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Lindert, Jutta; Kawachi, Ichiro; Knobler, Haim Y.; Abramowitz, Moshe Z.; Galea, Sandro; Roberts, Bayard; Mollica, Richard; McKee, Martin (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6460659">"The long-term health consequences of genocide: developing GESQUQ - a genocide studies checklist"</a>. <i>Conflict and Health</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13031-019-0198-9">10.1186/s13031-019-0198-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1752-1505">1752-1505</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6460659">6460659</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31011364">31011364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conflict+and+Health&rft.atitle=The+long-term+health+consequences+of+genocide%3A+developing+GESQUQ+-+a+genocide+studies+checklist&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460659%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1752-1505&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31011364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13031-019-0198-9&rft.aulast=Lindert&rft.aufirst=Jutta&rft.au=Kawachi%2C+Ichiro&rft.au=Knobler%2C+Haim+Y.&rft.au=Abramowitz%2C+Moshe+Z.&rft.au=Galea%2C+Sandro&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Bayard&rft.au=Mollica%2C+Richard&rft.au=McKee%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindert_et_al.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Lindert, Jutta; Knobler, Haim Y.; Kawachi, Ichiro; Bain, Paul A.; Abramowitz, Moshe Z.; McKee, Charlotte; Reinharz, Shula; McKee, Martin (2017). "Psychopathology of children of genocide survivors: a systematic review on the impact of genocide on their children's psychopathology from five countries". <i>International Journal of Epidemiology</i>: 246–257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=Psychopathology+of+children+of+genocide+survivors%3A+a+systematic+review+on+the+impact+of+genocide+on+their+children%27s+psychopathology+from+five+countries&rft.pages=246-257&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Lindert&rft.aufirst=Jutta&rft.au=Knobler%2C+Haim+Y.&rft.au=Kawachi%2C+Ichiro&rft.au=Bain%2C+Paul+A.&rft.au=Abramowitz%2C+Moshe+Z.&rft.au=McKee%2C+Charlotte&rft.au=Reinharz%2C+Shula&rft.au=McKee%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuft2020" class="citation journal cs1">Luft, Aliza (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jpr.winchesteruniversitypress.org/articles/10.21039/jpr.3.1.37">"Three Stories and Three Questions about Participation in Genocide"</a>. <i>Journal of Perpetrator Research</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 196–. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21039%2Fjpr.3.1.37">10.21039/jpr.3.1.37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2514-7897">2514-7897</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Perpetrator+Research&rft.atitle=Three+Stories+and+Three+Questions+about+Participation+in+Genocide&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=196-&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21039%2Fjpr.3.1.37&rft.issn=2514-7897&rft.aulast=Luft&rft.aufirst=Aliza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjpr.winchesteruniversitypress.org%2Farticles%2F10.21039%2Fjpr.3.1.37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDoom2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Omar_Shahabudin_McDoom" title="Omar Shahabudin McDoom">McDoom, Omar Shahabudin</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2633002420904267">"Radicalization as cause and consequence of violence in genocides and mass killings"</a>. <i>Violence: An International Journal</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 123–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2633002420904267">10.1177/2633002420904267</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2633-0024">2633-0024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Violence%3A+An+International+Journal&rft.atitle=Radicalization+as+cause+and+consequence+of+violence+in+genocides+and+mass+killings&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123-143&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2633002420904267&rft.issn=2633-0024&rft.aulast=McDoom&rft.aufirst=Omar+Shahabudin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1177%2F2633002420904267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOzoráková2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ozoráková, Lilla (2022). "The Road to Finding a Definition for the Crime of Genocide – the Importance of the Genocide Convention". <i>The Law & Practice of International Courts and Tribunals</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 278–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15718034-12341475">10.1163/15718034-12341475</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1569-1853">1569-1853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Law+%26+Practice+of+International+Courts+and+Tribunals&rft.atitle=The+Road+to+Finding+a+Definition+for+the+Crime+of+Genocide+%E2%80%93+the+Importance+of+the+Genocide+Convention&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=278-301&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15718034-12341475&rft.issn=1569-1853&rft.aulast=Ozor%C3%A1kov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Lilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenocide" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Genocides in history">Genocides</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides" title="List of genocides">list by death toll</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Before_1490" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Before_1490" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Before 1490</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)#146_BC" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Destruction of Carthage</a> (146 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Vespers" title="Asiatic Vespers">Asiatic Vespers</a> (88 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gauls</a> (50s BCE) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eburones#Genocide_(53–51_BC)" title="Eburones">Eburones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a> (132–136)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egica#Legislation" title="Egica">Visigothic Jews under Egica</a> (693)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ancestral Puebloans</a> (800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North" title="Harrying of the North">Harrying of the North</a> (1069–1070)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Mongol conquests</a> (1200s–1360s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Cathars</a> (1209–1229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1311_massacre_of_Mongols_in_the_Delhi_Sultanate" title="1311 massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate">Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate</a> (1311)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Tamerlane" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Assyria</a> (1393–1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Guanches</a> (1402–1496)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1490_to_1912" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#1490_to_1914" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">1490 to 1912</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_genocide" title="Taíno genocide">Taíno</a> (1493–1550)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Japanese_colonization_of_Hokkaido" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Ainu</a> (1500s–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Indigenous peoples in Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_the_11th_Parallel" title="Massacre at the 11th Parallel">11th Parallel massacre</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_the_Hole" title="Man of the Hole">Tanaru</a> (1970s–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_massacre" title="Helmet massacre">Helmet massacre</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuntsu" title="Akuntsu">Akuntsu</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haximu_massacre" title="Haximu massacre">Haximu</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomami_humanitarian_crisis" title="Yanomami humanitarian crisis">Yanomami</a> (2019–2023)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaragua_massacre" title="Jaragua massacre">Jaragua massacre</a> (1503)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Aztecs</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Wars" title="Yaqui Wars">Yaqui</a> (1533–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Kashmiri_Shias" title="Persecution of Kashmiri Shias">Kashmiri Shias</a> (1548–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">Huguenots</a> (1572)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_genocide_of_1626" title="Kalinago genocide of 1626">Kalinago</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamey_Island_Massacre" title="Lamey Island Massacre">Lameyans</a> (1636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Indigenous peoples in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequots</a> (1636–1638)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_Expedition" title="Sullivan Expedition">Sullivan Expedition</a> (1779)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodhead%27s_Coshocton_expedition" title="Brodhead's Coshocton expedition">Coshocton Expedition</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnadenhutten_massacre" title="Gnadenhutten massacre">Gnadenhutten massacre</a> (1782)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> (1830–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> (1830–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_genocide" title="California genocide">California</a> (1846–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_murders" title="Osage Indian murders">Osage Indian murders</a> (1918–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Cultural genocide in the United States">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" title="Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples in Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> (1609–1701) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)#Ontario" title="Genocides in history (before World War I)">Huron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beothuk#Genocide" title="Beothuk">Beothuk</a> (1700s–1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Residential school system</a> (1874–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixties_Scoop" title="Sixties Scoop">Sixties Scoop</a> (1951–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate</a> (1648–1657)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Gypsy_Round-up" title="Great Gypsy Round-up">Great Gypsy Round-up</a> (1749)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungars</a> (1750s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II</a> (1780–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_genocide" title="Chechen genocide">Chechens</a> (1785–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_Haitian_massacre" title="1804 Haitian massacre">French Hatians</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_Australians" title="Genocide of Indigenous Australians">Indigenous peoples in Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War</a> (1825–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a> (1869–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jawazi_massacre" title="Al-Jawazi massacre">al-Jawazi</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarino_massacre" title="Navarino massacre">Navarino massacre</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripolitsa" title="Siege of Tripolitsa">Siege of Tripolitsa</a> (1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Algeria" title="Pacification of Algeria">Pacification of Algeria</a> (1830–1875) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_El_Ouffia" title="Massacre of El Ouffia">El Ouffia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Salsipuedes" title="Massacre of Salsipuedes">Charrúa</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_genocide" title="Moriori genocide">Moriori</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Manchus</a> (1850–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassians</a> (1860s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Mapuche</a> (1870s–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putumayo_genocide" title="Putumayo genocide">Indigenous peoples in Putumayo</a> (1879–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Congolese</a> (1885–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888%E2%80%931893_Hazara_uprisings" class="mw-redirect" title="1888–1893 Hazara uprisings">Hazaras</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_genocide" title="Selk'nam genocide">Selk'nam</a> (1890s–1900s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kuruyuki" title="Battle of Kuruyuki">Ava Guaraní</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> (1894–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herero_and_Nama_genocide" title="Herero and Nama genocide">Herero and Nama</a> (1904–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maji_Maji_Rebellion" title="Maji Maji Rebellion">Ukame</a> (1905–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1913_to_1945" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(World_War_I_through_World_War_II)" title="Genocides in history (World War I through World War II)">1913 to 1945</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greeks</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Thracian_Bulgarians_in_1913" title="Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913">Thracian Bulgarians</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrians</a> (1915–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenians</a> (1915–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_genocide_in_Diyarbekir" title="1915 genocide in Diyarbekir">Christians in Diyarbekir</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportations_of_Kurds_(1916%E2%80%931934)" title="Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934)">Kurds</a> (1916–1934)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Indigenous peoples in Venezuela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemon_conflict" title="Pemon conflict">Pemon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamerun_campaign" title="Kamerun campaign">Duala</a> (1914–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_revolt_of_1916" title="Central Asian revolt of 1916">Kyrgyz</a> (1916–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Jews during the Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1920) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">Russian White Terror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">Cossacks</a> (1919–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Hungary)" title="White Terror (Hungary)">Hungarian White Terror</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_the_Ingrian_Finns" title="Genocide of the Ingrian Finns">Ingrian Finns</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_Massacre" title="Kantō Massacre">Kantō Massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalp%C3%AD_massacre" title="Napalpí massacre">Napalpí massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinder_der_Landstrasse" title="Kinder der Landstrasse">Kinder der Landstrasse</a> (1926–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_genocide_(1929%E2%80%931934)" title="Libyan genocide (1929–1934)">Libyan Arabs</a> (1929–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhs</a> (1930–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Matanza" title="La Matanza">La Matanza</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> (1932–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Holocaust" title="Romani Holocaust">Romani Holocaust</a> (1935–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">Spanish White Terror</a> (1936–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Operation_of_the_NKVD" title="Polish Operation of the NKVD">Polish Operation</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsley_massacre" title="Parsley massacre">Parsley massacre</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Generalplan Ost</a> (1939–1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_crimes_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Ostland" title="Reichskommissariat Ostland">Baltic lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Final_Solution_of_the_Czech_Question" title="Final Solution of the Czech Question">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_policy" title="Three Alls policy">Three Alls policy</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbs in Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetnik_war_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="Chetnik war crimes in World War II">Muslims and Croats in Serbia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Volhynian and Eastern Galician Poles</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush" title="Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush">Chechens and Ingush</a> (1944–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> (1944–1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="1946_to_1999" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">1946 to 1999</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabad_massacres" title="Hyderabad massacres">Hyderabadi Muslims</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Indigenous peoples in Paraguay</a> (1956–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Maya</a> (1962–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Arabs_during_the_Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Massacre of Arabs during the Zanzibar Revolution">Arab and Indian Zanzibaris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_anti-Igbo_pogrom" title="1966 anti-Igbo pogrom">1966 anti-Igbo pogrom</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Biafra_(1966–1970)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Biafra</a> (1966–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Feyli_Kurds_under_Saddam_Hussein" title="Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein">Feyli Kurds</a> (1970–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Idi_Amin's_regime" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Acholi and Lango</a> (1972–1979)</li> <li>Burundi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ikiza" title="Ikiza">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_ethnic_violence_in_Burundi" title="1993 ethnic violence in Burundi">1993</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor</a> (1974–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_conflict" title="Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict">Jummas</a> (1977–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(1946_to_1999)#Bush_War_(1981–1985)" title="Genocides in history (1946 to 1999)">Baganda</a> (1981–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_genocide" title="Tamil genocide">Sri Lankan Tamils</a> (1983–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gukurahundi" title="Gukurahundi">Gukurahundi</a> (1983–1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedoon#Kuwait" title="Bedoon">Kuwaiti Bedoon</a> (1985–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal</a> (1986–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq</a> (1987–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Population_Program" title="National Population Program">National Population Program</a> (1987–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Amhara genocide">Amhara</a> (1990–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes">Ahwaris</a> (1991–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian</a> (1992–1995) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_massacre" title="Srebrenica massacre">Srebrenica massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Hutus_during_the_First_Congo_War" title="Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War">Hutus during the First Congo War</a> (1996–1997)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(21st_century)" title="Genocides in history (21st century)">21st century</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effacer_le_tableau" title="Effacer le tableau">Effacer le tableau</a> (2002–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darfur_genocide" title="Darfur genocide">Darfur</a> (2003–) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masalit_massacres_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Masalit massacres (2023–present)">Masalit massacres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_in_Tigray" title="Genocide in Tigray">Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Kaduna_genocide" title="Southern Kaduna genocide">Southern Kaduna</a> (2011–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidis</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Shias_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State">Shias under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Christians under ISIS</a> (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya</a> (2017–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Anod_conflict_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Las Anod conflict (2023–present)">Dhulbahante</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_genocide" title="Gaza genocide">Gaza Strip</a> (2023–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autogenocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Autogenocide">Autogenocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide#Genocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androcide" title="Androcide">Androcide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoricide" title="Memoricide">Memoricide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policide" title="Policide">Policide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_cleansing_of_population#Politicide" title="Political cleansing of population">Politicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliticide" title="Eliticide">Eliticide</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarian_genocide" title="Utilitarian genocide">Utilitarian genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">Death squades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_adoption" title="Forced adoption">Forced adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_massacre" title="Genocidal massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_Fields" title="Killing Fields">Killing Fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_rape" title="Genocidal rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Denial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">Trivialization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_denial" title="Armenian genocide denial">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_the_genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Denial of the genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_denial" title="Bosnian genocide denial">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide_denial" title="Rwandan genocide denial">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_denial" title="Holodomor denial">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide_denial" title="Cambodian genocide denial">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denial_of_atrocities_against_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Denial of atrocities against Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_definitions" title="Genocide definitions">Definitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Holocaust" title="Names of the Holocaust">Names of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Terminology of the Armenian genocide">Terminology of the Armenian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_terminology" title="Category:Holocaust terminology">Holocaust terminology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Genocide_Convention#Municipal_laws" title="List of parties to the Genocide Convention">Genocide law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_prevention" title="Genocide prevention">Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_genocide_on_youth" title="Effects of genocide on youth">Effects on young survivors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_recognition_politics" title="Genocide recognition politics">Politics of recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_justification" title="Genocide justification">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_mass_killings" title="Anti-communist mass killings">Anti-communist mass killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal proceedings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Holocaust_trials_(1943–2022)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Holocaust_trials" title="Category:Holocaust trials">Holocaust trials</a> (1943–2022)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krasnodar_Trial" title="Krasnodar Trial">Krasnodar trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharkov_Trial" title="Kharkov Trial">Kharkov trial</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89puration_l%C3%A9gale" title="Épuration légale">Épuration légale</a> (1944–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_trials" title="Majdanek trials">Majdanek trials</a> (1944–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_trials" title="Chełmno trials">Chełmno trials</a> (1945–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_trials" title="Dachau trials">Dachau trials</a> (1945–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belsen_trials" title="Belsen trials">Belsen trials</a> (1945–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_trials" title="Euthanasia trials">Euthanasia trials</a> (1945–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Trial" title="Minsk Trial">Minsk trial</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Trial" title="Riga Trial">Riga trial</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_trials" title="Stutthof trials">Stutthof trials</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Romanian_war_crime_trials" title="Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials">Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Tribunal" title="Supreme National Tribunal">Supreme National Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Ravensbr%C3%BCck_trials" title="Hamburg Ravensbrück trials">Hamburg Ravensbrück trials</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a> (1946–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Erich_von_Manstein" title="Trial of Erich von Manstein">Erich von Manstein</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulm_Einsatzkommando_trial" title="Ulm Einsatzkommando trial">Ulm Einsatzkommando trial</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trials_in_Soviet_Estonia" title="War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia">War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia</a> (1961–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_trial" title="Belzec trial">Belzec trial</a> (1963–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Auschwitz_trials" title="Frankfurt Auschwitz trials">Frankfurt Auschwitz trials</a> (1963–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_trials" title="Treblinka trials">Treblinka trials</a> (1964–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_trial" title="Sobibor trial">Sobibor trial</a> (1965–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodor_Fedorenko#Soviet_trial_and_execution" title="Feodor Fedorenko">Fedorenko trial</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Finta#War_crimes_prosecution" title="Imre Finta">Finta trial</a> (1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="20th_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">20th century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mile_Budak" title="Trial of Mile Budak">Budak trial</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Mihailovi%C4%87_et_al." title="Trial of Mihailović et al.">Belgrade Process</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_War_Crimes_Tribunal" title="Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal">Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal</a> (1946–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide_case" title="Bosnian genocide case">Bosnian genocide case</a> (1993–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a> (1993–2017) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Trial of Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a> (2002–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Trial of Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> (2008–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Ratko_Mladi%C4%87" title="Trial of Ratko Mladić">Ratko Mladić</a> (2011–2017)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trials_of_the_Derg_members" title="Trials of the Derg members">Trials of the Derg members</a> (1994–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a> (1994–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Khmer Rouge Tribunal</a> (1997–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Serbia_genocide_case" title="Croatia–Serbia genocide case">Croatia–Serbia genocide case</a> (1999–2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="21st_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;">21st century</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Darfur" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur">International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur</a> (2005–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Peoples%27_Tribunal_on_Sri_Lanka" title="Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka">Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka</a> (2010–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Crimes_Tribunal_(Bangladesh)" title="International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)">International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh</a> (2012–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide_case" title="Rohingya genocide case">Rohingya genocide case</a> (2019–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Tribunal" title="Uyghur Tribunal">Uyghur Tribunal</a> (2020–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_investigation_in_Ukraine" title="International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine">International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_v._Russian_Federation_(2022)" title="Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)">Ukraine v. Russian Federation</a> (2022–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa%27s_genocide_case_against_Israel" title="South Africa's genocide case against Israel">South Africa v. Israel</a> (2023–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_for_Children_International_%E2%80%93_Palestine_et_al_v._Biden_et_al" title="Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al">Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al</a> (2023–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua_v._Germany" title="Nicaragua v. Germany">Nicaragua v. Germany</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_criminal_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a><br /><span class="nobold">(in order of foundation)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religious_persecution" title="Template talk:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_persecution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religious persecution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religious_persecution_and_discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration" title="Desecration">Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_punishment" title="Extrajudicial punishment">Extrajudicial punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_exclusivism" title="Religious exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cleansing" title="Population cleansing">Population cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Canaanite_Pagans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Persecution of Canaanite Pagans (page does not exist)">Persecution of Canaanite Pagans</a> (1210 BC-1200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a> (64–313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a> (c. 324–c. 491)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent</a> (c.550–c. 1200)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> (c.184–c. 205)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> (732)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a> (1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Jerusalem massacre</a> (1099)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a> (643–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> (1184–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Ayyadieh" title="Massacre at Ayyadieh">Massacre at Ayyadieh</a> (1191)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> (12th–16th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crusades_to_Europe_and_the_Holy_Land#Crusades_against_heretics_and_schismatics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Crusades to Europe and the Holy Land">Crusades against schismatics</a> (13th–15th cent.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversions_of_Muslims_in_Spain" title="Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain">Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain</a> (1500–1526)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a> (1522–1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a> (1526–1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a> (1561–1812)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> (1562–1598)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a> (1609–1614)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_Acts" title="Test Acts">Test Acts</a> (1673–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction</a> (1683–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_S%C3%A1mi_people" title="Christianization of the Sámi people">Christianization of the Sámi people</a> (1700s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolutionary dechristianisation</a> (1789–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a> (1857–1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a> (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_genocide" title="Circassian genocide">Circassian genocide</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Albanians_in_the_Balkan_Wars" title="Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars">Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars</a> (1912–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a> (1913–1922) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek_genocide" title="Pontic Greek genocide">Pontic Greek genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> (1915–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a> (1917–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Soviet persecution</a> (1922–1991) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1970–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ahovi%C4%87i_massacre" title="Šahovići massacre">Šahovići massacre</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror (Spain)</a> (1936–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses" title="Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> (1939–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia</a> (1941–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Communist Polish persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Communist Romanian persecution</a> (1945–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Bihar_riots" title="1946 Bihar riots">1946 Bihar riots</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Rawalpindi_massacres" title="1947 Rawalpindi massacres">Rawalpindi massacres</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Pakistan#Decline_and_persecution" title="Hinduism in Pakistan">Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Muslims_in_independent_India" title="Violence against Muslims in independent India">Violence against Muslims in India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#India" title="Persecution of Hindus">Violence against Hindus in independent India</a> (1947–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a> (1948–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party">Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party</a> (1949–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_and_uprisings_in_Tibet_since_1950" title="Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950">Persecution of Tibetans</a> (1950–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Turks_from_Bulgaria_(1950-1951)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)">Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Religious violence in Nigeria</a> (1953–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istanbul_pogrom" title="Istanbul pogrom">Istanbul pogrom</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a> (1963) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3n_shootings" title="Huế Phật Đản shootings">Huế Phật Đản shootings</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thích Quảng Đức">Thích Quảng Đức</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C3%A1_L%E1%BB%A3i_Pagoda_raids" title="Xá Lợi Pagoda raids">Xá Lợi Pagoda raids</a> (1963)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famen_Temple#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Famen Temple">Famen Temple</a> (1966)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide" title="Bangladesh genocide">Bangladesh genocide</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#Bangladesh" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh</a> (1971–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> (1975–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_anti-Sikh_riots" title="1984 anti-Sikh riots">1984 anti-Sikh riots</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_Process" title="Revival Process">Revival Process</a> (1984–1989) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Excursion" title="Big Excursion">Big Excursion</a> (1989)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus" title="Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus">Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> (1991–2001) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War" title="Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War">Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War</a> (1992–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">War crimes in the Kosovo War</a> (1999)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walisongo_school_massacre" title="Walisongo school massacre">Walisongo school massacre</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosheh_massacres" title="Kosheh massacres">Kosheh massacres</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots" title="2002 Gujarat riots">2002 Gujarat riots</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency" title="South Thailand insurgency">South Thailand insurgency</a> (2004–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Boko Haram insurgency</a> (2009–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations" title="Maspero demonstrations">Maspero demonstrations</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_by_Islamic_extremists_in_Bangladesh" title="Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh">Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh</a> (2013–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidi_genocide" title="Yazidi genocide">Yazidi genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State" title="Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide" title="Iraqi Turkmen genocide">Iraqi Turkmen genocide</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a> (2014–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya genocide</a> (2016–ongoing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings" title="Christchurch mosque shootings">Christchurch mosque shootings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings" title="2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings">2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots" title="2020 Delhi riots">2020 Delhi riots</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel">2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Istanbul_church_shooting" title="2024 Istanbul church shooting">2024 Istanbul church shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocus_City_Hall_attack" title="Crocus City Hall attack">Crocus City Hall attack</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory<br />policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Population" title="Template:Population"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Population" title="Template talk:Population"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Population" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Population"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Population" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Projections of population growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population<br />biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I_%3D_PAT" title="I = PAT">I = P × A × T</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and<br /> population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics"><i>Dys</i>genics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Seven_Billion" title="Day of Seven Billion">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Eight_Billion" title="Day of Eight Billion">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and<br />organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Population" title="Category:Population">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41397#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41397#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41397#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4063690-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85053923">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967012s">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11967012s">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Template:Cite_web"," 5.81% 100.210 1 Template:Genocide_topics"," 4.10% 70.729 1 Template:Religious_persecution"," 3.05% 52.653 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.056","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26682579,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdhikari2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonJessee2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderton2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBachman2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBachman2021b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBachman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasso2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellamyMcLoughlin2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloxhamMoses2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloxhamMoses2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraziosiSysyn2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHäusslerStuckiVeracini2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIhrig2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrvin-Erickson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKathmanWood2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernanMadleyTaylor2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan_et_al.2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKugler2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemosTaylorKiernan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindert_et_al.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindert_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuft2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaynard2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDoom2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoses2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoses2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoyd2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulaj2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaimark2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNyseth_Nzitatira2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOchabAlton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOzoráková2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRechtman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSands2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchabas2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonKahn2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoneJinks2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss-Wendt2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Joeden-Forgey2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Genocide topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 13,\n [\"International Criminal Law\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Legend\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Main list\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"POV\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Population\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Quotebox\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religious persecution\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 198,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary-inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","23.6"],["?","140","12.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","80","7.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","7.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","5.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getSiteLinkPageName","40","3.6"],["tostring","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","3.6"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.6"],["[others]","280","25.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-74f675c4bb-gmjtt","timestamp":"20241201011024","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> 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